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英语中教学方法有哪些1. Grammar-Translation Method: This traditional method focuses on the translation of written texts from the target language to the native language. It places a strong emphasis on grammar rules, vocabulary, and translation exercises.2. Direct Method: This method emphasizes the direct use of the target language in teaching and learning. It focuses on developing oral and listening skills through conversation, role-plays, and real-life scenarios.3. Audio-Lingual Method: This method utilizes audio recordings to teach listening and pronunciation skills. Students are exposed to repetitive drills and pattern practices to develop accuracy and fluency.8. Suggestopedia: This method creates a relaxed and positive learning environment through music, relaxation, andvisualization techniques. It aims to lower students' affective filters and enhance learning through positive emotions.9. Lexical Approach: This method focuses on the acquisition of vocabulary and collocations as building blocks of language.It promotes extensive reading and emphasizes the use of authentic contexts and examples.10. The Silent Way: This method encourages learner autonomy by minimizing the teacher's role as the primary source ofknowledge. The teacher remains silent for extended periods, while students learn through self-discovery and problem-solving.13. Multiple Intelligences Approach: This method recognizes different types of intelligences and tailors instruction to suit different learner preferences. Teachers use a variety of activities to appeal to different intelligences, such as visual, auditory, kinesthetic, etc.These are just some of the methods and approaches used in English language teaching. Effective teachers often integrate various methods to address the diverse needs of their learners and create a dynamic and engaging learning experience.。
英语教学方法英文表达
英语教学方法的英文表达包括以下几种常见的方法：
Grammar-Translation Method: 这种方法强调语法和词汇的学习，通过翻译来教授英语。
Direct Method: 也称为Reform Method或Natural Method，这种方法强调通过模仿和直观教学来学习语言，尽量避免翻译。
Audio-Lingual Method: 这种方法注重口语和听力训练，通过反复模仿和操练来培养语言技能。
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT): 这种方法强调在真实的交际情境中学习语言，注重培养学生的交际能力和语言运用能力。
Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT): 这种方法通过设计和实施各种任务来促进学生的语言学习和运用，强调学生的主动性和参与性。
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL): 这种方法将学科内容与语言学习相结合，通过学科知识的学习来提高语言能力。
Cooperative Learning: 这种方法强调学生之间的合作和互动，通过小组讨论、角色扮演等活动来促进语言学习和交流。
8.whole language approach：整体语言教学法，这种方法强调语言学习的整体性和综合性，注重培养学生的阅读能力和写作能力。
以上是一些常见的英语教学方法的英文表达，不同的方法有不同的教学理念和教学重点，可以根据学生的需求和教学目标选择合适的方法。
teaching method 任务型教学法任务型教学法是一种以任务为导向的教学方法，通过给学生设计真实的任务，激发学生的学习热情和动力，促进他们的语言运用能力和问题解决能力的发展。
在任务型教学法中，教师首先确定一个具有真实性和现实性的任务，例如：制定旅游计划、解决环保问题等。
然后，教师会组织学生进行任务的前期准备，如提供必要的背景知识和技能培训，引导学生了解任务的目标、要求和限制。
接下来，学生会开始展开任务，他们需要积极地合作、探索和研究，同时运用各种学科知识和技能来解决问题。
教师则扮演着指导者和辅导者的角色，给予学生必要的支持和指引，鼓励他们进行讨论和交流，提供帮助和反馈。
在任务完成后，教师会进行任务回顾和总结，让学生对任务的过程和结果进行反思，分享彼此的经验和发现。
这有助于学生对自己的学习进行评估和提升，培养他们的自主学习能力和批判思维能力。
任务型教学法的优势在于它能够真实地模拟现实生活中的情境，培养学生实际应用知识和解决问题的能力。
同时，学生在任务完成过程中能够积极参与、主动思考，提高他们的学习动机和自主学习能力。
此外，任务型教学法也能够促进学生的合作意识和团队精神，培养他们的沟通能力和协作能力。
然而，任务型教学法也存在一些挑战。
首先，教师需要花费更多的时间和精力来设计和组织任务，需要对学生的学习过程和结果进行全面的评估。
其次，学生的学习进度和能力水平可能会有差异，教师需要灵活地调整任务的难度和复杂度，以满足不同学生的需求。
总的来说，任务型教学法是一种创新的教学方法，能够培养学生的实际运用能力和解决问题能力。
它能够激发学生的学习热情和动力，促进他们的合作意识和沟通能力的发展。
教师在任务设计和组织中起到重要的指导和辅导作用，帮助学生实现他们的学习目标。
Chapter 1What is TEFL?——Introduction to the Course1 What is TEFL?1-1 TEFL, an acronym (a name made up of the initial letters of an official title), stands for a research area with the phrase “Teaching English as a Foreign L anguage”.In addition to TEFL, there are some other terms with different meanings in this area:TEFL – the process of teaching English as a foreign languageEFL – the area / field of teaching English as a foreign languageESL vs. EFL –both are non-native languages but the former has official status within a country, e.g., English in India. Thus L2 is often learnt with environmental support as the language is used more commonly in people’s daily life.L1 vs. L2 –they are different in acquisition, proficiency level, and function of social communication.1-2 TEFL is the study on how to bring about effective English learning as a foreign language in particular teaching contexts.According to “the general model for second language teaching” designed by H.H. Stern (1983), there are 3 levels of the research framework of language teaching:the “foundations”, “interlevel” and “practice”. The “foundation” refers to the relevant subjects, “practice” refers to the activities directly in relation to classroom teaching and “interlevel” refers to the 4 most important components of TEFL theory and research:language, learning, teaching, and the context. The course “TEFL Theories” focuses on the 4 topics by linking TEFL “practice” to “theories” which is based on the related fund amental subjects and theories.2 TEFL Methods in China2-1 TEFL approaches, methods, and techniquesThe three confusing terms “approaches”, “methods”, and “techniques” are widely discussed in the area of TEFL methodology for they often be translated into the same Chinese character “法”. Actually they refer to different domains in language teaching:1) Approach: the theoretical assumptions about how a language is effectivelytaught in light of the nature of language, language learning &teaching (Anthony, 1972).2) Method: the overall plans or designs of teaching a language that is basedon systematic principles and teaching procedures. The nature of amethod is the integration of all elements in teaching procedureincluding the curriculum design; selection of textbook; schedulingof classes, lesson planning and classroom management etc. which arethe decisions made by both EFL researches & teachers.3) Technique the specific ways/ strategies used in classroom in different kindsof language teaching contexts.2-2 TEFL MethodsIn language teaching, the three different-leveled components described above are studied in the research area “methodology” which contains the practices and procedures used in teaching, and the principles and beliefs that underlie them. Among the three, “technique” is based on “method” and all techniques can be chosen or used by teachers to implement the method for different teaching purposes. “Method” is based on the selected “approach” and therefore in accordance with the bas ic principles of the approach. Thus “method” links “approach” and “technique” in language teaching. The main methods adopted in TEFL are: Grammar translation Method, Audio-lingual Method, Cognitive-code Approach, Total- physical Response, Communicative Language Teaching, and Task-based Learning etc.The main elements which can be used to identify a method are: the goal of teaching/ learning; the roles of the teacher /students/ textbook; the characteristics of pedagogical activities or the nature of classr oom interactions; the students’ motivation; the teacher’s focus in students’ learning and the assessment; the way to deal with students’ errors in learning processes, etc.2-3 TEFL methods in ChinaEnglish has been taught and learnt in China from Qing dynasty for more than one hundred years. The main EFL methods proposed in the official syllabus in China since the foundation of PRC are GTM (1950-76); ALM & GTM (1977-80); ALM, GTM and eclectic CTL (1980-93); the eclectic CTL –the “Five Steps” of 3P Model (1993-2001) and TBL (2001-present). Actually GTM, as the classic one used by most of EFL teachers in this country for many years until now, is a method which emphases the students’ mastery of grammar rules and vocabulary through parctising and translating sentences from English to Chinese and back again inEFL learning. Wish this course could help student teachers learn more about the different approach, methods and their functions in EFL learning & teaching.3 EFL Teacher Education3-1 EFL teacher’s personal theoryHow does a student teacher learn to teach English? As we know that teachers make different teaching decisions because of their different understandings of language learning/ teaching. We call the understanding teachers’ “personal beliefs/ theorie s” or “schema”/ “knowledge structure” (Rumelhart 1980;Hodkinson & Harvard 1994).The following training model is an attempt to build up student teachers’ personal theories by means of performing some experience-based tasks and “reflective thinking”(“a s tate of doubt, hesitation, mental difficulty, in which thinking originates, and an act of searching, hunting, inquiring, to find material that will resolve the doubt, settle and dispose of the complexity.”).According to Dewey (1933), which will be a trigger in the process of constructing the schema –understanding language learning & teaching in one’s own way.3-2 Test your personal theoryEvery EFL teacher has to decide every day: what to teach and how it is to be taught effectively with a strong belief in his mind about the way that how a language is learnt. The following questionnaire will help you know your own beliefs:Questionnaire(1)Teacher should try to explain all the new language items in the lessonclearly.(2) Students should just remember what the teacher says and practise asmore as possible.(3) Teacher should always set questions for the students to answer andprovide model answers to any questions for students.(4) Teachers should praise students for their right answers and correctal l errors in students’ language.(5) The textbook decides what the teacher should teach in classroom.(6) Students should use the language freely to learn to speak it, evenif they make a lot of errors.(7) Students should ask questions and answer questions collaboratively.(8) Difficult questions should be developed & graded for the differentneeds of students.(9) Teacher should assess students’ performance not only on how wellthey said but what they said or wanted to say.(10) Students of all intellectual abilities can successfully learn aforeign language.It is obvious that the beliefs/ theories underlying the statements 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are quite different from those underlying 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. The most important differences are: 1) What should students learn if they want to acquire a language?2) Can all the different-ability students learn a language well? 3) Do students learn the language from the teacher/ textbook? 4) What is the best environment for different students to be more motivated to learn the language?4 The building of TEFL theories in teachers –The aim, content, method and assessmentof the course –TEFL Theories4-1 The aim of the courseThe primary aim of this course is to develop in student teachers a basic theoretical framework of the research area: Teaching English as a Foreign Language. The fundamental theories the framework is based on are linguistics, applied linguistics, psychology, psycholinguistics, SLA theories, sociology, socio-linguistics, educational theories, anthropology, and philosophy etc.Actually the construction of the inner framework or scheme in student teachers’minds is a very complicated and life-long process of development. The course “TEFL theories” is just a part of the course-based training and a start of LTE (language teacher Education). It aims to help student teachers acquire the basic linguistic and pedagogical knowledge/ skills about TEFL and learn how to combine their subject-matter understanding and pedagogical knowledge through some experience-based activities.4-2 The content of the courseIn theoretical building, the basic theories on language, language learning, learning contexts and language teaching are discussed and some other theoretical questions in relation to the basic theories are also explicated in the course,e.g.,●How do EFL learners understand and produce language?●How do different EFL learners learn the language with their learningstrategies?●How do the EFL educators/ teachers design and assess teaching?●How do EFL teachers educate a nd develop themselves? …etc.And when student teachers are exploring the above questions and familiarizing themselves with the different components of TEFL framework as well as their complicated relationships through teaching observation & description, they begin to mind-map their own theoretical scheme if they can understand them from their own experience, it is a kind of personal experience-based learning.4-3 The method of the courseThus there are 2 different views upon learning to teach: the behaviorist view & cognitive view. The former emphasize s the “received knowledge” (Wallace 1991) and “transmission- based” learning (Barnes & Shemilt, 1974) from lectures and books; while the later emphasizes experience-based learning by action with the learners’independent thinking and judgment. The main task of student teachers in theoretical building is “teaching description”. It is a way for student teachers to observe and analyze EFL teaching events in words through lesson-studies in groups interactively and collaboratively.The crucial part of teaching-description is how to discover the teaching principles/ theories behind the teacher’s everyday decisions, which have to be made in performing all kinds of teaching tasks/ activities (the teaching events). It provides student teachers the opportunity to think about if the teacher’s decisions or actions are right or wrong with their own judgment and helps them to build the bridge between TEFL theories and practice in their minds by conceptualizing what is going on in the real teaching contexts with the “theories” in books.4-4 The assessment & requirements of the courseBoth the formative and summative assessment should be applied to evaluate the course by student teachers, group members, and the course teacher during the whole process of the training. The following is the general course requirement:1)Attend all classes and actively participate in class discussion, classroomobservation and other lesson-study activities in secondary schools (10 % of the total scores).2)Satisfactorily complete all reading assignments & tasks including all thecourse paper, reading notes, class-observation reports (or notes), learning journals etc. (10% of the total scores).3)Pass the written exam on TEFL knowledge learnt in the course (40% of the totalscores).4) Data-based final project (40% of the total scores: 10% for classroomobservation; 10% for teaching analysis; 10% for application of the theories and 10% for theoretical criticism).Classroom observationsSample Lesson 1:Hello! Nice to meet you!This is the first lesson in JEFC, an English textbook for junior high students published by PEP. (See the textbook for detail). The following is what we saw when sitting in on two classes in a secondary school in Haikou, China.Class AThe teacher is introducing his name and the new course “English” in Chinese and then announce s “the first lesson” is to learn 7 English letters. He asks the students to watch the “big” and “small” letters in two sides of the flashcards: “ABC”,“BBC”, “CAAC”, and “CD”…, then asks if they know the meaning of the letter groups. When the students are giving the answers in Chinese (美国广播公司、英国广播公司、中国民航、光碟…), the teacher asks students if they can say the English letters. Some students say yes, some say no in Chinese.The teacher writes the seven letters “A a, B b, C c D d, E e, F f, G g” on board and asks two students who can say them to read them aloud one by one, the teacher repeats what they say with some corrections sometimes, then the other students in the class follow the teacher in chorus (in both raising tone & falling tone).The teacher explains how to write the letters in Chinese while the students are asked to draw the strokes in air with their fingers moving and mouths pronouncing the sounds following the teacher. The practice session continues for a few more minutes until the students say they have no questions to say and write the 7 letters.The teacher lets one of the students to say the letter “G” and asks the others if she is right or wrong. And then he draws a sketch of a girl and a boy on board saying: “This is Han Mei, a girl. This is Jim, a boy” then says ina girl’s voice “Hello, I’m Han Mei. What’s your name?” then asks the classabout the boy’s name in Chinese. After some stude nts answer the question “Jim”, the whole class read the sentence from the board written by the teacher “My name is Jim”. Then they practise the two sentences with the teacher’s Chinese explanations; finally the boys and girls are acting out the role-play dialogue:Girls: Hello! I’m Han Mei. What is your name?Boys: My name is Jim Green.Girls: Nice to meet you.Boys: Nice to meet you, too.The teacher asks the students to open their books to Page 1 and lets them listen to the textbook recoding. While listening, they are saying after the tape words by words for 3 times. And then four pairs of students are asked to demonstrate the dialogue in front of the class. The teacher comments on.Finally the teacher instructs the students to turn to an exercise in the workbook and do Ex. 3 (to read and copy the 7 letters in both the “big”& “small” forms). After students finish the work, he assigns the homework: to read the 7 letters and the dialogue aloud and preview the other 7 letters H/ h, I/ i, J/ j, K/ k, L/ l, M/ m, N/ n in Lesson 2.Class BThe teacher is introducing her name by writing her English name (Chinese PIN YIN) on board and tries to let the students understand English with facial expression & gestures: “I am your teacher, English teacher. My name is Chen Huaqi, Please call me ‘Miss Chen’. Stand up, please, and say “Good morning! Miss Chen.” Only a few Ss follow the teacher first, when the third time the teacher says “Good morning! Class.” All Ss stand up and respond.The teacher says to one o f the students: “my name is Chen Huaqi, what’s your name?” The student answers “Li Guang”. The teacher then instructs everyone to write the “English name” in Chinese Pin Yin on a card then exchange the card with seatmates, saying: “I’m …. What is your name?”; “My name is …”. While Ss are doing the pair work, the teacher plays the model tape for 3 times.The teacher asks Ss if they can spell their names on cards in English, a boy spells his name “Deng Fei –D-E-N-G-F-E-I ”. The teacher writes the name and 7 letters on board and explains what English letters are and how to use the “big” and “small” letters when writing an English name. She then instructs Ss to check if their writings on cards are correct, if not, revise them with the help of the textbook (from Page.1-7) or from other Ss around.The teacher gives out a name list with 10 English names (5 for boys: Clay, Gray, David, Peter, Edgar, and 5 for girls: Amy, Faith, Kate, May, and Betty) to Ss and indicates every group of 4 to choose one boy’s name and one girl’s name that they prefer most. And try to make clear how to write, say and spell their names to the class in 5 minutes. After the groups report their name numbers, the teacher read the names loud twice one by one and asks Ss to remember them quickly. When Ss are working on their names, the teacher moves around and helps them to their requests. One group asks the teacher to say “Edgar” for 4 times.The ready groups report their names in turn until all the 10 English names are presented: 2 group members write the names on board and the other 2 say & spell them. Those groups who choose the same names are asked to judge if the names are written, said, and spelt correctly or not. If they can find out something improper/ wrong and give the right form, their group can get a red star, which stands for 5 scores. And they also have the right to decide how many scores the working group can get (no more than 10 scores).After the presentation, the teacher writes the seven letters “A a, B b, C c D d, E e, F f, G g” on board and asks Ss to say the capitals of the following names, e.g., A my, B etty, C lay, D avid, E dgar, F aith, G ray. And asks Ss to find out which letters among the 7 contain the sound /ei/, /i:/ and /e/, e.g.,A a – /ei/;B b,C c,D d,E e – /i:/;F f – /e/After Ss finish the job, the teacher asks Ss to put the names with the same sounds in the column on board and read them again:/ei/ –A (A my Cl ay D a vid Gr ay F ai th K a te M ay)/i:/ – B C D E G (P e ter)/e/ – F (B e tty E dgar)Finally the teacher tells the students they will learn more English letters and names in a few days and they can choose any English names they like as their own but not forget using the capital as the first letter of the name and choosing the right one for a boy or a girl. If they have chosen the English name, they have to make a “name card”, and put it on the classroom desk and report it to class when they have English lessons, otherwise, the other classmates may use the same name.Teaching Observation & DescriptionJust think about what happened in the two different classes and compare them with the first lesson you had when you were a secondary school student. Ask yourself which one is more familiar to you and which one you prefer.Discuss in groups and choose either of them your group members like more and write down your observation s according to the above introduction: the most important events/ teaching or learning activities that make you chose it as your favorite. Pay more attention to what the students are feeling and learning in the classroom, and see if they are interested in learning. Why? If you feel difficult to express yourself, the following questions may help you.Supplementary reading:·Chapter 1 in Modern Foreign Language Teaching Methodology by Shu Bai-Mei, 2005·Part 1: “Clearing the ground” in Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching by H. H. Stern, 1983·Chapter 1 in Training Foreign Language Teachers by M. J. Wallace, 1991·New English Curriculum Standards by Ministry of Education, PRC, July 2001（注：可编辑下载，若有不当之处，请指正，谢谢!）。
- 88-校园英语 / 职业教育研究Teachers’ Beliefs in Communicative Teaching Method山东外国语职业学院外语学院/李昭锦 周扬娟Teacher education around the world emphasizes a move towards more communicative teaching methods with interactive student-centered learning encouraged. When EFL teachers adapt the Western-based Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) model to Chinese contexts, tensions between beliefs about different traditions of language teaching begin to surface and influence their perceptions and practice of new teaching methodologies. However, according to Mak (2011), these culturally-influenced beliefs should not be considered as obstacles to the implementation of CLT model, instead, these beliefs should be regarded as cultural influences, which can be immersed in Asian model.Besides, it is acknowledged that some teachers’ beliefs, which are largely derived from their previous experiences, which may adversely affect their learning approach to teaching. To be specific, for many teachers who have grown up in cultures which often have teacher-centered classrooms, examination and curriculum constraints, and large classes, there is often a mismatch between theoretical methods and reality. As Miller and Aldred (2000) illustrate, a student teacher’s belief system derives from many competing factors, such as pre-service education, their own language teacher experience and the established practice within education context. Besides, Mak (2011) mentioned that some pre-existing beliefs have influence on the teachers’ beliefs of teaching and learning, and their teaching decisions. For example, many teachers hold that if more student-teacher interaction was introduced, they might not be able to present all the content and transmit knowledge to students, which they regarded as a primary role of language teachers. These beliefs seemed to have a lasting influence, and can hardly be changeable. Therefore, it is of vital importance to raise teachers’metacognitive awareness of their beliefs, the impact of prior learning experiences and their pre-existing beliefs of teacher identities.Only bearing the foregoing metacognitive awareness is far from solving the issue in question. Evans (1996) suggests that one of the factors leads to the lack of CLT method in schools is that textbooks are influenced by public examination and teacher’s lack of specialist training. Nowadays, although some text books are designed to meet the CLT method, CLT method still has little impact on the way English is taught. One reason may be largely due to the present assessment and evaluation system. Under the present system, teachers’ teaching method has no choice but to be exam-oriented. Another reason is that even teachers who know the gist of CLT method, they still have the problem of how to implement it aptly. To target this problematic area, understanding and pinpointing the problems which teachers have in transferring theory to reality within specific context is essential. In other words, it is of importance to arm teachers with tailored pedagogy to the specific context.To sum up, although CLT model has been introduced to China for a long time, its implementation meets many obstacles. Teachers’ beliefs could filter the way they perceive their teaching and influence their practice, and the belief development is not a simple matter, which is influenced by many competing factors, such as pre-service education, their own language teacher experience and the established practice within education context. To solve this problem, teachers’ metacognitive awareness of their beliefs should be raised, the present assessment system should be reformed, and tailored pedagogy to the unique context should be provided.References：[1]Evans,S.(1996).The context of English language education:The case of Hong Kong.RELC Journal,27(2):30-55.[2]Mak,S.H.(2011).Tensions between conflicting beliefs of an EFL teacher in teaching practice.RELC Journal,42(1):53–67. [3]Miller,L.& Aldred,D.(2000).Student teachers’ perceptions about communicating language methods.RELC Journal,31(1): 1-22.作者简介：李昭锦(1988-)，女，山东日照人，山东外国语职业学院教师，外国语言学及应用语言学硕士，从事商务英语教学。
---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ English Language Teaching Methodology5 English Language Teaching Methodology1/ 65The method concept in language teaching: : the notion of a systematic set of teaching practices based on a particular theory of language and language learning---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ ELT Methodology:It mainly studies the fundamental tenets, basic principles, common methods, practical techniques and popular means of ELT.3/ 65Methodology is that which links theory and practice．．---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ Theory statements would include theories of what language is and how language is learned or，more specifically，theories of foreign language/second language acquisition（SLA）．Such theories are linked to various design features of language instruction．5/ 65These design features might include stated objectives，syllabus specifications，types of ，， activities，roles of teachers，learners，，，， materials，and so forth．，． Design features in turn are linked to actual teaching and learning practices as observed in the environments where language teaching and learning take place．．---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ Practice and Theory1. ELT Practice 4. ELT Methodology 3. ELT Practice 2. ELT Methodology7/ 65Unit 1 Language and Learning---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ I.How do we learn languages ?1 ) How do we learn our own language ?Language acquisition Language learning9/ 65Language acquisition: the process where a language is acquired as a result of natural and largely random exposure to language.( a subconscious process)Krashen describes this process as a ‘natural’ one, where there is no ‘conscious focusing on linguistic forms. According to his argument, acquisition refers to the way children learn their native language.---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ Language learning: the process where the exposure to language is structured through language teaching.Learning is a conscious process, and it usually takes place in the language classroom.11/ 65Learning acquisition Items of compariso n Process Conscious unconscious/ subconsciou Explicit(显 Explicit(显 s implicit （ implicit（隐性性的）性的）的） Focus Forms meaning Input Emphasis Setting Selected Accuracy formal/ controlled natural fluency informal/ natural---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------2 ) How do we learn foreign language ?(1) People learn language for different reasons. (2) People learn language in different ways. (3) People have different understanding about language learning. (4) People have different capabilities in language learning.13/ 65II. Views on language.1) What is language ? Language is a system of structures: structural learning, formal instruction of grammatical structures. Language is a means of communication: instruction focused on the functions and notions of language; learning through using. Language is the reflection of cultures: instruction on cultures and focus on appropriateness of speech.---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ Views StructuralLanguageLanguage learningto learn these structural items to know how to combine the grammatical rules and the vocabulary to express notions that perform the functions. not only to know the grammar and vocabulary of the language , but also to know the rules for using them in a whole range of communicative context.a linguistic system Functional a linguistic system , means for doing things Interactional a communicative tool15/ 65Structural View :It sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystem : from phonological, morphological, lexical, etc. to sentence . Each language has a finite number of such structural items. To learn a language means to learn these structural items so a s to be able to understand and produce language .---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ Functional View : It sees language as a linguistic system but also as a means for doing things. Most of our day-to- day language use involves functional activities : offering , suggesting , advising, apologizing, etc. Therefore , learners learn a language in order to do things with it . To perform functions , learners need to know how to combine the grammatical rules and the vocabulary to express notions that perform the functions.17/ 65Interactional View :It consider language as a communicative tool , whose main use is to build up and maintain social relations between people. Therefore , learners not only need to know the grammar and vocabulary of the language , but also need to know the rules for using them in a whole range of communicative context.---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ III. Views on language learning1) What are the psycholinguistic and cognitive process involved in language learning ? 2) What are the conditions that need to be met in order for these learning process to be activated ?19/ 65Process-oriented theories are concernedwith how the mind processes new information, such as habit formation, induction, making inference, hypothesis testing and generalization.---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ Condition-oriented theories emphasize the nature of the human and physical context in which language learning takes place, such as the number of students, what kind of input learners receive, and the learning atmosphere.21/ 65Behaviourist theory (行为主义学习理论）行为主义学习理论）行为主义学习理论Proposed by behavioural psychologist Skinner, who applied the theory of conditioning to the way humans acquire language.---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ ---learning as habit formation Language is also a form of behaviour. It can be learned the same way as an animal is trained to respond to stimuli.23/ 65The key point of the theory of conditioning “You can train a animal to do anything(within reason) If you follow a certain procedure which has three major stages, stimulus, response,and reinforcement”.---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ One influential result is the audio-lingual method（听说 which involves the “ listen （听说, and repeat ” drilling activities. The idea of this method is that language is learned by constant repetion and the reinforcement of the teacher. Mistakes are immediately corrected, and correct utterances are immediately praised25/ 65Cognitive theory (认知主义学习理论）认知主义学习理论）认知主义学习理论The term cognitivism is often used to describe method in which students areasked to think rather than simply repeat.---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------If all language is a learned behaviour, how can a child produce a sentence that has never been said by others before?27/ 65According to Chomsky’s theory, language is not a form of behaviour, it is an intricate rule-based system .---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ One influential idea of this theory is that students should be allowed to create their own sentences based on their understanding of certain rules.29/ 65According to the cognitive theory, learning is a process in which the learner actively tries to make sense of data. The basic technique associated with a cognitive theory of language learning is the problem-solving task.---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ Constructivist theory（建构主义学习理论）（建构主义学习理论）Learning is a complex cognitive process in which the learner constructs meaning based on his or her own experiences and What he /she already knows.31/ 65Receiving informationProcessing informationConstructing new meaningsInput (listening, reading)Decoding (解码）解码）解码(Listening/reading) comprehension outputRelating what learners already know with the received information---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ Implications for classroom teachingTeaching should be built based on what learners already know and engage learners in learning activities. Teachers need to design activities to arouse learners’ interests and curiosity for learning33/ 65To provide the background information to activate learners’schema(激活图式）; 激活图式）激活图式 To motivate students by making the topic relevant and interesting to them.---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ Socio-constructivist theory Sociocultural theory(社会文化理论）社会文化理论）社会文化理论维果茨基) Represented by Vygotsky (维果茨基)It emphasizes interaction and engagement with the target language in a social context based on the concept of ‘Zone of Proximal Development’ (ZPD, 最近发展区) and scaffolding (support).35/ 65In other words, learning is best achieved through the dynamic interaction between the teacher and the learner and between learners.---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD 最近发展区)It is the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers（Vygotsky （ 1978 ：86））37/ 65“最近发展区” 理论：前苏联心理教育学家最近发展区” 理论：最近发展区维果茨基的长期研究揭示的长期研究揭示：维果茨基的长期研究揭示：教育对学生的发展能起主导作用和促进作用，能起主导作用和促进作用，但要确定学生发展的两种水平，一种是已经达到的水平，的两种水平，一种是已经达到的水平，表现为学生能够独立解决的智力任务，学生能够独立解决的智力任务，另一种是儿童可能达到的发展水平，可能达到的发展水平，表现为儿童还不能独立地解决任务，但在成人的帮助下，地解决任务，但在成人的帮助下，在集体活动能够解决这些任务。
US-China Education Review B 6 (2011) 752-755Earlier title: US-China Education Review, ISSN 1548-6613 EFL (English as a Foreign Language) Classroom DiscourseAnalysis of a Vocational College and Some ReflectionsLiu Xin, Lou Luzheng, Shi BiruZhejiang Medical College, Hangzhou, ChinaThe application of classroom discourse analysis of foreign language teaching and learning can reveal much abouthow teachers perform in their teaching practice and how to make improvement. In this paper, the author tries toreveal the present state of EFL (English as a foreign language) classrooms in a vocational college from the angle ofclassroom discourse analysis, especially the aspect of TT (teacher talk), and provides some suggestions.Keywords: EFL (English as a foreign language) classroom, discourse analysis, student-centeredIntroductionStudent-centered, instead teacher-centered, has been a repeatedly highlighted concept in the field of education for a long time. It has been stipulated in the current “CECR” (College English Curriculum Requirements) issued by the Ministry of Education of China in 2004 that EFL (English as a foreign language)teaching in the college should replace the traditional teacher-dominated didactic practice by a new mode featuredwith student-centeredness which puts more emphasis on developing students’ autonomous learning abilities and improving their language communicative competence. However, since vocational colleges, different from undergraduate colleges, have their own characteristics in some respects, thus, how and to what degree this notion is carried out in vocational colleges in China is worth investigating. In this paper, the author tries to reveal the present state of EFL classrooms from the angle of classroom discourse analysis and provides some suggestions.Some Basic Ideas of Classroom Discourse AnalysisThe process of English teaching and learning in the classroom is very complicated, because it involves various factors. It has aroused interests and attentions of scholars’ from different disciplines, such as linguistics, pedagogy, psychology and sociology. Among all kinds of studies, classroom discourse has been one of the most heated topics in both classroom research and L2 (second language) acquisition. The term refers to the language that teachers and students use to communicate with each other in the classroom. Talking and conversation are the media through which most teaching takes place. In other words, the fulfillment of teaching to a large degree depends on teacher-student interaction in the actual classroom teaching practice. Therefore, TT (teacher talk), which occupies a special place in the target language classroom, is closely related to the success of students’ foreign language acquisition. Teachers use target language to assign teaching activities and as the principle means for giving instructions and directions, modeling target language patterns and givingLiu Xin, lecturer, Department of Humanities and Social Science, Zhejiang Medical College.Lou Luzheng, lecturer, Department of Humanities and Social Science, Zhejiang Medical College.Shi Biru, lecturer, Department of Humanities and Social Science, Zhejiang Medical College.Rights Reserved.EFL CLASSROOM DISCOURSE ANALYSIS, VOCATIONAL COLLEGE, REFLECTIONS 753 feedback on students’ performances. Just as what Nunan (1991) pointed out that,Teachers play an important role in shaping classroom discourse and in maximizing opportunities for learning, and TT is of crucial importance, not only for the organization of the classroom but also for the processes of L2 acquisitions. It isimportant for the organization and management of classroom because it is through speech that teachers either succeed orfail to implement their teaching plan. (p. 189)TT is of great importance, nevertheless, it does not mean the more the better especially under the current notion of teaching and learning. As a result, by a close study of TT which including its quantity, quality, form, etc., we can find out what is really going on in the EFL classrooms, whether they are student-centered or not.Research Design and Data AnalysisResearch DesignThe participants in the study were three English teachers of a vocational college in Zhejiang Province. The students from the three classes were freshmen of various non-English majors. The classes recorded were intensive English reading classes.Based on Nunan (1988, p. 76), “There is no substitute for direct observation as a way of finding out about language classroom”. The classes were observed and recorded by the author and there was 80 minutes’ (two periods) recording for each class. The teachers and students involved were not informed of the purpose of the research beforehand. The lessons were not specially prepared and the recording was taken under a natural classroom environment.Data AnalysisRights Reserved.The quantity of TT. Time proportion by TT and ST (student talk) is a distinct factor differentiating a student-centered teaching mode from a teacher-centered one. The former emphasizes the time of activities allotted for students’ practice. Students are assumed to have enough time to talk in the class, so as to practice the target language and improve their communicative competence. While the findings in the study show that the actual time proportion in EFL classrooms in the vocational college is quite different from the notion, as it is shown in Table 1.Table 1Time Proportion of Teacher and ST in EFL ClassroomsTT (%) ST (%) Other time (%)70.2 16.3 13.5oneClassClass82.6 8.9 8.5two66.8 15.6 17.6ClassthreeFrom Table 1, we can see that there is an obvious similarity among the three classes being observed, i.e., the quantity of TT greatly surpassed the quantity of ST, which shows that TT still dominates the interaction between teacher and students in the present EFL classroom in the vocational college and neither meets the requirements of the student-centered teaching notion.IRF (initiation-response-feedback) structure in classroom discourse. As far as the structure of interaction between teacher and students in the classroom is concerned, Sinclair and Coulthard (1975) found that the language of traditional teacher-controlled classrooms is in a rigid pattern, where teachers and students speak according to very fixed perceptions of their roles and where the talk could be seen to conform to highlyEFL CLASSROOM DISCOURSE ANALYSIS, VOCATIONAL COLLEGE, REFLECTIONS 754structured sequences. The exchange consists of three moves: the teacher’s initiation, the student’s response and the teacher’s feedback, known as IRF. Table 2 is the results of IRF structure in classroom discourse of our study.Table 2Proportion of IRF Structure in Classroom DiscourseIRF structure More complex structureNumber Proportion (%) Number Proportion (%) Class one 32 62 20 38Class two 42 74 15 26Class three 21 51 19 49Total 95 64 54 36 Table 2 demonstrates that the rigid IRF structure accounts for a predominant proportion in EFL classrooms in the vocational college, which is similar to the findings of Sinclair and Coulthard in the traditional language classroom. An IRF structure consists of two teacher’s turns and one student’s turn. The students generate nothing, but a few simple words to answer the teacher’s questions. They have few chances to practice unless the teacher initiates a question which requires them to give an answer. Such rigid interaction patters turn out to limit opportunities for students to have longer speaking turns, thus, stand in their way of improving communicative competence.Display questions and referential questions. Richard and Lockhart (1996) concluded that teachers’ questions play a crucial role in language acquisition. It is one of the common techniques used by teachers.Teachers’ questions can keep the learners participating in classroom discourse. A simple way to classify teacher’s Rights Reserved.questions is to categorize them into two types, one is display question and the other is referential question. Display question attempts to elicit information already known by the teacher. It focuses on the recollection of previously presented information. While referential question requests information not known by the teacher, often the latter responses involve judgment about facts that are not clear or a statement of values. This kind of question can lead students to think actively and provide their own information and ideas based on their own knowledge and experience rather than recollect the previously presented information. The present study focuses on the two question types. The frequency of display questions and referential questions is presented in Table 3.Table 3Frequency of Display Questions and Referential QuestionsDisplay questions Referential questionsNumber Proportion (%) Number Proportion (%) Class one 48 69 22 31Class two 52 74 18 26Class three 30 60 20 40Total 130 68 60 32 Taken as a whole, we can find out that the frequency of display questions is far overwhelming that of referential questions in our study. A great discrepancy between the total number of display questions and referential questions in each class can be seen. As a result, it can be concluded that the teachers prefer to ask display questions rather than referential questions. Nevertheless, many researchers advocate that referential questions increase the amount of learner output, and an increased use of referential questions by teachers mayEFL CLASSROOM DISCOURSE ANALYSIS, VOCATIONAL COLLEGE, REFLECTIONS 755create discourse which can produce a flow of information from the students and create a more qusai-normal speech. On the contrary, display questions cannot achieve this effect. Based on the research findings mentioned above, it is obvious that referential questions can improve students’ output. Compared with the findings of our study, students in the EFL classrooms of the vocational school do not have much freedom to think actively and express their opinions based on their own understanding. Therefore, their assumed centeredness in the EFL classrooms has not been realized in actual practice.ImplicationsMinimize the Quantity of TTOur study indicates that in the EFL classrooms of the vocational college, TT is far exceeding ST. While student-centered teaching mode requires teachers to moderate their control of the class and offer more opportunities to the students, so as to increase their target language output and improve their communicative competence. Unlike the traditional mode of teaching which teachers are always busy preaching throughout the class, student-centered mode calls on teachers to keep their students busy with talking in class. To realize this, on the one hand, teachers should have the awareness of changing the role of the “dominating boss” to the “considerate organizer and coordinator”. On the other hand, teachers should organize more classroom activities, such as role play, debate, presentation to arouse students’ interests and enthusiasm.Replace IRF Structure With More Complex StructuresIRF structure used in teacher-student interaction contributes little to improving students’ linguistic and communicative competence, because the language used in this turn shows that little creativity of the students and their possible longer utterances are limited by teacher’s quick and short feedback. So teachers of the EFL Rights Reserved.classrooms in the vocational college under investigation should try to replace IRF structure with more complex structures. In this way, the students’ ability to seek and maintain a turn and negotiate meanings is expected to be improved. Therefore, the student-centered notion can be better carried out and the students’ communicative competence can be improved greatly.Use More Referential QuestionsThe result of study reveals that there is a priority of display questions over referential questions in the EFL classrooms. While, asking too many display questions cannot help students produce more natural discourse nor improve their real communicative abilities. Teachers should intentionally resort more to referential questions to encourage the students to provide significantly longer and syntactically more complex responses in the class.ConclusionsBased on the analysis of discourse samples of three EFL classrooms in a vocational college, the paper reveals some problems existing in the current English teaching processes and provides some suggestions to make improvement respectively.ReferencesNunan, D. (1988). The learner-centered curriculum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Nunan, D. (1991). Language teaching methodology: A textbook for teachers. Prentice Hall.Richards, J. C., & Lockhart, C. (1996). Reflective teaching in second language classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Sinclair, J., & Coulthard, M. (1975). Towards an analysis of discourse. Oxford: Oxford University Press.。
The Application of the Situational Teaching Method in the Elementary School AbstractAlongwith the development of China’seconomy, English becomes more andmore important in people’s daily life. The English teaching method which is used in each stage receives a lot of attention. After Chinese educational system reform, the Situational Teaching Method comes into being. Till now it has got great achievements in the English teachingof elementary school. As for English teachingof the elementary school, it pays to focus attention on the Situational T eaching Method. The scenes originate from social practice. It is a product of people’s daily lives. It emphasizes the integration of the dynamic process and the life situation, pays great attention to students’ understanding of life, pays great attention to students’ability development in the active process, and stimulatestheir interest from various aspects. It helps students to understand the teachingmaterials and develop students’ psychological functions through the scenes which can produce vividimages. The core of the Situational TeachingMethodis tostimulate students’ emotion.Key wordsEnglish; the Situational Teaching Method; the Elementary School; Application 摘要随着中国经济与社会的发展，英语在人们的日常生活中显得越来越重要。
前沿英语教学方法Here is a 613 word essay on the topic of "Cutting-Edge English Teaching Methods":Effective English teaching methods have evolved significantly in recent years, moving away from traditional rote memorization and grammar drills towards more dynamic, engaging, and student-centric approaches. As the world becomes increasingly interconnected, the need for practical, communicative English proficiency has grown, necessitating innovative teaching techniques to meet this demand. Several cutting-edge methodologies have emerged that hold great promise for enhancing English language learning outcomes.One such approach is the communicative language teaching (CLT) method, which prioritizes the development of functional language skills over strict grammatical mastery. CLT emphasizes authentic communication in the target language, creating opportunities for students to engage in real-world dialogues and task-based activities. This shifts the classroom dynamic from teacher-led instruction to student-driven interaction, fostering the natural acquisition of vocabulary, idioms, and conversational fluency.Another innovative technique is the flipped classroom model, where students engage with lesson content, such as video lectures or reading materials, outside of class, and then use in-class time for collaborative learning activities and problem-solving. This approach allows teachers to customize lessons based on students' needs and learning styles, providing more personalized support and guidance during the application phase. By inverting the traditional lecture-homework structure, flipped classrooms cultivate active learning and critical thinking skills.The integration of technology has also transformed English teaching, with the rise of digital resources and language-learning applications. Multimedia tools, such as interactive whiteboards, educational videos, and language-learning software, can enhance lesson delivery, provide immediate feedback, and enable self-paced learning. Additionally, online platforms and virtual exchange programs connect students with native speakers, fostering intercultural communication and authentic language practice.Gamification is another emerging trend in English education, where elements of game design, such as points, badges, and leaderboards, are incorporated into the learning experience. By tapping into students' natural inclination towards play and competition, gamified approaches can increase motivation, engagement, and retention oflanguage skills. Well-designed educational games can also promote collaborative problem-solving, critical thinking, and the application of language in context.Furthermore, the growing emphasis on content-based instruction (CBI) has led to the development of innovative English teaching methods. CBI integrates the learning of English language skills with the study of academic or professional content, such as science, history, or business. This interdisciplinary approach not only enhances language proficiency but also deepens students' knowledge and understanding of relevant subject matter, preparing them for future academic or career pursuits.Finally, the adoption of a more inclusive and culturally responsive pedagogy has become increasingly important in modern English teaching. This involves acknowledging and incorporating students' diverse cultural backgrounds, learning preferences, and lived experiences into the curriculum and instructional strategies. By fostering a classroom environment that values inclusivity and celebrates linguistic and cultural diversity, teachers can better engage students, build stronger rapport, and promote equitable learning outcomes.In conclusion, the field of English language teaching has witnessed a remarkable transformation, with the emergence of cutting-edgemethodologies that prioritize communication, technology, gamification, content integration, and cultural responsiveness. These innovative approaches aim to create dynamic, engaging, and student-centric learning experiences that equip learners with the practical language skills necessary to thrive in an interconnected world. As the educational landscape continues to evolve, the ongoing development and implementation of these cutting-edge teaching methods will be crucial in shaping the future of English language instruction.。
1.0 IntroductionWith the rapid development of globalization, cultural communication is getting more and more necessary and frequent. English, as one of the most popular languages, is playing a more and more significant role in communication. At present, English acquisition is commonly required, therefore, the role of English teacher is very important. Traditional English teaching follows teacher-centered principle, attaching more importance to the subject knowledge instead of students’ ability of language using; emphasizing teacher’s importance instead of students’. Thus, students gradually and greatly depend on teachers, their desire and ability of learning are lowered. They can deal with all kinds of written examinations, but can’t communicate freely in English. They are successful in acquiring language system as a separate body of knowledge but fail to learn how to use it. The limits of traditional teaching are more and more obvious and criticized by many researchers (Xu Enmei, 2002; Lu Yun, 2004; Chen Wencun, 2007).Since the traditional teaching approach couldn’t meet the requirement of English teaching, new approach is needed. Therefore, it’s time for English teachers to adopt a new theory and change their roles in English teaching. Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) follows this trend and comes into being. Compared with traditional teaching approach, TBLT insists that language learners develop the language ability by using language. It provides a circumstance for students to build up their confidence, cultivate a good learning habit, develop their self-study ability and form effective study strategies. Thus, the aim of English teaching can be achieved.This paper consists of five parts. Chapter one is introduction. It introduces the current situation of Chinese English teaching, significance and organization of this paper. The second chapter is literature review. It introduces the theory of TBLT, especially the definition of “task”, and gives a brief introduction of the concept of teacher’s role in EFL (English as Foreign Language) teaching and the reasons that TBLT can be adopted in English teaching. The third chapter is the detail illustration of teacher’s role s in TBET. The limits of traditional teaching and the reasons of changing teacher’s role s are also given. The fourth chapter is suggestions for Chinese English teachers. The author gives some suggestions to Chinese English teachers, emphasizing the importance of changing teacher’s view, analyzing and developing curriculumresources, teaching according to reality and self-development. The last part is the conclusion of this paper.2.0 Literature Review2.1 The Concept of T eacher’s role in EFL TeachingEllis and Mcclintock defines “role”as the part taken by a participant in any act of communication (Huang Shuyun, 2004). Jack Croft Richards states that when roles are compared, they have the following characteristics:a. They involve different kinds of work and different levels of responsibility,b. They involve different kinds of relationships and different patterns of interaction and communication,c. They involve different power relationships (Huang Shuyun, 2004).The concept of “role” in E FL teaching denotes the function that teacher and learners perform during the course of a lesson, therefore, English teacher’s role means the function that teacher performs during an English lesson. As students’ needs and le sson objectives are different, teacher has to take many different roles in English teaching.Harmer has identified English teacher’s roles in hi s work: as controller in eliciting nationality words; as assessor of accuracy as students try to pronounce the words; as corrector of pronunciation; as organizer in giving instructions for the pair work, initiating it, monitoring it, and organizing feedback; as prompter while students are working together; and as resource providers if students need help with words and structures during the pair work (Xu Enmei, 2002).2.2 Definitions of TaskA Course in English Language Teaching(Wang Qiang, 2006) provides a number of definitions of task from both the research and pedagogic literatures. The listed definitions are from this book.Long defines “task” as a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward. Thus, examples of tasks include painting a fence, dressing a child, filling out a form, buying a pair of shoes, making an airline reservation, borrowing a library book, taking adriving test, typing a letter, weighing a patient, sorting letters, taking a hotel reservation, writing a cheque, finding a street destination and helping someone cross a road. In other words, “task”means the hundred things people do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in between.Breen states that “task” refers to any structured language learning endeavor which has a particular objective, appropriate content, a specified working procedure, and a range of outcomes for those who undertake the task. “Task” is therefore assumed to refer to a range of work plans which have the overall purpose of facilitating language learning — from the simple and brief exercise type, to more complex and lengthy activities such as group problem-solving or simulations and decision making.Prabhu defines task as an activity which requires learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and which allows teachers to control and regulate that process.Nunan defines “task”as a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form.Willis defines “task” as an activity where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome.Ur states that “task” is essentially goal-oriented; it requires the group, or pair, to achieve an objective that is usually expressed by an observable result, such as brief notes or lists, rearrangement of jumbled items, a drawing, a spoken summary. This result should be attainable only by interaction between participants, therefore, within the definition of the task you often find instructions such as “reach a consensus”, or “find out everyone’s opinions”.Skehan defines “task”as an activity in which meaning is primary, there is some communicative problem to solve; there is some sort of relationship to the real world; task completion has some priority; and the assessment of task performance is in terms of task outcome.Bygate, Skehan and Swain define “task”as an activity which requires learners to use language, with emphasis on meaning, to attain an object.Ellis defines “task” as activity that call for primarily meaning-focused language use.The above definitions present many dimensions of a task, such as the scope of a task, the perspective from which a task is viewed, the authenticity of a task and the outcome of a task.Although there are so many definitions to task, since the present study focuses on language teaching, therefore, classroom tasks should consist of the following points: a.meaning-centered. Tasks should be designed to practice some meaningful language forms; b. the aim of a task is to solve certain communicative problem, which should have some connections with the real world.A good task is close to students’ real life, learning experiences an d social reality, and could arise students’ interests and encourage students’ participation in the task; c. the design of the task must emphasize the importance of task completion, that is, the settlement of the communicative problem. The result of the task is the criteria of the success of the task.2.3 Definitions and Features of TBLTTBLT is a further development of communicative language teaching. Communicative approaches became popular in the 1970s. In 1987, Yalden summarized that there were five approaches in communicative approaches: functional approach, negotiated approach, natural approach, content-based approach, and task-based approach. Therefore, task-based approach is the latest development in communicative approaches. TBLT shares the same belief with communicative language teaching that language should be learned as close as possible to how it is used in real life. The difference is that it stresses the importance of combining form-focused teaching with communicative-focused teaching. TBLT sees language as a resource for communicating rather than as a body of content to be memorized. The aim of learning a foreign or second language is to achieve communicative competence. It is the pedagogy that best fits the principle of “learning by doing”.Skehan claims that TBLT may underlie language systems which can be formed and developed well while learners focus on the process of doing tasks (Ren Yankun, 2006).Chen Lin, Wang Qiang and Cheng Xiaotang (2002:1) state that during TBLT, the task itself is the motivation of learning, the process of completing the task is the learning process, the results of teaching and learning are presented in the task achievements. With the concrete motivation, students will learn autonomously and use the language they are learning to do things actively. They will use the language they are learning naturally while doing things, andthen develop their language competence in the process of using the language to do things.Willis (1996) illustrates the framework of TBLT, consisting of three phases: pre-task, task-cycle and language-focus. The following is a list of TBLT.Pre-task: to introduce the class the topic of the task, activating topic-related words and phrases.Task-cycle: to offer learners the chance to use whatever language they already know in order to carry out the task, and then to improve that language under the teacher’s guidance while planning their reports of the task. It is divided into three steps: task (students carry out the task), planning (each group prepares how to report their completion of the task to the class) and report (students report their completion of the task).Language-focus: to allow a closer study of some of the specific features naturally occurring in the language used during the task cycle. The students analyze and assess the completions of tasks by other groups. And they practice the language difficulties under the direction of the teacher.In this paper, the author analyzes English teacher’s roles in TBLT according to Willis’s definition of TBLT.To understand TBLT, it’s better to get familiar with its features. TBLT has the following features:a. TBLT is objective-oriented, i.e. learners work purposefully towards an objective,b. TBLT does not oppose the teaching of grammar, because the objective of TBLT can be language-focused, i.e. to discover rules of grammar,c. In TBLT classroom, learners’ attention is principally focused on meaning rather than on form, i.e. for most of the time, their attention is on what is being expressed,d. Communication tasks bear resemblance to activities people carry out in everyday life,e. Tasks are often carried out in cooperation with others,f. Outcome is important to assess the effect of TBLT,g. The outcome may be something concrete, (i.e. a timetable, a report) or something intangible(e.g. agreement or solution to a problem) (Tian Jinping, 2006).2.4 Theoretical Basis of TBLTLanguage learning is basically considered as a cognitive process of the input and output of the information. Therefore, this paper illustrates the theoretical basis of TBLT from the perspective of cognitive approach, input hypothesis, output hypothesis and interaction hypothesis.Cognitive approach is based on the distinction in the way in which students represent knowledge. Students construct both an exemplar-based system and a rule-based system. The former is lexical in nature and includes both discrete lexical items and ready-made formulaic chunks of language. The latter consists of abstract underlying patterns of the language. They are needed when students have to construct utterances to express precisely and properly. In TBLT, the process of completing tasks offer opportunities for students to construct the two systems.Krashen is the representative of input hypothesis. In 1981, Krashen declares that we acquire language in only one way, which is by receiving comprehensible input. If the input contains forms and structures just beyond the learner’s current level of competenc e in the language, then comprehension and acquisition will occur. This hypothesis was later modified and it held that learners also need the right environment and circumstances to allow comprehensible input to work. They have to be motivated and free of stress. Based on this hypothesis, TBLT advocates that tasks should be relevant to students’ life and interests and should be carried out in a comprehensible language.The output hypothesis emphasizes that production opportunities are the key formative process for acquisition, and acquisition can be enhanced in context in which learners are pushed to convey messages precisely. Swain is the representative of output hypothesis. He contends that output results from interactive language tasks as they provide learners with opportunities for contextualized, meaningful language use. Such opportunities enable learners to test the target language and move from a semantic analysis of the language to a syntactic analysis of it. Therefore, TBLT emphasizes the importance of meaningful and interactive tasks (He Lili, 2006).Seliger is the representative of interaction hypothesis. After many researches on the relationship between interaction and acquisition, Seliger concludes that learners who initiate interaction are better able to turn input into intake. Therefore, it’s necessary to change students’passive learning to active learning. TBLT meets this requirement and follows students-centered principle (He Lili, 2006).2.5 Principles of TBLTTBLT follows students-centered principle. Ellis states principles of TBLT in detail:a. ensure an appropriate level of task difficulty,b. establish clear goals for each task-based lesson,c. ensure that students adopt an active role in task-based lessons,d. encourage students to take risks,e. ensure that students primarily focuse on meaning when they perform a task,f. require students to evaluate their performance and progress (Chen Wenchun, Yan Ping, Yu Meigen and Peng Kangzhou, 2007).2.6 Reasons that TBLT can be Adopted in English TeachingWhy can TBLT be adopted in English teaching? To put it simply, it follows the present view of language learning.Traditionally, it is held that learning a language involves mastering the building blocks of the language and learning the rules by which these basic elements are combined from the level of sound to the level of sentence. It has been regarded as a process of mastering a succession of steps, each one building on the one before. Teachers present the target language in ready-to-assimilate pieces, starting with the easy parts and gradually moving towards the harder parts. Learners must master each part sequentially and incorporate it into their knowledge of the target language.By contrast, the present view of language learning , mainly based upon research findings in linguistics, psychology, and pedagogy, is that learners do not acquire the target language in the order it is presented to them, regardless of how careful and thoughtful the teaches and textbook writers are in organizing the process. As Ellis puts it, language learning is a developmental, organic process that follows its own internal agenda. Errors are not necessarily the result of bad learning, but are part of the natural process of inter-language forms gradually moving towards target forms (Tian Jinping, 2006).Such a view of language learning has deepened implications for language teaching, and has resulted in the development of TBLT. Foster states that TBLT gives learners tasks to transact, rather than items to learn, provides an environment which best promotes the natural language learning process. By engaging in meaningful activities, such as problem-solving, role-playing, discussions, etc., the learner’s inter-language system is stretched and expanded. These tasks rely on a successful transfer of meaning in order to be completed, and are supposed to focus the learners’ attention more closely on the comprehensibility of the language they and their partners are using, thus increasing the likelihood that inter-language forms will be pushed towards target language norms (Tian Jinping, 2006).3.0 Teacher’s Roles in TBET3.1 Teacher’s Roles in Traditional English Teaching and Their LimitsIn traditional teaching, the goal of learning English for students is grasping language knowledge, acquiring ability to read and translate and getting a high mark in the examination. Thus, teacher is mainly the language explainer, controller and evaluator of students’ behavior. Teacher has previously got ready for all the answers of the questions. He gives detail explanation of every language points especially grammar knowledge and evaluates students’ answer according to the standard one. Students’ major task is to absorb all these knowledge and “standards”.We should admit traditional teaching has contributed a lot to the social development in the past years and most English teachers are responsible for their students. However, the limits of it are obvious.First, students lose desire to learn English gradually. Most students desire to perform well in English classes from the first lesson, but gradually they lose interests as a result of their learning experience. William Glasser states that very few children come to school labelled as failures. It is school and teachers that pin the label of failure on children. In traditional areas, teachers emphasize much more on the English tests and grades, students are usually compelled to do a lot of practices and homework mechanically and usually these tasks are irrelevant to their interests or life (Qi Xueyin, 2005).Second, students lose independent learning ability.In traditional teacher-centered class, teacher is the controller, students followed him mechanically without their own personal styles. Many researches have demonstrated that feeling of being in control of events is associated with greater achievement. If students believe that learning is controlled by themselves, they may work hard to achieve success. No two learners will learn the same thing precisely in the same way, therefore, the single strategy given by the teacher is equal to killing the creativeness and independent learning ability of students. As a result, students greatly and gradually depend on teachers instead of themselves.Third, teacher himself loses interest in teaching. Traditional teaching focus on the teaching of vocabulary, grammar points and sentence structure, teacher’s books are full of language points which they are to present, drill and exploit. But they easily and gradually lose enthusiasm because of the mechanism of the teac hing. It’s time for teachers to refresh their view and changing their roles in EFL teaching.Fourth, it couldn’t meet the requirements of the new English Curriculum Standard. With the development of modern educational theory and the reform of traditional teaching model, the teaching instructional ideas and strategies have changed a lot in English language teaching. The English Curriculum Standard for the High School of the Fulltime Compulsory Education, made by the Ministry of Education of People’s Republic of China in 2001, requires that English teacher’s teaching principle, teaching strategy and teaching method should meet the demand of new curriculum. Classroom teaching should reform the old-fashioned and teacher-centered model, in which only book knowled ge is taught in classroom….we should add some tasks to the classroom activities so that the students can have the chance of expressing their ideas. Students should be encouraged to develop the ability to coordinate with others (He Lili, 2006).From these points, we can see that the traditional teacher-centered teaching could not meet the demand of English teaching. TBLT has acted as an important role in English teaching today.3.2 Teacher’s Roles in TBETIn TBE T classes, teacher’s goal is to create atmosphere of learning English, design good tasks and encourage students to communicate in English. Thus, teacher’s role s are determined to be facilitative. To sum up, teacher should act as introducer, activator, organizer, prompter,supporter, evaluator, language instructor, reflector and researcher accordingly at different task stages.3.2.1 Teacher Acts as an Introducer, Activator and Organizer at the Stage of Pre-taskAt first, teacher is an introducer. He should choose a topic based on the text materials and students’ interests. It is in doing this that teachers have the most freedom and most challenge, and the teacher can also exert creativeness in an unlimited way. Before the class, teacher should have a through understanding of the text materials and students’ characteristics.After introducing the topic, teacher has to arise students’ desire to speak and communicate in English. As an activator, he should be good at creating learning atmosphere. Offering topic related words and phrases will help activate s tudents’ mind.Organization is necessary before task-cycle, instructions should be given concisely and clearly so that students know what the task is and how to complete it. Sometimes, a demonstration done by the teacher is necessary.3.2.2 Teacher Acts as a Prompter and Supporter at the Stage of Task-cycleDuring the task, students are busy doing the activity. It doesn’t mean teacher is totally an audience. He should walk around the classroom and watch students’ doing. If some students are not doing the relevant activity, he should warn them. If some students do not know how to start the activity, he should give them some hints, if students complete with a very usual result, he can elicit more by saying “anything else?” “If you…what it will be?”.As a supporter, teacher mainly has two things to do. First, help students set up confidence in communicating in English. It’s difficult for some students to overcome the shyness and the anxious state of mind in speaking English, especially for those who are not good at English. Teacher should always encourage them, such sentences as “Come on, you are great!”“You can do it, I believe you!” can be used. Second, offer help to students when necessary. While facing difficulties, students are encouraged to solve them by themselves. However, sometimes, they need teacher’s help to complete the task, such as the lacking of knowledge, teacher should offer students timely consulting service so that students can make an active study during the task.3.2.3 Teacher Acts as an Evaluator and Language Instructor at the Stage of Language-focusAfter t he activities, it’s time for teachers to evaluate students’ agreements, stu dy strategies, ability, skills, attitude, and emotion and so on. While doing so, teachers had better use relaxed and open descriptive evaluation. They may evaluate by observing, talking, using questions or letting students evaluate themselves. There are many types of evaluation, such as the evaluation of students’ feedback, th e evaluation of students’ behavior in doing activities, the evaluation of mid-term examinations, etc. Teachers can adopt different methods of evaluation according to different types.During the task-cycle, students inevitably have troubles in some language points. At the stage of language-focus, as an language instructor, teacher should give necessary explanation of the language points. Enough meaningful exercises will help students acquire the new points. The aim of doing so is to develop students’ ability of acquiring, analyzing, judging and using English.3.2.4 Teacher Acts as a Reflector and Researcher after TeachingReflection is helpful for teachers to improve their teaching ability. Students’ tasks have ended, but it doesn’t mean teacher’s job has fi nished. What has happened in lessons, what should teacher do next time, the good points in encouraging students, other alternative means of achieving goals are all questions teachers can reflect. The remembrance of the past is the teacher of the future. As a good teacher, he is far from enough just repeating his former teaching experience. Only those who are good at learning from former experience and absorbing from lessons can improve their teaching ability and become experts.Researching will help an inexperienced teacher become a professional one. There are many areas deserving teacher’s researching, such as advanced teaching theory, textbooks, students’ characteristics, the local teaching condition, and their personal styles and so on. After researching, a teacher can get clear what and how he should teach. A famous American headmaster once said that a teacher who can only teach is not a good teacher, but those who can both teach and research can be good teachers, researchers, or educationalists (Huang Shuyun,2004).All in all, in TBET classes, teacher should follow students-centered principle. He should not overcontrol the class. Teacher acts different roles at different stages so that activities can run smoothly and efficiently. At the same time, teacher themselves should be good at reflection and researching.3.3 Reasons and Significance of Changing T eacher’s RolesThere are many researches and theories about teacher’s role s in English language teaching. Although their views are different, one point is sure, that is, it’s necessary to change teacher’s roles. Why should teachers change their roles in English teaching? Generally speaking, there are five reasons:First, the changing of teacher’s role s mainly originated in the development of teaching approach. Compared with the traditional approach, TBET is more scientific and effective. It changes the focus, from teaching perspective to learning perspective, and the meaningful learning process instead of the product is put in the primary place. Besides, the learning units are more attractive and interesting, students are motivated to learn in TBET.Second, reformation of education centered on curriculums has been carried out in the countries all over the world, and the changing of teacher’s role s is one of the content. In china, the new English Curriculum Standard has been carried out, which states tha t English teacher’s teaching principle, teaching strategy and teaching method should meet the demand of new curriculum. Therefore, the changing of English teacher’s role s has become a trend.Third, TBET meets the requirements of learners. Traditionally, learners are busy in remembering words or phrases, finishing exercises and dealing with all kinds of examinations. However, when communicating with foreigners, they couldn’t understand them, let alone communicate with them in English. More and more learners like improving English by communication. TBET offers them opportunities and arises their interests of learning English. They dare to speak and don’t worry about their mistakes. In TBET, they can achieve the aim of learning English, that is, learning is for using.Fourth, TBET can benefit teacher’s development. One important standard of good teachers in traditional teaching is students’ high grades. Therefore, teachers used to explain knowledgemechanically, give standards, correct mistakes and have exams. On one hand, students lose interests in study. On the other hand, teachers themselves lose enthusiasm in teaching, let alone develop their professional qualities.Fifth, the development of multi-media technology based on the internet presents new requirements to teachers. Teachers should develop their qualities and competence to meet the new situation.4.0 Suggestions for Chinese English Teachers4.1 Changing ViewImplementing TBET, English teachers should change their view first. Teachers should make it clear that the traditional teacher-centered English teaching isn’t scientific and effective enough, and it affects the English teaching effect and students’ ability of adapting to the future society. Thus it has become a must to change teacher’s role s. Only by acquiring the basic theory of scientific teaching, trying to create learning situation and opportunities for students and emphasizing the students’ comprehensive ability of using language, Chinese English teaching can adapt to the development of society.4.2 Analyzing and Developing Curriculum ResourcesTask plays an important role in TBET. Good design originates from good combination of curriculum resources and students’interests and need. Therefore, analyzing and developing curriculum resources are very important.Analyzing new curriculum can help teacher have a better understanding of the nature of this curriculum reform, the structure of textbooks and develop a common vocabulary and framework for further collaboration and learning. Developing curriculum resources means creatively utilizing curriculum resources and put students’ interests and need into consideration. Based on the analysis of the curriculum resources, it can be seen that a unit of new English curriculum should be finished in six periods. If every item is taught carefully, the pace of teaching has to be slowed down and it’s not necessary. Certain contents can be omitted to save time; certain contents should be supplemented according to students’attitudes, feelings and teaching strategies. If necessary, the order of the component parts can be changed.。
- 9 -校园英语 / 高等教育研究Process Approach to EFL Writing Teaching青岛恒星科技学院/朱祯【Abstract 】As one of the four basic language skills, writing plays a vital role in our English teaching and learning. Process Approach properly is an effective way of EFL writing teaching in class.This process can help to achieve better results in English teaching and how to develop students ’ writing competence remain an arduous task for English teachers.【Key words 】Process Approach; EFL writing teaching1. IntroductionIn terms of writing approaches to the teaching of English writing, process approach has been generally accepted and applied by English teachers in their classroom teaching of English writing in contrast with the traditional product approach.According to Graham Stanley, the process approach treats all writing as a creative act which requires time and positive feedback to be done well. In process writing, the teacher moves away from being someone who sets students a writing topic and receives the finished product for correction without any intervention in the writing process itself. (Sun and Feng 151)2. Stages of Writing ProcessThe five-step process writing approach described by Donald Graves is presented here(Harmer, Practice 179).Step 1: Prewriting. The goal here is to generate ideas by listing, brainstorming, outlining, silent thinking, or power writing, etc..Step 2: Drafting. Drafting is the writer ’s first attempt to capture ideas on paper. Students write the first draft. Only those drafts that students feel are interesting or of value should be taken to the next step.Step 3: Revising. This is the heart of the writing process. Here the students should look for flow and structure, reread paragraphs and move things around.Step 4: Editing. This is the stage where grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors are corrected.Step 5: Publishing and sharing. This is where students ’ writing is shared with an audience. Writing becomes real and alive at this point.3. Application of the Process Approach to EFL Writing Writing Topic: Write a composition about an interesting experience while on holiday.3.1 PrewritingWhat students do before writing is just as important as what happens during the writing process. (Yin 110)This part should give students the opportunity to collect information before writing by using some prewriting strategies for generating ideas for writing such as discussion and brainstorming.3.2 DraftingStep1: Writing the draft. At this stage, the teacher should give the students a specific time period so that the students can gather their ideas, and then ask them to pick up a pen and write down the outline of the topic.Step2: Getting responses. Getting responses to story drafts makes them become more alive and provides ideas for the revision stage. Responses can come from a teacher or classmates. However, students ’ responding to each other ’s drafts often creates a more powerful writing experience.3.3 RevisingOnce a student has taken a piece to the revision stage, the majority of time should be spent reading, rereading, moving things around, and getting feedback from others. This is where time is spent molding and shaping a piece of writing.3.4 EditingAt the editing stage students fix grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors. A good writer must learn how to evaluate their own language, how to improve through checking their own text, looking for errors. Only in these ways students can become better writers.3.5 SharingStudents can exchange and read each others ’ work and perhaps even write a response or reply. At last, the students can hand in their composition. The teacher is the final reader and will give some comments. What ’s more, the student writers can more easily generate their ideas through cooperative learning such as discussion, which also help them develop the confidence and interest to do some writing. (Wang 86)4. ConclusionWriting is a complicated process, especially for EFL writing. Adopting the Process Approach properly is an effective way of EFL writing teaching in class. It can help students foster the interest of English study and arouse their study motivation. And it can also make the students get closer to perfection by producing, reflecting on, discussing and reworking successive drafts of a text. A teacher is supposed to be familiar with the teaching methods and strategies in order to make the process more efficient, and to devote most of his/her energy to teaching students how to learn, practicing them learning to write by writing instead of some rules or techniques for writing.References:[1]王蔷.英语教师行动研究——从理论到实践[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2002.[2]尹世寅.过程写作在高中英语写作教学中的应用[J].四川师范大学学报(社会科学版),2007,(6):108-112.Copyright©博看网 . All Rights Reserved.。
英语的教学方法有哪些Teaching Methods of English。
Teaching English as a second language can be a challenging task, but with the right methods, it can be an enjoyable and rewarding experience for both teachers and students. There are various teaching methods that can be used to effectively teach English, and each method has its own advantages and disadvantages. In this document, we will explore some of the most commonly used teaching methods for English language instruction.1. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)。
Communicative Language Teaching is an approach to language teaching that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. In a communicative language classroom, students are encouraged to communicate with each other in English, and the focus is on real-life communication rather than on the memorization of grammar rules. This method helps students develop their speaking and listening skills in a natural and meaningful way.2. Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT)。
英语教学法术语1．TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign anguage)英语外语教学2．TESL (Teaching English as a Second Language) 英语二语教学3．CLT (Communicative Language Teaching) 交际语言教学4．ELT (English Language Teaching) 英语教学5．LAD (Language Acquisition Device) 语言获得机制6．TBL (Task-Based Learning) 任务型教学模式7．CLL (Community Language Learning) 团体教学模式8．EPT 英语标准化考试9．外语教学法的主要流派Grammar Translation 语法翻译法Direct Method 直接法Audio Lingual Approach 听说法Audio Visual Approach 视听法A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning 认知法Functional Approach 功能法The Communicative Approach 沟通教学法（交际教学法）Reading Approach 阅读教学法10.评价体系formative assessment 形成性评价summative assessment 终结性评价11.习语言知识的方法Inductive learning 归纳法deductive learning 演绎法12.综合语言应用能力的五个构成要素Language knowledge and communicative functions (语言知识与功能)Language skills 语言技巧Learning strategies 学习策略Cultural awareness 文化意识Positive attitude to learning 情感petence 能力the communicative competence 交际能力the language competence 语言能力the use of the language competence 语言运用能力nguage faculty 语言才能15.testing 英语测试diagnostic test 诊断性测试periodical achievement test 阶段测试proficiency test 水平测试16.ppp(3p)模式：呈现presentation 练习practice 运用production17.语言科学普通语言学general linguistics神经语言学neurolinguistics社会心理学sociolinguistics心理语言学psycholinguistics应用语言学applied linguistics语用学pragmatics (pragmatic linguistics) 实用语言18．外语教学的研究方法observation method (观察法)survey method （调查法）experimental method 实验法analytical method 分析法data study 文献研究法19．动机instrumental motivation 工具性动机integrative motivation 融合性动机20．Theory of trial and error 尝试错误学说theory of classical conditioning 经典的条件反射学说Twinkle, twinkle, little starTwinkle, twinkle, little star, 一闪一闪小星星，How I wonder what you are. 我多想知道你是什么呀！Up above the world so high, 高高挂在天空上，Like a diamond in the sky, 好像钻石在天上，Twinkle, twinkle, little star, 一闪一闪小星星，How I wonder what you are. 我多想知道你是什么呀！Twinkle, twinkle, little star,How I wonder what you are.Up above the world so high,Like a diamond in the sky.Twinkle, twinkle, little star,How I wonder what you are!Twinkle, twinkle, little star,How I wonder what you are!Then the traveler in the darkThanks you for your tiny sparkHe could not see which way to go,If you did not twinkle so.Twinkle, twinkle, little star,How I wonder what you are!WelcomeTo Download!!!欢迎您的下载，资料仅供参考！。
英语教学方法有哪些There are several English teaching methods that can be utilized to enhance students' learning experiences. Here are some popular methods:1. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT): This method emphasizes the importance of real-life communication and encourages students to actively participate in class discussions, role-plays, and group activities. It focuses on developing students' speaking, listening, reading, and writing skills.2. Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT): In this approach, students are given meaningful tasks to complete, which require them to use the English language. By working on these tasks, students are able to practice and refine their language skills while also achieving specific goals.3. Audio-Lingual Method (ALM): This method places emphasis on repetition and drills to develop students' listening and speaking skills. It often involves the use of audio recordings and dialogues to familiarize students with authentic language patterns.4. Content-based Instruction (CBI): With CBI, language is taught in the context of a specific subject or content area. Students learn English while also gaining knowledge in other subjects, such as science, history, or literature.5. Direct Method: This method emphasizes learning through immersion, where the language is taught using only English. Grammar rules are not explicitly taught, and students learn throughcontext and real-life situations.6. Grammar-Translation Method: Traditionally used to teach classical languages, this method focuses on translation and memorization of vocabulary and grammar rules. However, it is less commonly used in modern language teaching.7. Total Physical Response (TPR): This method utilizes physical movement and actions to reinforce language learning. Students respond to verbal commands and engage in physical activities that correspond to the language being taught.8. Suggestopedia: Developed by Bulgarian educator Georgi Lozanov, this method aims to create a relaxed and positive learning environment by using music, relaxation techniques, and visual aids. It emphasizes the role of the subconscious mind in language acquisition.It is important for teachers to determine which method or combination of methods suits their students' needs and learning styles. Flexibility and adaptation are key to effective language teaching.。
EFL/ESL Teaching MethodologiesMost influential EFL teaching methodologies:1.The grammar- translation method2.The audio-lingual method3.The Direct method4.Cognitive code-learning5.The Natural approach6.Behavioristic approach to language teaching7.The functional-notional approach8.Task- based approaches9.The communicative approachSome fringe methodologies1.The silent way2.SuggestopediaNew tendencies in language teaching1.Cognitive-constructivist approach to language learning2.Content and language Integrated Learning3.Learn-centredness4.Cooperative learning5.Integration of culture in language learningnguage teaching onlineThe Introduction to EFL/ESL Teaching MethodologiesThe Grammar- Translation ApproachThe grammar-translation method of foreign language teaching is one of the most traditional methods, dating back to the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It was originally used to teach 'dead' languages (and literatures) such as Latin and Greek.The major characteristic of the grammar-translation method is, precisely as its name suggests, a focus on learning the rules of grammar and their application in translation passages from one language into the other. V ocabulary in the target language is learned through direct translation from the native language, e.g. with vocabulary tests such as:1.school = 学校teacher = 老师Very little teaching is done in the target language. Instead, readings in the target language are translated directly and then discussed in the native language, often precipitating in-depth comparisons of the two languages themselves. Grammar is taught with extensive explanations in the native language, and only later applied in the production of sentences through translation from one language to the other, e.g.How many kites are there in the sky? = 天空中有多少只风筝？天空中有三只风筝。
= There are three kites in the sky.A class working with the Grammar translation method would like that:2.Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language.3.Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.4.Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.5.Grammar provides the rule for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on theform and inflection of word.6.Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early7.Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammaticalanalysis.以上内容可以参考：Grammar-Translation MethodThere are certain types of positive responses to Grammar Translation as grammatical syllabus gives leaner a set of clear objectives and a clear sense of achievement. Moreover, some learners need the security of the mother tongue and the opportunity to relate grammatical structures to mother tongue equivalents. Above all, this approach can give learners a basic foundation upon which they can build their communicative skills.It all sounds rather dull but it can be argued that the Grammar Translation method has over the years had a remarkable success. Millions of people have successfully leant foreign language to a high degree of proficiency and, in numerous cases, without any contact whatsoever with native speakers of the language (as was the case in the former Soviet Union for example)The Audiolingual Method (1950s)The Audiolingual Method is also referred to as "The Army Method," because it was developed through a U.S. Army program called ASTP, standing for "Army Specialized Training Program." In this method, oral interaction was emphasized in pattern drills, and conversation practices.The Audiolingual Method:1. New material is presented in dialogue form.2. There is dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases, and overlearning.3. Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis taught one at a time.4. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills.5. There is little or no grammatical explanation. Grammar is taught by inductiveanalogy rather than deductive explanation.6. Vocabulary is strictly limited to pronunciation.7. There is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids.8. Great importance is attached to pronunciation.9. Success responses are immediately reinforced.10. Very little use of the mother tongue by teacher is permitted11. There is great effort to get the students to produce error free utterances.12. There is a tendency to manipulate language and disregard content.Hints for using audio-lingual drills in L2 teaching1.The teacher must be careful to insure that all of the utterances which students will makeare actually within the practiced pattern. For example, the use of the AUX verb have should not suddenly switch to have as a main verb.2.Drills should be conducted as rapidly as possible so as to insure automaticity and toestablish a system.3.Ignore all but gross errors of pronunciation when drilling for grammar practice.e of shortcuts to keep the pace of drills at a maximum. Use hand motions, signal cards,notes, etc. to cue response.e normal English stress, intonation, and juncture patterns conscientiously.6.Drill material should always be meaningful. If the content words are not known, teachtheir meanings.7.Intersperse short periods of drill (about 10 mins) with very brief alternative activities toavoid fatigue and boredom.8.Introduce the drill in this way:a.Focus (by writing on the board, for example)b.Exemplify (by speaking model sentences)c.Explain (if a simple grammatical explanation is needed)d. Drill9.Don‟t stand in one place; move about the room standing next to as many differentstudents as possible to spot check their production. Thus you will know who to give more practice to during individual drilling.e the “backward buildup” technique for long and/or difficult patterns.-tomorrow-in the cafeteria tomorrow-will be eating in the cafeteria tomorrow-Those boys will be eating in the cafeteria tomorrow.11.Arrange to present drills in the order of increasing complexity of student responses. Thequestion is: How much internal organization or decision making must the student do in order to make a response in the drill. Thus, imitation first, single-slot substitution next, then free response last.Although this approach in its purest form has many weaknesses, (notably the difficulty of transferring learnt patterns to real communication), most teachers will at some point require learners to repeat examples of grammatical structures in context with a number of aims in mind: stress, rhythm, intonation, consolidating the structure, enabling learners to use the structure accurately through repetition.Communicative ApproachThe approach emerged in the 1970s and 1980s as the emphasis switched from the mechanical practice of language patterns, associated with the audio-lingual method to activities that engaged the learner in more meaningful and authentic language use.CLT suggests communicative language and language acquisition, and the approach way for learners to internalize a second language, and to experiment in a classroom context. Therefore, the classroom context is used to create activities to teach students how to react in a real world situation, not to fake real-world situation.It‟s basic features are:1.An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language.2.The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation ( authentic material is a must,because students cannot extrapolate to the real world from their learning on made-up material) 3.The provision of opportunities for learners to focus not only on language, but also on thelearning process itself.4.An enhancement of the learner‟s own personal experience as important contributing elementsto classroom learning.5.An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside theclassroom.This type of approach tended to give the impression of a syllabus without direction and a sense of commun ication for communication‟s sake, “groups, groups, groups, why do we have to talk all the time to my fellow students. I can do this in the coffee-bar!”The criticism is obsession about reducing teacher talking time to a minimum and maximizing the opportunities for communication.However, the most valuable feature of this approach will be that it has allowed teachers to incorporate motivating and purposeful communicative activities and principles into their teaching while simultaneously retaining the best elements of other methods and approaches rather than rejecting them wholesale.Example: presenting tense of the verb …to be‟ will have been replaced by a more communicative focus, with basic introductions, requests and questions enabling learners to begin communicatingin English from the very first lesson.The Silent Way ( one of the fringe teaching methodologies)Tell me and I forgetTeach me and I rememberInvolve me and I learn(Benjamin Flanklin)This quotation is about teaching and learning, which is actually the heart of silent way. Silent Way originated in the early 1970s. The three elements of the approach are that learning is facilitated if the learner discovers rather than remembers or repeats, that learning is aided by physical objects, and that problem-solving is central to learning. The use of the word “silent”is also significant. Because it suggests that teacher should be as silent as possible in the classroom in order to encourage the learner to produce as much language as possible.This method begins by using a set of colored rods and verbal commands. And it adopts a highly structural approach. This is perhaps best illustrated by an example.The teacher has introduced the idea of pronouns as in “Give me a green rod.” The class will then use this structure until it is clearly assimilated, using, in addition, all the other colors.One member of the class would now like to ask another to pass a rod to a third student but she does not know the word “her”, only that it cannot be “me”. At this point the teacher would intervene and supply the new item is needed (probably “him”).The apparent lack of real communication in the approach has been criticized with some arguing that it is difficult to take the approach beyond the very basic of the language, with only highly motivated learners being able to generate real communication from the rigid structures illustrated by the rods. It is limited to relatively small groups of learners is also seen as a weakness.However, in the 1980s and early 90s, it became fashionable in some quarters to argue that excessive “ teacher talking time” was something to be discouraged, but rods are popular with some teachers and can be used extremely creatively for various purposes from teaching.Additionally, the problem-solving feature of Silent Way may well proved to be its most useful in language classroom.Total Physical Response ( one of the new tendencies in language teaching)James J. Asher, Learning Another Language Through Actions. San Jose, California: AccuPrint, 1979.James J. Asher defines the Total Physical Response (TPR) method as one of that combinesinformation and skills through the use of the kinesthetic sensory system. This combination of skills allows the student to assimilate information and skills at a rapid rate. As a result, this success leads to a high degree of motivation. The basic tenets are:Understanding the spoken language before developing the skills of speaking. Imperatives are the main structures to transfer or communicate information. The student is not forced to speak, but is allowed an individual readiness period and allowed to spontaneously begin to speak when the student feels comfortable and confident in understanding and producing the utterances.This can be illustrated in a unique “conversation” between the parent and infant. For example, the first conversation is a parent saying, “Look at daddy. Look at daddy.” The infant‟s face turns in the direction of the voice and daddy exclaims, “She‟s looking at me! She is looking at me!” Dr. Asher calls this “a language-body conversation” because the parent speaks and the infant answers with a physical response such as looking, smiling, laughing, turning, walking, reaching, and so forth. Although the infant is not yet speaking, the child is imprinting the linguistic map of how the language works. Silently, the child is internalizing the patterns and sounds of the target language. When the child has decode enough of the target language, speaking appears spontaneously.TPR has its three strong features:1. High-speed understanding of any target language2. Long-term retention, and3. Zero stressMoreover, it is successful with both children and adults learning any language. And it is enjoyable for teachers as well as students.TechniqueStep 1: The teacher says the commands as he himself performs the action.Step 2: The teacher says the command as both the teacher and the students then perform the action.Step 3: The teacher says the command but only students perform the action.Step 4: The teacher tells one student at a time to do commands.Step 5: The roles of teacher and student are reversed. Students give commands to teacher and to other students.Step 6: The teacher and student allow for command expansion or produces new sentences.Example: teaching single commands of stand, sit, walk, turn and so forth.Instructor (I) will invite a student to sit on either side and listen carefully to what the instructor will utter in target language without translation and do exactly what they see the I.Doing. ( students are to be silent and not attempt to pronounce any of the utterance they will be hearing.)The I. Are, “relax, be comfortable. Listen and watch what I do and do exactly the same thing.I will not ask you to pronounce any of the utterances you will be hearing.”The I. Says in the target lang. “stand”. And stands up motioning for the students sitting on either side to rise. Then, “sit” and the I. With the students sits down…. Several times…The I. Invites individual students to perform alone in response to the commands. In a purpose to demonstrate to each of the students that they have indeed internalized the utterances and understand them perfectly.The general historical view of Grammar-translation approachThis approach was historically used in learning Greek and Latin. The approach was generalized to teaching modern languages.At the height of the Communicative Approach to language learning in the 1980s and early 1990s it became fashionable. There were numerous reasons for this but principally it was felt that translation itself was an academic exercise rather than one which would actually help learners to use language, and an overt focus on grammar was to learn about the target language rather than to learn it.- A brief introduction of Grammar-translation approachClasses are taught in the students‟ mother tongue, with little active use of the target language.V ocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists. Elaborate explanations of grammar are always provided.Grammar instruction provides the rules for putting words together; instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words. Reading of difficult texts is begun early in the course of study. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as experiences in grammatical analysis. Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentencesfrom the target language into the mother tongue, and vice versa. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.As with mangy other methods and approaches, Grammar Translation tended to be referred to in the past tense as if it no longer existed and had died out to be replaced world-wide by the fun and motivation of the communicative classroom. If we examine the principle features of Grammar Translation, however, we will see that not only has it not disappeared but that many of its characteristics have been central to language teaching throughout the age and still valid today.The Grammar Translation method embraces a wide range of approaches but, broadly speaking, foreign language study is seen as a mental discipline, the goal of which may be to read literature in its original form or simply to be a form of intellectual development. The basic approach is to analyze and study the grammatical rules of the language, usually in an order roughly matching the traditional order of the grammar of Latin, and then to practice manipulating grammatical structures through the means of translation both into and from the mother tongue.The method is very much based on the written word and text are widely in evidence. A typical approach would be to present the rules of a particular item of grammar, illustrate its use by including the item several times in a text, and practice using the item throughout writing sentences and translating it into the mother tongue. The text is often accompanied by a vocabulary list of consisting of new lexical items used in the text together with the mother tongue translation. Accurate use of language items is central to this approach.Generally speaking, the medium of instruction is the mother tongue, which is used to explain conceptual problems and to discuss the use of a particular grammatical structure. It all sounds rather dull but it can be argued that the Grammar Translation method has over the years had a remarkable success. Millions of people have successfully leant foreign language to a high degree of proficiency and, in numerous cases, without any contact whatsoever with native speakers of the language (as was the case in the former Soviet Union for example)There are certain types of positive responses to Grammar Translation as grammatical syllabus gives leaner a set of clear objectives and a clear sense of achievement. Moreover, some learners need the security of the mother tongue and the opportunity to relate grammatical structures to mother tongue equivalents. Above all, this approach can give learners a basic foundation upon which they can build their communicative skills.However, a quick look at foreign language course books from the 1950s and 1960s revealed that If we apply wholesome of Grammar Translation teaching method, it can be boring. Using the more enlightened principles of the Communicative Approach and combining these with the systematic approach of Grammar Translation may be the perfect combination for many learners.The Direct Approach-The general historical view of Direct ApproachThis approach was developed initially as a reaction to the grammar-translation approach in an attempt to integrate more of the target language in instruction.Direct Approach was held that second language learning should model first language learning in that it should be learned …directly‟, grammar is taught inductively with no explanations, the learner‟s first language is not used in the class, and new vocabulary is introduced by demonstration. This method came about as a much needed replacement for the grammar- translation method in the late 1800s. It faded in the early 1900s as it was not practical in classroom settings, and then saw a comeback under the name of the audio-lingual method after World War II.-Audio-lingual method is based on the principle of behaviour psychology. It adapted many of the principles and procedures of the Direct Method.Audiolingualism was in vogue in the 1960s but died out in the 70s after Chomsky‟s famous attack on behaviourism in language learning.This approach has its roots in the USA during World War II, when there was a pressing need to train key personnel quickly and effectively in foreign language skills. The results of the Army Specialized Training Program are generally regarded to have been very successful, with the caveat that the learners were in small groups and were highly motivated, which undoubtedly contributed to the success of the approach.In the typical language learning classroom, we often ask students to repeat phrases or whole sentences, drill the pronunciation and intonation consciously or unconsciously. In fact, we are using techniques that are features of the audiolingual approach.New material is presented in the form of a dialogue. Based on the principle that language leaning is habit formation, the method fosters dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over-learning. Structures are sequenced and taught one at a time. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills. Little or no grammatical explanations are provided;grammar is taught inductively. Skills are sequenced: Listening, speaking, reading and writing are developed in order. V ocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context. Teaching points are determined by contrastive analysis between L1 and L2. There is abundant use of language laboratories, tapes and visual aids. There is an extended pre-reading period at the beginning of the course. Great importance is given to precise native-like pronunciation. Use of the mother tongue by the teacher is permitted, but discouraged among and by the students. Successfulresponses are reinforced; great care is taken to prevent leaner errors. There is a tendency to focus on manipulation of the target language and to disregard content and meaning.The approach was theoretically underpinned by structural linguistics, a movement in linguistics that focused on the phonemic, morphological and syntactic systems underlying the grammar of a given language, rather than according to traditional categories of Latin grammar. As such, it was held that learning a language involved mastering the building blocks of the language and of sound to the level of sentence. The audiolingual approach was also based on the behaviourist theory of learning, which held that language, like other aspects of human activity, is a form of behaviour.In the behaviourist view, language is elicited by a stimulus and that stimulus then triggers a response. The response in turn then produces some kind of reinforement, which, if positive, encourages the repetition of the response in the future or, if negative, its suppression. When transposed to the classroom, this gives us the classic pattern drill-Model: She went to the cinema yesterday. Stimulus; Theatre. Response: She went to the theatre yesterday. Reinforcement: Good! In its purest form audiolingualism aims to promote mechanical habit-formation through repetition of basic patterns. Accurate manipulation of structure leads to eventual fluency. Spoken language comes before written language. Dialogues and drills are central to the approach. Accurate pronunciation and control of structure are paramount.In the behaviourist view, language is elicited by a stimulus and that stimulus then triggers a response. The response in turn then produces some kind of reinforcement, which, if positive, encourage the repetition of the response in the future or, if negative, its suppression. For instance, …She went to the cinema yesterday. Stimulus, theatre, she went to the theatre yesterday. Reinforcement: good!, In its purest form audio-lingualism aims to promote mechanical habit- formation through repetition of basic patterns. Accurate manipulation of structure leads to eventual fluency. Spoken language comes before written language. Dialogue and drill are central to the approach. Accurate pronunciation and control of structure are paramount.。
