一、确定主语的方法： 1.以原句主语作译文主语 汉语原文中有明确的主语，而且该主语由名词或主格人称代词充当时，我们可以原主语作为英译文的主语。 2.重新确定主语 在许多情况下，我们需要重新选择和确定主语，以保证译文的逻辑通顺、行文流畅、语言自然地道，行使与原文相似的功能。用来替换原主语的，可以是句中其他成分，也可以是句外的词语。 3.增补主语 汉语中，主语隐含不显或无主语的情况时常可见。译成英文时，则必须依照英语的规则，将主语增补。增补的原则，一是要推敲语境，二是要考虑英语语法习惯和行文的需要。 二、动词的翻译 谓语的选择和确定，须兼顾表意和构句的二重需要。 1.表意的需要 选择谓语时，除考虑该词语本身能否准确传达原文意义外，还要关照其与主语的语义关联，亦即逻辑的关联，以及主谓词语的搭配。 首先，要看它能否准确传达愿意，表意是否贴切。 最后，考虑谓语的表意需要时，也须考虑其与宾语的搭配，包括连系动词与表语的搭配，及该搭配的修辞效果。 2.构句的需要 指谓语的确定必须符合英语句法的需要，必须遵循主谓一致的原则，符合英语语法规范。 三、新闻文本翻译特征 1.新闻文本中词语的英译 A.增加背景知识，补充缺损的语义内容 B.对时政新词进行解释性的翻译，必要时甚至需要彻底抛弃原词的形式外壳，明确译出原意。 2.新闻文本中句子的翻译 汉语：意合，逻辑衔接不太明显，句子短小精干 英语：形合，强调语句间的衔接和连贯，结构复杂、逻辑严密的长句较为常见。 3.新闻导语 汉语：从整体到局部、从大到小、由远及近的模式；从外围信息逐步过渡到核心信息； 英语：多为开门见山，然后再逐一补充新闻事件相关的背景信息。 四、说明性文本 从风格来看，此类文本包括平实性说明文和文艺性说明文； 从内容来看，包括解释性、介绍性和实用性说明文。 名胜古迹、产品、公司或学校介绍的文本中，读者往往被当成打动或劝说的
The British translator Alexander F. Tytler put forward his three principles in the late 18th century: First，the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Second，the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Third，the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. Fu Lei’s Criterion: Spiritual Conformity “神似” 是傅雷于1951年提出的文学翻译观。这是比“信、达、雅” 更高的翻译标准。他认为“以效果而论，翻译应当像临画一样，所求不在形似而在神似”。所谓“神”，就是指原作精神。好的文学作品总是有丰富的感情，深邃的意境，浓厚的感染力，强烈的艺术效果。神似也叫传神，即除了传意外，还需要尽力保存原作的神韵和风姿。例如：You may take a horse to the water, but you can?t make it drink. a. 你可以把马牵到河边去，但不能叫它饮水。 b. 牵马河边易，逼它饮水难。 译文a只是在形式上与原文保持一致，而译文b则保留了原文强烈的对比色彩，体现出原文风趣形象，而寓意深刻的特点。 Qian Zhongshu’s Criterion: Subli med Adaptation 钱钟书指出，“文学翻译的最高标准是…化?。把作品从一国文字转变为另一国文字，既能不因语文习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹，又能完全保存原有的风味，那就算得入于…化境?。”所谓化境，就是原作向译文的“投胎转世”，文字形式虽然换了，而原文的思想，感情、风格、神韵都原原本本地化到了译文的境界里了，丝毫不留翻译的痕迹，让读者读译作就完全像在读原作一样。 Summarizing the above criteria, you may find that both Chinese and foreign translation criteria aim to solve two problems: one is the task of translation, namely, to be faithful to the source text；the other is how to carry out the task — the language used in the target text should be smooth. In short,“faithfulness and smoothness” can be regarded as the essential translation criteria. Liu Zhongde’s Principles of Translation Accepting the first two of Yan?s principles of translation and absorbing those expounded by Tytler, Liu proposed his three characters—“信达切”as a set of principles of translation, which he believes to be more comprehensive and practical. They may be defined as follows: 1.Faithfulness—to be faithful to the content of the original; 2.Expressiveness—to be as expressive as the original; 3. Closeness—to be as close as possible to the original style He agrees with both Yan and Tytler that the translation must confirm to the original in meaning and “that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original.” Faithfulness is the first important principle of translation. The translator ought to convey the author?s ideas faithfully and exactly. He has no right to alter the meaning of the original to suit his own taste. Lu Xun pointed out, “Translation does not tolerate any mistakes.” Apart from making an effort to achieve faithfulness to the content of the orginal, the translator must aim at making his translation as expressive as the original, for it is intended for the reading public. If one?s translation is not readable or understandable, what?s the use of it?
Contents of this page include: ?Maslow ?Hertzberg ?Elton Mayo ?Handy ?Mcgregor theory X and Y ?Ouchi theory Z ?Lean and mass production Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: Maslow showed how an individual’s emphasis on needs moved from basic to the higher needs. The needs at the bottom must be satisfied to move at the higher ones. Needs do not have to be completely satisfied before higher needs emerge, a sufficient level of satisfaction is acceptable as opposed to the maximum or optimum level. Maslow’s theory may be summarized and simplified by saying that everyone wants certain things throughout life, and these things can be placed in five ascending categories namely: Basic or physiological needs: the things needed to stay alive: food, shelter and clothing. Such needs can be satisfied by money.
Ethical theories To be able to deal with responsibilities in an ethical way,we need to know more about ethics.What is ethics?And what ethical theories are around?That’s what we’ll discuss in this chapter. 1Ethical de?nitions 1.1What is ethics? The word ethics comes from the Greek ethos,meaning something like‘morals’.In fact,ethics is de?ned as the systematic re?ection on what is moral.In this de?nition,morality is the whole of opinions, decisions and actions with which people express what they think is good or right.So,in short,to think ethically,you need to systematically re?ect on what people think is good or right.Ethics is not a manual with answers on how to act.It is only a search for the right kind of morality. We can distinguish two kinds of ethics.The descriptive ethics is involved with the description of existing morality.It is about facts.Descriptive judgments are therefore true or false.On the other hand, there is the prescriptive ethics,also known as the normative ethics.This branch of ethics actually judges morality.Normative judgments are therefore value judgments:they indicate whether something is good or bad.We will mainly consider ourselves with normative ethics. 1.2Norms,values and virtues The most important parts of normative ethical theories are values,norms and virtues.It is important to know the distinction between these three terms. ?Moral values are matters/convictions that are worth striving for in general.Examples include justice,happiness,charity and such.A distinction can be made between intrinsic values and instrumental values.An intrinsic value is a value in itself:something that is worth striving for.An instrumental value is a value that only contributes to an intrinsic value.For example,if you want to get money to help people,then getting money is the instrumental value,while helping people is the intrinsic value. ?Moral norms are rules that prescribe what actions are required,permitted or forbidden.In fact, some norms are so important and so prescriptive,that they have been turned into laws.Norms can often be deduced from values.But,whereas values are ideals which people want to achieve,norms are the means to realize these ideals. ?Moral virtues are character traits that make someone a good person and allow him to lead a good life.Examples of virtues are honesty,courage,loyalty,creativity,humor,and so on.Virtues seem to be similar to values.But whereas values are things you strive for,virtues are character properties that are good to have. 2Ethical theories 2.1The extremes of ethical theories:relativism and absolutism There are several ethical theories around.But,before we are going to discuss them,we?rst look at two extremes of the normative ethical theories.On one hand is normative relativism.It states that all moral points of view are relative.The morals of one person are not necessarily equal to the morals of another person.Next to this,it is also impossible to say that certain norms and values are better than
Chapter 1What is TEFL?——Introduction to the Course 1 What is TEFL? 1-1 TEFL, an acronym (a name made up of the initial letters of an official title), stands for a research area with the phrase “Teaching English as a Foreign L anguage”. In addition to TEFL, there are some other terms with different meanings in this area: TEFL – the process of teaching English as a foreign language EFL – the area / field of teaching English as a foreign language ESL vs. EFL –both are non-native languages but the former has official status within a country, e.g., English in India. Thus L2 is often learnt with environmental support as the language is used more commonly in people?s daily life. L1 vs. L2 –they are different in acquisition, proficiency level, and function of social communication. 1-2 TEFL is the study on how to bring about effective learning of English as a foreign language in particular teaching contexts. According to “the general model for second language teaching” designed by H. H. Stern (1983), there are 3 levels of the research framework of language teaching: the “foundations”, “interlevel” and “practice”. The “foundation” refers to the relevant subjects; “practice” refers to the activities directly in relation to classroom teaching and “interlevel” refers to the 4 most important components of TEFL theory and research:language, learning, teaching, and the context. The course “TEFL Theories” focuses on the 4 topics by linking TEFL “practice” to “theories”, which is based on the related fundamental subjects and theories. 2 TEFL Methods in China 2-1 TEFL approaches, methods, and techniques The three confusing terms “approaches”, “methods”, and “techniques” are widely discussed in the area of TEFL methodology for they are often translate d into the same Chinese character “法”. Actually they refer to different domains in language teaching: 1) Approach: the theoretical assumptions about how a language is effectively taught in light of the nature of language, language learning and teaching (Anthony, 1972). 2) Method: the overall plans or designs of teaching a language that is based on systematic
Passage Two McQuail’s Normative Theories We may not hear the clash of battle but we can be sure it is raging; and we may need to be wary of whatever ”peace treaty”emerges from the struggle, for the signatories to it, the beneficiaries, will be corporate, not individual, with the public functioning largely as spectators. This is a timely moment to conduct an overview of contrasting theories of purpose and to examine a number of principles of media performance which may or may not survive into the new Digital Age. 我们也许没有听到战斗的冲突声,但我们可以确信它是激烈的，并且我们需要当心任何在斗争中出现的和平条约，因为签署国对于收益人来说是全体的，而不是个人的，公众很大程度上只是起了旁观者的作用。现在是个恰当的时机来对比较理论的目的进行一个概述，和检验在新的数字时代许多媒介原理能不能存活下来。 All parties to the definition of the functions or purposes of media find little difficulty agreeing that the task of media is to inform, to educate and to entertain. Yet for the student of communication, such a trio of media goals resembles a set of holograms, appearing to have substance and meaning but reaching out to them only locates thin air. Information, yes—but what information; education, yes—but what do we mean by education; entertainment, certainly—but does it s separate classification mean that it cannot also be informative and educational or that information and education cannot be entertaining? Several commentators, best known among them Denis McQuail, have sought to create a more complex taxonomy of purposes as they operate in varying contexts. 在对于媒介功能或目的的定义上，各方所少有争议的就是其具有通知，教育和娱乐的任务。然而对于学习传播学的学生来说，媒介所具有的这三个功能就像是一幅全息投影，看起来好像有实质的内容和意义，但是其实他们并不能真正理解（媒介的三个功能）。是的，媒介提供信息，但是提供什么样的信息；媒介有教育的功能，但是我们在这里所讲的教育是什么样的教育；媒介具有娱乐的功能这是肯定的，但是将媒介的娱乐功能独立分类是否意味着媒介在承担娱乐功能的同时是不能够传达信息和进行教育的，或者说传达信息和进行教育是不能通过娱乐的方式实现的。一些评论家，其中最著名的是麦奎尔，正在试图创造一个更加复杂的关于媒介在不同的情境之下的目的分类系统。 They are referred to as normative theories. By this we mean functions as they should be according to dominant criteria; in some cases an ideal, in others a necessity; and they constitute guidelines to performance. In Mass Communication Theory:An Introduction, McQuail posits six normative theories of media purposes: ?Authoritarian theory ?Free Press theory ?Social Responsibility ?Soviet theory ?Development theory ?Democratic-participant theory In each case the theory relates the performance of media to the position taken up
Translation Theories 1.Requirements for this course 2.General introduction to this course Lecture One Translate the following sentences into Chinese. 1.Somebody will have to break the ice. 总有人开口说话 2.The boy cried because his classmates called his names. 那孩子哭了，因为他的同学骂了他。 3.Why should I quarrel with my bread and butter? 我为什么要和自己的生计作对呢？ 4.Most people have a daily fight to keep the wolf from the door. 许多人每天都在为免除饥饿而奋斗。 5.I am now a little under the weather. 我现在有点不舒服。 6.I wish peace could be saved at the eleventh hour. 我希望在最后一刻可以挽救和平。 7.I shall leave here for good next year. 明年我离开这里永不回来。 8.you have your own way to make. 年得独立开拓你的前途。 9.She made light of her illness. 她轻视她的病。 10.I?ll eat my hat if I do. 我决不做。 11.He never calls a spade a spade. 他从不直截了当地讲话。 12.I have a long letter in hand. 我正在写一封长信。 13.He will finish it in no time. 他马上就会把这个做完。 14.He is ignorant to a proverb. 他的无知是有名的。 15.They made an example of somebody. 他们惩罚这个男孩以警戒其他人。 16.He is dead as I live. 他确实死了。 17.Don?t you see the writing on the wall? 难道你看不见灾难即将来临吗？ 18.Don?t tell him home truths. 不要对他逆耳的话。 19.I know he meant business. 我知道他不是开玩笑的。 20.He had words with her.
傳播理論與社會理論1 作者：Peter Golding & Graham Murdock 2 譯者：李郁青 大眾傳播研究如今已發展成浩瀚的學術事業。當前，我們宛若已有約定，見證了它的羽翼豐滿：成熟學科所擁有的制度性機構，它一應俱全。隨著大傳領域的茁壯，大學裡的傳播院系，及傳播、大眾傳播、人類傳播與媒體研究等相關學術期刊，如雨後春筍，傳播領域於是走向專業化與分殊化之路。在我們看來，傳播學術領域的成長過程，讓人困惑；學人經常對大眾傳播研究的走向表達關切：究竟傳播研究是什麼？要走向何方？這確實是傳播研究史上再三出現的關懷，我們對此並不感驚訝。這些關切時常提出兩項問題，其一是關於研究題材的定義問題：領域中的期刊經常以其刊名涵蓋一組共同的研究興趣，試圖宣示刊物存在的長處。例如，The Journal of Communication關心的是「傳播理論、實踐與政策的研究」、和「傳播領域中一些明顯的問題與議題」。Communication Research 則「關心所有層次的傳播過程研究」，特別是「闡釋與測試那些能夠解釋傳播過程及其結果的模式」。Human Communication Research則「致力於增進對人類符號互動上的知識與了解」等等。領域中所涵蓋的研究興趣和主題，其邊界似無止盡；跨學科值得稱許，廣泛的知識延伸也棒極了。然而有些學者質疑這樣的異類混合，時而想為此一領域建構統一的單一理論，認為這樣可能比較保險。但我們相信，建構統一觀點之論是錯的，以下將仔細加以檢視。 引發不安的第二項問題倒不是要研究什麼？而是如何研究？哪些方法最足以協助我們，貼切研究「我們所關切的人類生活面向」？由哪一學科的基礎出發，最能趨近大眾傳播的問題？我們希望論證的是，這兩項經常被人提起的疑惑，已經引來錯誤的解答。學人擎舉統一理論及學科等第為聖杯，在我們看來，這是誤入歧途的目標。我們將先論證，此類嘗試乃是基於對傳播與大眾傳播理論的力量有錯誤假設，並且混淆了傳播與文化此二概念的關連。其次，我們將建議，我們不需要大眾傳播理論，我們需要的是社會理論。循此，我們才能提出看法，引導 1譯按：本文原文名稱”Theories of Communication and Theories of Society”, 收錄於Communication Research, 5(3): 339-356, 1978. 2譯按：在寫作此文時Peter Golding為英國萊斯特大學（University of Leicester）大眾傳播研究中心研究員，Graham Murdock則是他的研究夥伴。兩人於1990及1991年兩人，先後轉往英格蘭羅芙堡（Loughborough）大學社會科學系任教至今（2007年）。
The Unconscious[edit] Main article: Unconscious mind The concept of the unconscious was central to Freud's account of the mind. Freud believed that while poets and thinkers had long known of the existence of the unconscious, he had ensured that it received scientific recognition in the field of psychology. The concept made an informal appearance in Freud's writings. The unconscious was first introduced in connection with the phenomenon of repression, to explain what happens to ideas that are repressed. Freud stated explicitly that the concept of the unconscious was based on the theory of repression. He postulated a cycle in which ideas are repressed, but remain in the mind, removed from consciousness yet operative, then reappear in consciousness under certain circumstances. The postulate was based upon the investigation of cases of traumatic hysteria, which revealed cases where the behavior of patients could not be explained without reference to ideas or thoughts of which they had no awareness. This fact, combined with the observation that such behavior could be artificially induced by hypnosis, in which ideas were inserted into people's minds, suggested that ideas were operative in the original cases, even though their subjects knew nothing of them. Freud, like Josef Breuer, found the hypothesis that hysterical manifestations were generated by ideas to be not only warranted, but given in observation. Disagreement between them arose when they attempted to give causal explanations of their data: Breuer favored a hypothesis of hypnoid states, while Freud postulated the mechanism of defense. Richard Wollheim comments that given the close correspondence between hysteria and the results of hypnosis, Breuer's hypothesis appears more plausible, and that it is only when repression is taken into account that Freud's hypothesis becomes preferable.[119] Freud originally allowed that repression might be a conscious process, but by the time he wrote his second paper on the "Neuro-Psychoses of Defence" (1896), he apparently believed that repression, which he referred to as "the psychical mechanism of (unconscious) defense", occurred on an unconscious level. Freud further developed his theories about the unconscious in The Interpretation of Dreams (1899) and in Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious (1905), where he dealt with condensation and displacement as inherent characteristics of unconscious mental activity. Freud presented his first systematic statement of his hypotheses about unconscious mental processes in 1912, in response to an invitation from the London Society of Psychical Research to contribute to its Proceedings. In 1915, Freud expanded that