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托福阅读curve摘要：I.托福阅读介绍A.托福考试背景B.托福阅读的重要性II.托福阅读curve 介绍A.什么是托福阅读curveB.托福阅读curve 的作用C.如何应对托福阅读curveIII.托福阅读curve 应对策略A.了解评分标准B.提高阅读速度C.增强阅读理解能力D.练习做题技巧IV.总结A.托福阅读curve 的重要性B.提高托福阅读成绩的方法正文：托福考试（Test of English as a Foreign Language, TOEFL）是评估非英语母语者在学术环境中使用英语的能力的重要考试。
其中，托福阅读部分对于整体成绩有着重要影响。
为了确保考试的公平性和准确性，托福阅读采用了curve 评分制度。
本文将详细介绍托福阅读curve 以及应对策略。
首先，我们需要了解什么是托福阅读curve。
托福阅读curve 是一种评分制度，用于确保所有考生的阅读成绩分布在一定范围内。
根据官方指南，托福阅读成绩的curve 范围在20-30 分之间。
这意味着，如果考生的成绩在这个范围内，那么他们的成绩将被认为是有效的。
那么，托福阅读curve 的作用是什么呢？它的主要目的是确保评分标准的一致性和公平性。
通过curve 制度，评分员可以对考生的成绩进行一定程度的调整，使得不同考试日期的成绩具有可比性。
这样，考生就不需要担心因为考试难度不同而导致的成绩波动。
了解了托福阅读curve 的基本概念后，我们应该如何应对这一制度呢？以下是一些建议：1.了解评分标准：为了更好地应对托福阅读curve，考生应该对评分标准有所了解。
这可以帮助考生在答题过程中更加注意细节，从而提高成绩。
2.提高阅读速度：托福阅读考试的时间有限，因此提高阅读速度是关键。
考生可以通过大量练习来提高阅读速度，从而在有限的时间内完成更多题目。
3.增强阅读理解能力：提高阅读速度的同时，考生还需要增强阅读理解能力。
这可以通过学习托福阅读技巧以及扩大词汇量来实现。
Orientation and NavigationTo South Americans, robins are birds that fly north every spring. To North Americans, the robins simply vacation in the south each winter. Furthermore, they fly to very specific places in South America and will often come back to the same trees in North American yards the following spring. The question is not why they would leave the cold of winter so much as how they find their way around. The question perplexed people for years, until, in the 1950s, a German scientist named Gustave Kramer provided some answers and, in the process, raised new questions.Kramer initiated important new kinds of research regarding how animals orient and navigate. Orientation is simply facing in the right direction; navigation involves finding ones way from point A to point B.Early in his research, Kramer found that caged migratory birds became very restless at about the time they would normally have begun migration in the wild. Furthermore, he noticed that as they fluttered around in the cage, they often launched themselves in the direction of their normal migratory route. He then set up experiments with caged starlings and found that their orientation was, in fact, in the proper migratory direction except when the sky was overcast, at which times there was no clear direction to their restless movements. Kramer surmised, therefore, that they were orienting according to the position of the Sun. To test this idea, he blocked their view of the Sun and used mirrors to change its apparent position. He found that under these circumstances, the birds oriented with respect to the new "Sun." They seemed to be using the Sun as a compass to determine direction. At the time, this idea seemed preposterous. How could a bird navigate by the Sun when some of us lose our way with road maps? Obviously, more testing was in order.So, in another set of experiments, Kramer put identical food boxes around the cage, with food in only one of the boxes. The boxes were stationary, and the one containing food was always at the same point of the compass. However, its position with respect to the surroundings could be changed by revolving either the inner cage containing the birds or the outer walls, which served as the background. As long as the birds could see the Sun, no matter how their surroundings were altered, they went directly to the correct food box. Whether the box appeared in front of the right wall or the left wall, they showed no signs of confusion. On overcast days, however, the birds were disoriented and had trouble locating their food box.In experimenting with artificial suns, Kramer made another interesting discovery. If the artificial Sun remained stationary, the birds would shift their direction with respect to it at a rate of about 15 degrees per hour, the Sun's rate of movement across the sky. Apparently, the birds were assuming that the "Sun" they saw was moving at that rate. When the real Sun was visible, however, the birds maintained a constant direction as it moved across the sky. In other words, they were able to compensate for the Sun's movement. This meant that some sort of biological clock was operating-and a very precise clock at that.What about birds that migrate at night? Perhaps they navigate by the night sky. To test the idea, cagednight-migrating birds were placed on the floor of a planetarium during their migratory period. A planetarium is essentially a theater with a domelike ceiling onto which a night sky can be projected for any night of the year. When the planetarium sky matched the sky outside, the birds fluttered in the direction of their normal migration. But when the dome was rotated, the birds changed their direction to match the artificial sky. The results clearly indicated that the birds were orienting according to the stars.There is accumulating evidence indicating that birds navigate by using a wide variety of environmental cues. Other areas under investigation include magnetism, landmarks, coastlines, sonar, and even smells. The studies are complicated by the fact that the data are sometimes contradictory and the mechanisms apparently change from time to time. Furthermore, one sensory ability may back up another.Paragraph 1: To South Americans, robins are birds that fly north every spring. To North Americans, the robins simply vacation in the south each winter. Furthermore, they fly to very specific places in South America and will often come back to the same trees in North American yards the following spring. The question is not why they would leave the cold of winter so much as how they find their way around. Thepeople for years, until, in the 1950s, a German scientist named Gustave Kramer provided some answers and, in the process, raised new questions.1. Which of the following can be inferred about bird migration from paragraph 1?○ Birds will take the most direct migratory route to their new habitat.○ The purpose of migration is to join with larger groups of birds.○ Bird migration generally involves moving back and forth between north and south.○ The destination of birds' migration can change from year to year.2. The in the passage is closest in meaning to○ defeated○ interested○ puzzled○ occupiedParagraph 3: Early in his research, Kramer found that caged migratory birds became very restless at about the time they would normally have begun migration in the wild. Furthermore, he noticed that as theythe position of the Sun. To test this idea, he blocked their view of the Sun and used mirrors to change its apparent position. He found that under these circumstances, the birds oriented with respect to the new "Sun." They seemed to be using the Sun as a compass to determine direction. At the time, this idea seemedHow could a bird navigate by the Sun when some of us lose our way with road maps?Obviously, more testing was in order.3. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in thethe passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.○ Experiments revealed that caged starlings displayed a lack of directional sense and restlessmovements.○ Experiments revealed that caged starlings were unable to orient themselves in the direction of their normal migratory route.○ Experiments revealed that the restless movement of caged starlings had no clear direction.○ Experiments revealed that caged starlings' orientation was accurate unless the weather was overcast.4. The word in the passage is closest in meaning to○ unbelievable○ inadequate○ limited○ creative5. According to paragraph 3, why did Kramer use mirrors to change the apparent position of the Sun?○ To test the effect of light on the birds' restlessness○ To test whether birds were using the Sun to navigate○ To simulate the shifting of light the birds would encounter along their regular migratory route○ To cause the birds to migrate at a different time than they would in the wild6. According to paragraph 3, when do caged starlings become restless?○ When the weather is overcast○ When they are unable to identify their normal migratory route○ When their normal time for migration arrives○ When mirrors are used to change the apparent position of the SunParagraph 4: So, in another set of experiments, Kramer put identical food boxes around the cage, with food in only one of the boxes. The boxes were stationary, and the one containing food was always at the same point of the compass. However, its position with respect to the surroundings could be changed by revolving either the inner cage containing the birds or the outer walls, which served as the background. As long as the birds could see the Sun, no matter how their surroundings were altered, they went directly to the correct food box. Whether the box appeared in front of the right wall or the left wall, they showed no signs of confusion. On overcast days, however, the birds were disoriented and had trouble locating their food box.7. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 4 about Kramer s reason for filling one food box and leaving the rest empty?○ He believed the birds would eat food from only one box.○ He wanted to see whether the Sun alone controlled the birds' ability to navigate toward the box with food.○ He thought that if all the boxes contained food, this would distract the birds from following their migratory route.○ He needed to test whether the birds preferred having the food at any particular point of the compass.Paragraph 5: In experimenting with artificial suns, Kramer made another interesting discovery. If the artificial Sun remained stationary, the birds would shift their direction with respect to it at a rate of about 15 degrees per hour, the Sun's rate of movement across the sky. Apparently, the birds were assuming that the "Sun" they saw was moving at that rate. When the real Sun was visible, however, the birds maintained a constant direction as it moved across the sky. In other words, they were able to compensate for the Sun's movement. This meant that some sort of biological clock was operating-and a very precise clock at that.8. According to paragraph 5, how did the birds fly when the real Sun was visible?○ They kept the direction of their flight constant.○ They changed the direction of their flight at a rate of 15 degrees per hour.○ They kept flying toward the Sun.○ They flew in the same direction as the birds that were seeing the artificial Sun.9. The experiment described in paragraph 5 caused Kramer to conclude that birds possess a biological clock because○ when birds navigate they are able to compensate for the changing position of the Sun in the sky ○ birds innate bearings keep them oriented in a direction that is within 15 degrees of the Suns direction○ birds' migration is triggered by natural environmental cues, such as the position of the Sun○ birds shift their direction at a rate of 15 degrees per hour whether the Sun is visible or notParagraph 6: What about birds that migrate at night? Perhaps they navigate by the night sky. To test the idea, caged night-migrating birds were placed on the floor of a planetarium during their migratory period. A planetarium is essentially a theater with a domelike ceiling onto which a night sky can be projected for any night of the year. When the planetarium sky matched the sky outside, the birds fluttered in the direction of their normal migration. But when the dome was rotated, the birds changed their direction to match the artificial sky. The results clearly indicated that the birds were orienting according to the stars.10. According to paragraph 6, how did the birds navigate in the planetarium's nighttime environment?○ By waiting for the dome to stop rotating○ By their position on the planetarium floor○ By orienting themselves to the stars in the artificial night sky○ By navigating randomly until they found the correct orientation11. Which of the following best describes the author's presentation of information in the passage?○ A number of experiments are described to support the idea that birds use the Sun and the night sky to navigate.○ The author uses logic to show that the biological clock in birds is inaccurate.○ A structured argument about the importance of internal versus external cues for navigation is presented.○ The opposing points of view about bird migration are clarified through the study of contrasting experiments.environmental cues. Other areas under investigation include magnetism, landmarks, coastlines, sonar, and even smells. The studies are complicated by the fact that the data are sometimes contradictory and the mechanisms apparently change from time to time. Furthermore, one sensory ability may back up another.12. in the passage is closest in meaning to○ new○ increasing○ convincing○ extensiveParagraph 4: So, in another set of experiments, Kramer put identical food boxes around the cage, with food in only one of the boxes. ■The boxes were stationary, and the one containing food was always at the same point of the compass. ■However, its position with respect to the surroundings could be changed by revolving either the inner cage containing the birds or the outer walls, which served as the background. ■As long as the birds could see the Sun, no matter how their surroundings were altered, they went directly to the correct food box. ■Whether the box appeared in front of the right wall or the left wall, they showed no signs of confusion. On overcast days, however, the birds were disoriented and had trouble locating their food box.13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.He arranged the feed boxes at various positions on a compass.Where would the sentence best fit?14.Directions:An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.Gustave Kramer conducted important research related to the ability of birds to orient and navigate.●●●Answer Choices○ Because caged birds become disoriented when the sky is overcast, Kramer hypothesized that birds orient themselves according to the Sun's position.○ In one set of experiments, Kramer placed the box containing food at the same point of the compass each time he put food boxes in the birds’ environment.○ Kramer demonstrated that an internal biological clock allows starlings to compensate for the Sun's movement.○ After several studies, Kramer surmised that an internal biological clock allows some species of birds to navigate at night.○ The role of environmental cues in birds' navigation is clear, for on overcast days, birds use objects besides the Sun to orient themselves.○ Kramer showed that night-migrating birds use the sky to navigate by the stars.参考答案：1. ○32. ○33. ○44. ○15. ○26. ○37. ○28.○19. ○110. ○311. ○112. ○213. ○114. Because caged birds…Kramer demonstrated that…Kramer showed that...。
托福阅读curve【最新版】目录1.托福阅读简介2.托福阅读的评分标准3.托福阅读的曲线图4.如何应对托福阅读正文1.托福阅读简介托福（Test of English as a Foreign Language）考试是全球范围内最为广泛接受的英语能力测试之一。
在托福考试中，阅读理解部分占据了相当大的比重，其主要目的是测试考生在学术环境中使用英语进行阅读和理解的能力。
2.托福阅读的评分标准托福阅读的评分采用一种名为“曲线图”（Curve）的方法。
曲线图是将考生的阅读成绩与一定数量的样本阅读成绩进行对比，从而得出的一个相对分数。
这个相对分数会被转换为 0-30 分的实际得分，其中 30 分为满分。
3.托福阅读的曲线图托福阅读曲线图的具体形态并不会公开，其目的是为了保证评分的公正性和准确性。
然而，根据考生的实际经验和一些教育机构的研究，我们可以大致了解到，托福阅读曲线图的形状类似于一个钟型，即两头低，中间高。
这意味着大部分考生的阅读成绩会集中在中等水平，而极端高分和低分相对较少。
4.如何应对托福阅读面对托福阅读，考生应该具备以下几方面的能力：（1）学术词汇量：托福阅读的文章多涉及学术领域，因此考生需要掌握一定数量的学术词汇，以便更好地理解文章内容。
（2）快速阅读能力：托福阅读的文章篇幅较长，考生需要在有限的时间内完成阅读和答题。
因此，具备快速阅读能力至关重要。
（3）逻辑分析能力：托福阅读的文章通常结构严谨，考生需要善于捕捉文章的主旨和细节，进行逻辑分析，从而正确回答问题。
（4）练习技巧：考生需要通过大量的练习来熟悉托福阅读的题型和解题技巧，提高答题速度和准确率。
托福阅读paraphrase题型解题思路技巧实例分析通用4篇托福考试阅读长难句解析篇一Their competition and collaboration werecreating the broadcasting industry in the United States, beginning with theintroduction of commercial radio programming in the early 1920s.记忆单词：competition n.比赛competitor n.参赛者competent adj.有能力的competence n.能力collaboration n.合作collaborate v.合作commercial adj.商业的commodity n.商品理解句子：此句结构清晰，划线部分为分词作状语。
托福阅读paraphrase题型解题思路技巧实例分析篇二托福阅读中的paraphrase问题如何应对？在托福阅读中，还有一类题型经常出现，那就是paraphrase。
这类问题需要大家在给出的选项选择与文章中的长难句意义相近的一句话。
这类问题还是有一定难度的，因为选项中存在一些干扰项。
那么这类问题有哪些解题技巧呢？Strategies to answer this question：1、划分句子主谓宾，充分理解句子意思；2、将句子大意用自己的话复述一遍，简化句子成分；3、看问题选项中有没有跟刚复述的句子意义相似的句子；4、选出正确答案后，看一下其他错误选项。
这些错误选项有的意思跟原文不同，有的漏掉了原文中的重要内容。
找出这些错误，确保万无一失。
Example:大家先来看一个例子：Rather than sell the painting, which is most likely worthmillions of dollars, the Jesuits decided to make it available to the nation of Ireland for viewing. Thus, the painting is on “indefinite loan” to the National Gallery of Ireland. Nevertheless, the painting continues its travels as it features in exhibitions around the world, from the United States to Amsterdam.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence?a. The National Gallery of Ireland now owns the painting.b. The National Gallery of Ireland bought the painting from the Jesuits.c. The National Gallery of Ireland can display the painting, but the Jesuits still own it.d. The National Gallery of Ireland can display the painting as long as they allow it to travel.想要回答正确，就要准确理解文中indefinite loan的意思。
托福阅读考试题目解释说明（5篇）托福阅读考试题目解释说明第3篇Wearing masks and costumes, they often impersonated other people, animals, or supernatural beings, and mined the desired effect success in hunt or battle, the coming rain, the revival of the Sun – as an actor戴着面具身着盛装的人们，经常扮演各种其他人物、动物或超自然生灵，并且作为一个扮演者所能做的，就是期盼一个在狩猎或战役中获胜、降雨的来临，阳光的重现的结果。
托福阅读考试题目解释说明第4篇though we are to speaking of the films made before 1972 as “silent”, the film has never been, in the full sense of the word,虽然我们习惯于谈到1972年以前的电影是无声的，但用一句完全感性的话来说电影从来就不是没有声音的。
托福阅读考试题目解释说明第5篇1、托福阅读考试内容详细介绍：阅读3篇文章750个单词本部分包括3篇文章，每篇文章650至750个单词，对应11至13道试题。
题目类型包括：图表题、篇章总结题(从给出的选项中选择能够概括文章内容的句子)、变换措辞、词汇题(在一定的上下文中)、指代关系题、简化句子题、插入文本题，事实信息题、推断题、修辞目的题、以及否定排除题(例如，下列各项均正确除……之外。
)在完成33-39个试题的过程中，考生可以使用"复查"功能瞬间找出没有回答的题目，而不必每道题都过一遍。
除了篇章应用题之外，每道题的分值都是1分，应用题每题的分值可能是2分，3分，或4分。
阅读部分的时间约为60分钟。
托福阅读4大类文章主要结构实例分析托福阅读4大类文章主要结构实例分析, 提速从了解结构开始。
今日我给大家带来了托福阅读4大类文章主要结构实例分析，希望能够关怀到大家，下面我就和大家共享，来欣赏一下吧。
托福阅读4大类文章主要结构实例分析提速从了解结构开始1、Problem/Solution(问题与解决方法)Problem/Solution解决方法类文章指的是文章一开头就抛出一个问题，而主题内容是在就这个问题进行探讨给出答案。
此类文章最明显的特征就是在开头段背景引入部分会引入问题，然后下面给出几种可能的解释。
例如TPO17《Europes Early Sea Trade with Asia》这篇文章，开头段讲东西方人都想要彼此进行贸易，但是苦于陆上交通被阻隔掉了，因此需要海上贸易，可是又存在一系列的问题。
接着文章就具体描述存在的问题以及是如何克服掉这些阻碍的。
主要问题介绍完了整篇文章也就差不多了，而最终的文章内容小结题总结出来的三个选项也是跟这些主要问题相关的。
2、Classification(分类)Classification指的是文章对某一个大的话题进行分类商议，这类文章结构特殊清晰，能够让我们一目了然。
以TPO17的《Symbiotic Relationships》为例，文章商议的大的话题是symbiotic relationship(共生关系)，文章在第一段就直接写明有3种symbiotic relationships，然后接下来分段论述这3种共生关系分别有什么样的特点。
这样的结构对于我们做文章内容小结题特殊有利，因为summary通常就是把所分的几个小类分别用一个选项概括出来。
把握住了文章中3种共生关系的主要特点，最终一题也就手到擒来了。
同样属于分类结构的文章还有TPO13的《Types of Social Groups》，TPO16的《Planets of Our Solar Systems》，TPO20的《Fossil Preservation》等等，读文章时要留意记录各个类型的主要特点，这样在面对最终一题时即便时间有限也可以冷静自若。
tpo54三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (4)题目 (5)答案 (9)背景知识 (10)阅读-2 (10)原文 (10)译文 (12)题目 (13)答案 (18)背景知识 (20)阅读-3 (25)原文 (26)译文 (27)题目 (28)答案 (33)背景知识 (35)阅读-1原文The Commercialization of Lumber①In nineteenth-century America,practically everything that was built involved wood.Pine was especially attractive for building purposes.It is durable and strong, yet soft enough to be easily worked with even the simplest of hand tools.It also floats nicely on water,which allowed it to be transported to distant markets across the nation.The central and northern reaches of the Great Lakes states—Michigan, Wisconsin,and Minnesota—all contained extensive pine forests as well as many large rivers for floating logs into the Great Lakes,from where they were transported nationwide.②By1860,the settlement of the American West along with timber shortages in the East converged with ever-widening impact on the pine forests of the Great Lakes states.Over the next30years,lumbering became a full-fledged enterprise in Michigan,Wisconsin,and Minnesota.Newly formed lumbering corporations bought up huge tracts of pineland and set about systematically cutting the trees. Both the colonists and the later industrialists saw timber as a commodity,but the latter group adopted a far more thorough and calculating approach to removing trees.In this sense,what happened between1860and1890represented a significant break with the past.No longer were farmers in search of extra income the main source for shingles,firewood,and other wood products.By the1870s, farmers and city dwellers alike purchased forest products from large manufacturingcompanies located in the Great Lakes states rather than chopping wood themselves or buying it locally.③The commercialization of lumbering was in part the product of technological change.The early,thick saw blades tended to waste a large quantity of wood,with perhaps as much as a third of the log left behind on the floor as sawdust or scrap. In the1870s,however,the British-invented band saw,with its thinner blade, became standard issue in the Great Lakes states'lumber factories.Meanwhile,the rise of steam-powered mills streamlined production by allowing for the more efficient,centralized,and continuous cutting of lumber.Steam helped to automate a variety of tasks,from cutting to the carrying away of ls also employed steam to heat log ponds,preventing them from freezing and making possible year-round lumber production.④For industrial lumbering to succeed,a way had to be found to neutralize the effects of the seasons on production.Traditionally,cutting took place in the winter, when snow and ice made it easier to drag logs on sleds or sleighs to the banks of streams.Once the streams and lakes thawed,workers rafted the logs to mills, where they were cut into lumber in the summer.If nature did not cooperate—if the winter proved dry and warm,if the spring thaw was delayed—production would suffer.To counter the effects of climate on lumber production,loggers experimented with a variety of techniques for transporting trees out of the woods. In the1870s,loggers in the Great Lakes states began sprinkling water on sleigh roads,giving them an artificial ice coating to facilitate travel.The ice reduced the friction and allowed workers to move larger and heavier loads.⑤But all the sprinkling in the world would not save a logger from the threat of a warm winter.Without snow the sleigh roads turned to mud.In the1870s,a set of snowless winters left lumber companies to ponder ways of liberating themselves from the seasons.Railroads were one possibility.At first,the remoteness of the pine forests discouraged common carriers from laying track.But increasing lumber prices in the late1870s combined with periodic warm,dry winters compelled loggers to turn to iron rails.By1887,89logging railroads crisscrossed Michigan, transforming logging from a winter activity into a year-round one.⑥Once the logs arrived at a river,the trip downstream to a mill could be a long and tortuous one.Logjams(buildups of logs that prevent logs from moving downstream)were common—at times stretching for10miles—and became even more frequent as pressure on the northern Midwest pinelands increased in the 1860s.To help keep the logs moving efficiently,barriers called booms(essentially a chain of floating logs)were constructed to control the direction of the timber.By the1870s,lumber companies existed in all the major logging areas of the northern Midwest.译文木材的商业化①在19世纪的美国，几乎所有建筑材料都含有木材。
tpo50三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案背景知识阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (5)题目 (7)答案 (16)背景知识 (18)阅读-2 (21)原文 (21)译文 (24)题目 (27)答案 (35)背景知识 (37)阅读-3 (41)原文 (41)译文 (44)题目 (47)答案 (54)背景知识 (55)阅读-1原文American Railroads①In the United States,railroads spearheaded the second phase of the transportation revolution by overtaking the previous importance of canals.The mid-1800s saw a great expansion of American railroads. The major cities east of the Mississippi River were linked by a spiderweb of railroad tracks.Chicago's growth illustrates the impact of these rail links.In1849Chicago was a village of a few hundred people with virtually no rail service.By1860it had become a city of100,000, served by eleven railroads.Farmers to the north and west of Chicago no longer had to ship their grain,livestock,and dairy products down the Mississippi River to New Orleans;they could now ship their products directly east.Chicago supplanted New Orleans as the interior of America's main commercial hub.②The east-west rail lines stimulated the settlement and agricultural development of the Midwest.By1860Illinois,Indiana,and Wisconsin had replaced Ohio,Pennsylvania,and New York as the leading wheat-growing states.Enabling farmers to speed their products to the East,railroads increased the value of farmland and promotedadditional settlement.In turn,population growth in agricultural areas triggered industrial development in cities such as Chicago,Davenport (Iowa),and Minneapolis,for the new settlers needed lumber for fences and houses and mills to grind wheat into flour.③Railroads also propelled the growth of small towns along their routes.The Illinois Central Railroad,which had more track than any other railroad in1855,made money not only from its traffic but also from real estate speculation.Purchasing land for stations along its path, the Illinois Central then laid out towns around the stations.The selection of Manteno,Illinois,as a stop of the Illinois Central,for example,transformed the site from a crossroads without a single house in1854into a bustling town of nearly a thousand in1860, replete with hotels,lumberyards,grain elevators,and gristmills.By the Civil War(1861-1865),few thought of the railroad-linked Midwest as a frontier region or viewed its inhabitants as pioneers.④As the nation's first big business,the railroads transformed the conduct of business.During the early1830s,railroads,like canals, depended on financial aid from state governments.With the onset of economic depression in the late1830s,however,state governments scrapped overly ambitious railroad projects.Convinced that railroads burdened them with high taxes and blasted hopes,voters turnedagainst state aid,and in the early1840s,several states amended their constitutions to bar state funding for railroads and canals.The federal government took up some of the slack,but federal aid did not provide a major stimulus to railroads before1860.Rather,part of the burden of finance passed to city and county governments in agricultural areas that wanted to attract railroads.Such municipal governments,for example,often gave railroads rights-of-way,grants of land for stations, and public funds.⑤The dramatic expansion of the railroad network in the1850s, however,strained the financing capacity of local governments and required a turn toward private investment,which had never been absent from the picture.Well aware of the economic benefits of railroads,individuals living near them had long purchased railroad stock issued by governments and had directly bought stock in railroads, often paying by contributing their labor to building the railroads.But the large railroads of the1850s needed more capital than such small investors could generate.Gradually,the center of railroad financing shifted to New York City,and in fact,it was the railroad boom of the 1850s that helped make Wall Street in New York City the nation's greatest capital market.The stocks of all the leading railroads were traded on the floor of the New York Stock Exchange during the1850s. In addition,the growth of railroads turned New York City into thecenter of modern investment firms.The investment firms evaluated the stock of railroads in the smaller American cities and then found purchasers for these stocks in New York City,Philadelphia,Paris, London,Amsterdam,and Hamburg.Controlling the flow of funds to railroads,the investment bankers began to exert influence over the railroads'internal affairs by supervising administrative reorganizations in times of trouble.译文美国铁路①在美国，铁路超越了运河从前的重要性，成为运输革命第二阶段的先锋。
toefl junior 阅读
想要提高托福 Junior 阅读水平，可以参考以下方法：
- 积累词汇：通过眼看、耳听、口说、手写等多种方式结合语境来记忆词汇。
- 精读练习：在刚开始接触阅读部分时，可以先注重每篇文章的阅读质量，除了做题以外，还要花时间做通篇的复盘精读，弄懂文中每个单词和短语的含义，准确理解每个句子的意思以及梳理文章展开的方式。
- 泛读补充：除了做TOEFL Junior 的练习题以外，学生在备考时也可以选择其他阅读材料进行泛读。
托福 Junior 阅读部分难度跨度较大，建议通过多加练习来提高阅读能力。
新托福考试阅读部分冯一伟目录The TOEFL TestBrief Introduction to Reading (4)Vocabulary Question (5)Sentence Simplification Question (6)Rhetorical Purpose Question (18)Insert Text Question (29)Factual Information Question (46)Reference Question (66)Inference Question (74)Prose in Summary (82)Vocabulary Practice (83)Preface十六字令(长征) 三首山，快马加鞭未下鞍。
惊回首，离天三尺三。
山，倒海翻江卷巨澜。
奔腾急，万马战犹酣。
山，刺破青天锷未残。
天欲堕，赖以拄其间。
Structure of the TOEFL iBTSection Testing Time Questions Score Scale Reading 60~100 min 36~42 Qs 0~30 Listening 60~90 min 34 Qs 0~30Break 10 min - -Speaking 20 min 6 tasks 0~30 Writing 50 min 2 tasks 0~30120Total 3h 10min ~4h 30minAdditional TestReading Section : two more passagesOrListening Section: one more section(one more conversation and two lectures)Types of Question in Reading SectionBasic Information and Inferencing questions1. Factual information questions2. Inference question questions3. Rhetorical purpose questions4. Vocabulary questions5. Reference questions6. Sentence simplification questions7. Insert text questionsReading to Learn questions:8. Prose summaryFill in a tableE．G．Vocabulary Question (iBT)Growth, reproduction, and daily metabolism all require an organism to expend energy. The expenditure of energy is essentially a process of budgeting, just as finances are budgeted. If all of one's money is spent on clothes, there may be none left to buy food or go to the movies. Similarly, a plant or animal cannot squander all its energy on growing a big body if none would be left over for reproduction, for this is the surest way to extinction.The word squander in the passage is closest in meaning to:a. extendb. transformc. activated. wasteBackground Preparation:/VOA(NORMAL SPEED), science 60 secs, No BBC Please//For Business School (MBA,MA,PhD) /For Undergraduates/1. Vocabulary Questions (3-5)There is no “list of words” that must be tested. (OG, p25)题型1)The word X in the passage is closest in meaning to2)In stating X, the author means that正确选项必须与所选词汇在词性，单复数和情感色彩上一致解题方法1)并列A and B，A or B2)转折A but B3)介词搭配n/v+介词介词本身不是被考察对象4)解释线索形式：A=B/A-B/A(B)/A“B”内容：A is BA that is BA refer to BA is defined as B可以使用的词汇书《词以类记》前120页（张红岩）《托福红宝》（俞敏洪）2. Simplify a Sentencebest express the essential informationin correct answer 1) change the meaning2) leave our essential information从句子拆分的角度讲句子题的实质是保留外层，剥离内层的过程S 逻辑语义相关语义无关语义从句子构造的角度讲句子题的本质是保留逻辑和相关语义，剔除无关语义的过程。
解题步骤：1）句子中有明确的逻辑关系标志词圈出本句逻辑关系标志词：转折、因果、否定、比较转折前信息因果原因否定错v全局否定never deny后信息结果某概念-局部否定except unless 比较A方面B方面2）错误选项设置：1.引入原文出现的虚假逻辑关系2.将原文细节过分放大（Minor points或者限定词放大sometimes, some of, part of, only,necessarily，包括量词）；或出现未涉及的限定语，也就是说限定的条件可以被缩小，不可以被放大3.与原文矛盾或引入原文为提及的信息（不是关键词，有可能是同义）正确选项保留原文重现和同义双写3)如果句子中出现了引入两个及以上并列信息点的表达Eg. Both A and BBetween A and BNot only A but also B则正确答案有两种情况①A+B②A+B的概括和总结不可能是只讲A or 只讲B4)逻辑关系标志词转折: however, but, even though, even if, althoughWhile 转折……的时候（SAT语法when划线部分）Whereas 转折（A… whereas B）, yet, despite, in spite of比较因果：because, because of, since, in that, so, therefore, thus, hence, result in, result from, as a result, consequently, in as much as, reason(v.), lead to, accordingly, on account of, … why, explain…否定：no, not…, none, neither… nor…, never, d eny, fail to, lack of, remove, ignore, miss, dearth比较More…than…, less…than, as… than, increase, decrease, improve, outway, surpass, transcend, maximum, minimum, peak, no more than, rather than, contrary toEg. Fj is no more beautiful than Frjj. （像……一样不）两者都不怎么样从句中内容（逻辑）可以忽略，主句中逻辑一定要表达；也就是说，这种选项不为错Eg. ①for…In order toBy…② experts estimateThey agree thatA survey shows that几个注意点：①Not from… but from 后者是重点，而且这种结构可能为比较级②TOP 4 Deer Q11（划线中的Term或者代词，可以用同义改写）; 上下文中提到的term③Unless容易扩大论述范围，“大”，OG P.60④OG的试题；难度较低，逻辑简单，与真正的试题有偏差⑤Whether or not=regardless of⑥如果划线句以but（转折词）开头，则居中物转折涵义⑦一句话中有主要逻辑frjj beautiful 因为身材好，甚至于fj相比比与次要逻辑她身材也很好⑧比较级和最高级（不能丢失）也是一种逻辑关系⑨As (p.8, p.13) 与suggestShow 都有因果关系demonstrate⑩破折号里的内容（也就是同位语或者解释）不应该出现在选项中1. Hills and mountains are often regarded as the epitome of permanence, successfully resisting the destructive forces of nature, but in fact they tend to be relatively short-lived in geological terms.9. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage?Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.When they are relatively young, hills and mountains successfully resist the destructive forces of nature.Although they seem permanent, hills and mountains exist for a relatively short period of geological time.Hills and mountains successfully resist the destructive forces of nature, but only for a short time.Hills and mountains resist the destructive forces of nature better than other types of landforms.2.Although her early theatrical career had included stints as an actress, she was not primarily interested in storytelling or expressing emotions through dance; the drama of her dancing emanated from her visual effects.4. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.Fuller was more interested in dance’s visual impact than in its narrative or emotional possibilities.Fuller used visual effects to dramatize the stories and emotions expressed in her work. Fuller believed that the drama of her dancing sprang from her emotional style of storytelling.Fuller’s focus on the visual effects of dance resulted from her early theatrical training as an actress.3. One explanation for green icebergs attributes their color to an optical illusion when blue ice is illuminated by a near-horizon red Sun, but green icebergs stand out among white and blue icebergs under a great variety of light conditions.3. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.One explanation notes that green icebergs stand out among other icebergs under a great variety of light conditions, but this is attributed to an optical illusion.One explanation for the color of green icebergs attributes their color to an optical illusion that occurs when the light from a near-horizon red Sun shines on a blue iceberg. One explanation for green icebergs attributes their color to a great variety of light conditions, but green icebergs stand out best among other icebergs when illuminated by a near-horizon red Sun.One explanation attributes the color of green icebergs to an optical illusion under special light conditions, but green icebergs appear distinct from other icebergs under a great variety of light conditions.4. Contrary to the arguments of some that much of the pacific was settled by Polynesians accidentally marooned after being lost and adrift, it seems reasonable that this feat was accomplished by deliberate colonization expeditions that set out fully stocked with food and domesticated plants and animals.9. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.Some people have argued that the Pacific was settled by traders who became lost while transporting domesticated plants and animals.The original Polynesian settlers were probably marooned on the islands, but they may have been joined later by carefully prepared colonization expeditions.Although it seems reasonable to believe that colonization expeditions would set out fully stocked, this is contradicted by much of the evidence.The settlement of the Pacific islands was probably intentional and well planned rather than accidental as some people have proposed.5. At one time, the animals present in these fossil beds were assigned to various modern animal groups, but most paleontologists now agree that all Tommotian fossils represent unique body forms that arose in the early Cambrian period and disappeared before the end of the period, leaving no descendants in modern animal groups.9. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.The animals found in the Tommotian fossil bed were once thought to belong to avariety of modern animal groups, but now they are thought to have descended from a single group.Animals in the Tommotian fossil beds were initially assigned to modern animal groups but are now thought to belong to groups that emerged and died out during the Cambrian period.Though at first they thought otherwise, paleontologists now agree that the animals in the Tommotian have body forms from which modern animals have descended.It is unclear whether the Tommotian fossils from the early Cambrian period represent unique body forms or whether they should be assigned to various modern animal groups.6. Only the last of these was suited at all to the continuous operating of machines, and although waterpower abounded in Lancashire and Scotland and ran grain mills as well as textile mills, it had one great disadvantage:streams flowed where nature intended them to and water-driven factories had to be located on their banks whether or not the location was desirablefor other reasons.1. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information．Running water was the best power source for factories since it could keep machines operating continuously but since it was abundant only in Lancashire and Scotland, most mills and factories that were located elsewhere could not be water driven．The disadvantage of using waterpower is that streams do not necessarily flow in places that are the most suitable for factories which explains why so many water—powered grain and textile mills were located in undesirable placesSince machines could be operated continuously only where running water was abundant, grain and textile mills as well as other factories tended to be located only in Lancashire and Scotland．Running water was the only source of power that was suitable for the continuous operation of machines, but to make use of it factories had to be located where the water was, regardless of whether such locations made sense otherwise.7. But as more and more accumulations of strata were cataloged in more and more places, it became clear that the sequences of rocks sometimes differed from region to region and that no rock type was ever going to become a reliable time marker throughout the world．6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information．The discovery of regional differences in the sequences of rocks led geologists to believe that rock types could someday become reliable time markers．Careful analysis of strata revealed that rocks cannot establish geological time because the pattern of rock layers varies from place to place．Smith's catalogs of rock strata indicated that the sequences of rocks are different from place to place and from region to region．Because people did not catalog regional differences in sequences of rocks. It was believed that rocks could never be reliable time markers8. Physiological immaturity may be part of why infants and toddlers do not form extremely enduring memories, even when they hear stories that promote such remembering in preschoolers.11. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information．Incomplete physiological development may partly explain why hearing stories does not improve long-term memory in infants and toddlersOne reason why preschoolers fail to comprehend the stories they hear is that they arephysiologically immatureGiven the chance to hear stories，infants and toddlers may form enduring memories despite physiological immaturity．Physiologically mature children seem to have no difficulty remembering stories they heard as preschoolers．9As a result of crustal adjustments and faulting, the Strait of Gibraltar, where the Mediterranean now connects to the Atlantic, opened, and water cascaded spectacularly back into the Mediterranean.10. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.The strait of Gibraltar reopened when the Mediterranean and the Atlantic became connected and the cascades of water from one sea to the other caused crustal adjustments and faulting.The Mediterranean was dramatically refilled by water from the Atlantic when crustal adjustments and faulting opened the Strait of Gibraltar, the place where the two seas are joined.The cascades of water from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean were not as spectacular as the crustal adjustments and faulting that occurred when the Strait of Gibraltar was connected to those seas.As a result of crustal adjustments and faulting and the creation of the Strait of Gibraltar, the Atlantic and Mediterranean were connected and became a single sea with spectacular cascades of water between them.10. Like the stone of Roman wall, which were held together both by the regularity of the design and by that peculiarly powerful Roman cement, so the various parts of the Roman realm were bonded into a massive, monolithic entity by physical, organizational, and psychological controls. 1. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.The regularity and power of stone walls inspired Romans attempting to unify the parts of their realm.Although the Romans used different types of designs when building their walls; they used regular controls to maintain their realm.Several types of control united the Roman realm, just as design and cement held Roman walls together.Romans built walls to unite the various parts of their realm into a single entity, which was controlled by powerful laws.11.Unlike in the Americas, where metallurgy was a very late and limited development, Africans had iron from a relatively early date, developing ingenious furnaces to produce the high heat needed for production and tocontrol the amount of air that reached the carbon and iron ore necessary for making iron.10. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.While American iron makers developed the latest furnaces, African iron makers continued using earlier techniques.Africans produced iron much earlier than Americans, inventing technologically sophisticated heating systems.Iron making developed earlier in Africa than in the Americas because of the ready availability of carbon and iron ore.Both Africa and the Americas developed the capacity for making iron early, but African metallurgy developed at a slower rate.12.Many plants and animals disappear abruptly from the fossil record as one moves from layers of rock documenting the end of the Cretaceous up into rocks representing the beginning of the Cenozoic (the era after the Mesozoic).7. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? In correct choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.The fossil record suggests that there was an abrupt extinction of many plants and animals at the end of the Mesozoic era.Few fossils of the Mesozoic era have survived in the rocks that mark the end of the Cretaceous.Fossils from the Cretaceous period of the Mesozoic up to the beginning of the Cenozoic era have been removed from the layers of rock that surrounded them.Plants and animals from the Mesozoic era were unable to survive in the Cenozoic era.13. But detractors maintain that the terraces could also have been created by geological activity, perhaps related to the geologic forces that depressed the Northern Hemisphere far below the level of the south, in which case they have nothing whatever to do with Martian water.9. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.But detractors argue that geological activity may be responsible for the water associated with the terraces.But detractors argue that the terraces may have been formed by geological activity rather than by the presence of water.But detractors argue that the terraces may be related to geological forces in the Northern Hemisphere of Mars, rather than to Martian water in the south.But detractors argue that geological forces depressed the Northern Hemisphere so far below the level of the south that the terraces could not have been formed by water.14.Fladmark's hypothesis received additional support from the fact that the greatest diversity in Native American languages occurs along the west coast of the Americans, suggesting that this region has been settled the longest. 6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways to leave out essential information.Because this region has been settled the longest, it also displays the greatest diversity in Native American languages.Fladmark's hypothesis states that the west coast of the Americas has been settled longer than any other region.The fact that the greatest diversity of Native American languages occurs along the west coast of the Americans lends strength to Fradmark's hypothesisAccording to Fladmark, Native American languages have survived the longest along the west coast of the Americas.15.There appear to be many unexplored matters about the motivation to reflect-for example, the value of externally motivated reflection as opposed to that of teachers who might reflect by habit.11. Which of the sentences below expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential informationThe practice of being reflective is no longer simply a habit among teachers but something that is externally motivatedMost teachers need to explore ways to form the habit of reflection even when no external motivation existsMany aspects of the motivation to reflect have not been studied, including the comparative benefits of externally motivated and habitual reflection among teachersThere has not been enough exploration of why teachers practice reflection as a habit with or without external motivation16.It is significant that the earliest living things that built communities on these islands are examples of symbiosis, a phenomenon that depends upon the close cooperation of two or more forms of life and a principle that is very important in island communities.3. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.Some of the earliest important examples of symbiosis-the close cooperation of two or more living things-occur in island communities.Symbiosis-the close cooperation of pairs or small groups of living organisms-is especially important in these island environments.The first organisms on these islands worked together closely in a relationship known as symbiosis, which is particularly important on islands.It is significant to note that organisms in the beginning stages of the development of island life cannot survive without close cooperation.17.The tradition of religious sculpture extends over most historical periods but is less clearly delineated than that of stonewares or porcelains, for it embraces the old custom of earthenware burial ceramics with later religious images and architectural ornament.4. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the 【highlighted sentence】in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.While stonewares and porcelains are found throughout most historical periods, religious sculpture is limited to the ancient period.Religious sculpture was created in most periods, but its history is less clear than that of stonewares or porcelains because some old forms continued to be used even when new ones were developed.While stonewares and porcelains changed throughout history, religious sculpture remained uniform in form and use.The historical development of religious sculpture is relatively unclear because religious sculptures sometimes resemble earthenware architectural ornaments.18. Over long periods of time, substances whose physical and chemical properties change with the ambient climate at the time can be deposited in a systematic way to provide a continuous record of changes in those properties overtime, sometimes for hundreds or thousands of years.3. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the 【highlighted sentence】in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential informationBecause physical and chemical properties of substances are unchanging, they are useful records of climate fluctuations over timeFor hundreds or thousands of years, people have been observing changes in the chemical and physical properties of substances in order to infer climate changeBecause it takes long periods of time for the climate to change, systematic changes in the properties of substances are difficult to observe.Changes in systematically deposited substances that are affected by climate can indicate climate variations over time.19. He then set up experiments with caged starlings and found that their orientation was. in fact, in the proper migratory direction except when the sky was overcast, at which times there was no clear direction to their restless movements.3. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the 【highlighted sentence】in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.Experiments revealed that caged starlings displayed a lack of directional sense and restless movements.Experiments revealed that caged starlings were unable to orient themselves in the direction of their normal migratory route.Experiments revealed that the restless movement of caged starlings had no clear direction.Experiments revealed that caged starlings' orientation was accurate unless the weather was overcast.20. Therefore, when observational assessment is used as a technique for studying infant perceptual abilities, care must be taken not to overgeneralize from the data or to rely on one or two studies as conclusive evidence of a particular perceptual ability of the infant.6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the 【highlighted sentence】in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.Researchers using observational assessment techniques on infants must not over generalize and must base their conclusions on data from many studies.On the basis of the data from one or two studies, it seems that some infants develop a particular perceptual ability not observed in others.To use data from one or two studies on infant's perceptual abilities, it is necessary to use techniques that will provide conclusive evidence.When researchers fail to make generalizations from their studies, their observed data is often inconclusive.21. Certainly, rational appeals in advertising aimed at children are limited, as most advertisements use emotional and indirect appeals to psychological states or associations.8. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.Rational appeals in advertising are certainly limited by children's emotional immaturity and the indirect nature of their associations.Indirect appeals to children's psychological states or associations can limit the effectiveness of rational appeals in advertising.Rational appeals playa much smaller role in advertisements for children than emotional appeals and psychological associations do.Rational appeals in advertising aimed at children should certainly be limited until the children are emotionally and psychologically ready.22. The explanation is that the Maya excavated depressions, or modified natural depressions, and the plugged reservoirs, which collected rain from large plastered catchment basins and stored it for use in dry season.8. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.Southern Maya populations obtained the water they needed for the dry season by collecting and storing rainwater in sealed depressions.The Maya are credited with creating methods for modifying natural rainwater and storing it.Leaks in the karst caused difficulties in the creation of reservoirs, which were needed to store water for the dry season.Southern Mayans were more successful at collecting rain than storing it during dry seasons.23. Inequalities of gender have also existed in pastoralist societies, but they seem to have been softened by the absence of steep hierarchies of wealth in most communities, and also by the requirement that women acquire most of the skills of men, including, often, their military skills.11. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.Despite the fact the wealth is relatively evenly distributed in pastoral societies, gender inequality still exists because only men can acquire military skill and social status.Inequalities of gender existed in pastoralist societies until most communities began to require women to possess the same skills as men and take part in the military.Inequalities of gender in pastoralist societies were caused by steep hierarchies of wealth and differences in military training between men and women.In pastoral societies, gender inequality is comparatively mild because wealth is relatively evenly distributed and women have to learn most of the same skills that men do.24. For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essential to their well-beingand abandoned them, nevertheless, they retained as parts of their oral tradition the myths that had grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities rather than for their religious usefulness.12．Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highl ighted sentence inthe passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A society’s rites were more likely to be re tained in the oral tradit ion if its myths were admired for artisticqualities.The artistic quality of a myth was sometimes an essential reason for a society to abandon it from the。
