英汉词汇文化对比及对英语教学的启示
[Abstract] Language is closely related with culture. One kind of language is influenced by its national culture and represents for its special cultural connotations. This article points out that vocabulary, as one of the three elements of a language, is the most active factor in language learning, which is obviously seen if there appear some changes in culture and language. The significance of studying the cultural connotations of vocabulary is realized. The connotations belong to one aspect of the meanings of vocabulary, and the meanings are divided into seven styles. Besides the conceptual meaning, the rest of other meanings pertain to the connotations. From the connotations, the article analyzes the three corresponding relationships betw een English and Chinese vocabulary that show the cultural connotations: complete parallelism, incomplete parallelism and no parallelism and gives some examples to demonstrate them. While in the English teaching nowadays, the cultural connotations of vocabulary are often ignored by many English educators, which leads to much danger. Many problems always occur so that students’ interests will be lowered and that students do not have scientific methods of learning, or have bad competence of using language. In this way, the article gives some enlightenment of English teaching, including the constitution of syllabus, the choosing and composing of the teaching material, teaching activities in-class and activities after-class. Therefore, language can be used freely when integrating the cultural connotations of English and Chinese vocabulary with English teaching.
[Key Words] English and Chinese vocabulary; cultural connotation; contrast; teaching
[摘要] 语言与文化密不可分。一种语言会在一定程度上受本民族文化的影响，反映其独特的文化内涵。词汇作为语意的三要素之一，是语言最活跃的环节，文化与语言的任何一点变化在词汇这一环节上都是显而易见的，从而明确了研究词汇文化内涵的意义。词汇文化内涵是属于词汇意义中的其中一部分，除了概念意义外其余的意义均属于内涵这一方面。就这个词汇的文化内涵意义，文章简单分析了体现英汉语词汇文化内涵的三种对应关系：完全对应型、不完全对应型及完全不对应型，并给出了一些词汇实例证明这三种关系。由于这些对应关系所反映的英汉语词汇的文化内涵常常被许多英语教育工作者所忽视，以至于在现今的英语教学中产生了一定的危害。普遍存在着学生学习兴趣不高，没有科学的学习方法及英语学习能力差等弊病。这些给我们的英语教学带来了极大的启发，本文分别从教学大纲、教材的选编、课堂教学活动、课后活动这些方面导入英汉语词汇的文化因素，能帮助学生更好地运用语言，把英汉语词汇的文化内涵与教学真正结合起来。
[关键词] 中英词汇；文化内涵；对比；教学
1.Introduction
Language is related closely with culture. Language is the carrier and container of culture. English is part of English culture and the Chinese language is part of Chinese culture. Human experience and life style are described and stored in language. Customs, habits and behavioural patterns can be described and analyzed in language. Even the visual arts like painting, sculpture, movie and
dance and the auditory arts such as music and singing can be described and evaluated in language. To be sure, culture can exist in the form of materials.[1]
As a mirror of culture language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. [2] Familial relation is very important to the Chinese people, so there are many kinship terms in Chinese. For example: (1) 叔侄--- uncle and nephew (2) 爷孙--- grandfather and grandson
(3) 婆媳--- grandmother and wife (4) 夫妻--- husband and wife
Therefore if you want to learn and master one kind of language, learners should know the cultural background of the country that the language belongs to. If a learner just pays attention to the language itself but ignores the cultural background that the language represents, he will not master it correctly and use it properly.
Meanwhile language also reflects its influence on culture. “White” means “immaculate and sinless” in English, so westerners call “the auspicious day of marrying” as “white day”. Then in China, “white” is not good for lovers who will marry.
Vocabulary is the basic factor of all language and a key element in language learning. A
well-known English linguist D.A.Wilkins said: “No language, people can’t express many things; while no vocabulary, people can express none.”[3]Vocabulary is the most active and flexible component of language. By this token, vocabulary can be reflected by culture. In other words, the discrepancies between different cultures can also be reflected by vocabulary.
This article is trying to focus on the cultural connotations of English and Chinese vocabulary and give some suggestions to English teaching.
2. The classification of vocabulary meaning
English linguist Geoffrey Leach divides the semantics into seven styles: 1) Conceptual Meaning; 2) Connotative Meaning; 3) Stylistic Meaning; 4) Affective Meaning; 5) Reflected Meaning; 6) Collocative Meaning; 7) Thematic Meaning [4] Conceptual meaning is the basic meaning, the central factor in linguistic communication, which is the word meaning used to express an object in the real world or a concept in our mind. It is also the denotative meaning of words. Then the rest
of other meanings pertain to the connotation, which is the associative matters and feelings when using the words. The cultural connotation of vocabulary refers to the meaning of the culture of one nation that words imply, or the meanings except for the conceptual meaning of one word or a phrase.
So in the following paper, the meanings except the conceptual meaning of vocabulary will be discussed.
3. Analysis of the corresponding relationships of the cultural connotations of vocabulary between Chinese and English
Different nationalities have their own thinking ways, social background, customs, habits, ethic moralities and conventional taboo words, which lead to various kinds of national culture. The meanings of vocabulary must be stigmatized as a brand of national culture. Through analyzing and contrasting, the three kinds of corresponding relationships of the cultural connotations between English and Chinese vocabulary are as follows:
3.1 Complete corresponding relationship
It means “Two kinds of languages have same literal meanings and similar cultural connotations on the whole.” [5]It consists of 3 kinds:
3.1.1 Fixed theory words
There are some words that have been established by using rules to express the same theory or the same object. For examples:
(1) capitalism---资本主义(2) socialism---社会主义
(3) Marxism---马克思主义(4) man-made secondary planet---人造卫星
(5) science---科学(6) society---社会
3.1.2 Body words
There are some words that are used to describe our human body
(1) “heart” mean “hollow muscular organ that pumps blood through the body”[6]. It has the same literal meaning with “心” in Chinese. They also mean a person’s thoughts and emotions, esp of love, ability to feel emotion.
“heart of stone” means “铁石心肠”, “sweet heart” means “爱人”, “from one’s heart” means “衷心” in Chinese, “to have one’s heart in one’s mouth” means “提心吊胆”, “heart to heart” means “心对心”.
(2)“die” and “死” have the same literal meaning and connotative meaning. Chinese and westerners both use other euphemistic words to express the meaning of “death” instead of using the two words directly. “pass away”--- “去世”, “go to heaven”--- “升天”, “go to west”--- “上西天”, “pay one’s debt to nature”--- “返归自然”, “meet one’s death”--- “丧命”, “end up”--- “死”
3.1.3 Metaphor words
There are some words that have the same connotations to make the metaphor. It can be clearly seen in the examples below:
(1) eat like a wolf--- eat quickly and a large sum of food while hungry 狼吞虎咽(2) pure as the driven snow--- very white 洁白如雪
(3) hard as iron--- very firm 坚如钢铁
(4) light as feather--- very light 轻如鸿毛
(5) foxy--- as cunning as fox 狡猾的
In conclusion, because of the complete parallelism relationship between Chinese and English words, these words are understood well by students. So these words are easy to master for students, and teachers should take advantage of the relationship of complete parallelism. When meeting these words, teachers should ask students to find out the relating Chinese or English meaning so that students could remember them quickly and correctly. For example:
(1) How to teach “as busy as a bee [7]”? Let students imagine “How do bees work? They keep working busily without stop.” So we could understand “as busy as a bee” as “忙得不可开交”. (2) eagle-eyed
Here “eagle” is one kind of animal whose character is that it has very good discernment. Therefore “eagle-eyed” is to express that one person can penetrate the phenomenon of things to study their essence and has very keen sight. In Chinese it means “眼力敏锐的”.
If teachers could relate Chinese with English, it will get half the effort with twice the result.
3.2 Half corresponding relationship
It means that the words have the same literal meaning but only have a part of the same cultural
connotations or opposite cultural meanings.
3.2.1 A part of the same cultural connotations
There are some words that have the same literal meaning but only a part of the same cultural connotations. For example:
(1)In Chinese，“鼠” is in the derogatory s ense. Therefore there exist many Chinese idioms which are to express some negative meaning. For example:
贼眉鼠眼------shifty-eyed 抱头鼠窜------scurry off like a frightened rat
鼠目寸光------see only what is under one’s nose
But in English, “mouse” can be used to refer to “women”, and “girls”. For example:
as quiet as a mouse-----very quiet, silent[8] 文静如鼠
mouse and man----------all living creatures 众生
Such kind of meaning is not included in Chinese connotative meanings of “鼠”.
(2)In Chinese and English, “rose”and “玫瑰” both refer to “love”. When a man falls in love with
a woman, he would send red roses to her to express his love. In Chinese, we often explain “带刺
的玫瑰” as “a beauty who is difficult to approach”. While in English, “There is no rose without a thorn.” It really means “complete happiness or perfection can’t be found.[9] 事事无完美。” And “under the rose” means “privately[10] 在私底下”, which originates from an old convention: roses that hang under the council board imply that all attendees should keep secrets.
(3)“family” means “a group consisting of parents, their children and close relatives.”and “group members consisting of parents, their children and close relatives”.[11] Then “家庭” only means “以婚姻和血统关系为基础的社会单位，包括父母、子女和其他共同生活的亲属在内。”[12] There are some other similar examples :“aunt”, “uncle”, “child’s play” and so on.
3.2.2 The opposite cultural meanings
This kind of words are apparently shown in some animal words. For example:
(1) Although Chinese and westerners have the habits of breeding dogs, they separately have different opinions about “dogs”.
Under Chinese cultural background, “dog” always has the derogatory sense.
狗急跳墙--- a cornered beast will do something desperate
狗仗人势---be a bully under the protection of a powerful person
狗胆包天--- monstrous audacity
狗拿耗子，多管闲事--- a dog trying to catch mice-poke one’s nose into other people’s business 狗腿子--- hired thug
But west erners consider dogs as good pets and man’s best friends. Dogs are very loyal and faithful to men and they all like dogs very much, which reflects greatly in their languages.
a lucky dog---a lucky person 幸运儿
top dog---the most important person 重要人物
Every dog has his day.”---Every man will be happy at some time. 凡人皆有得意时。
Love me, love my dog. ---You will have to accept my friends as well if you want me to be your friend. 爱屋及乌
If you are in America, people often call a skillful worker as “an old dog”. But i f you are in China, someone that is given such appellation will be in a short temper.
(2)“dragon” and “龙”
In western mythology, dragon is considered as a gigantic creature called lizard, usually represented as having a reptilian body. People think they must kill the monster--dragon. The most famous story of killing dragon happened in about 700 AD, the Anglo-Saxon hero--Beowulf killed the dragon-like monster—Grendel. At that time, Grendel visits the Danes hall from night to night and carries the warriors away. So the hall is deserted. On hearing the news, Beowulf sails for Denmark with 14 companions and offers to fight the monster. After a terrible hand-to-hand combat, Grendel retreats mortally wounded. At last, Beowulf perishes together with Grendel. [13] By this token, westerners don’t like dragon very much. And because of this, we couldn’t make “dragon” as the symbol of the Olympic Games in 2008. On the contrary, in China, “龙”is considered as a wonderful animal which can make clouds and rain. It has the capability of 8 animals, including snakes, birds, horses, deers, fishes, eagles and so on. And it also can fly in the sky, swim in the river, walk on the land, which is symbolized as the spirit of braveness and adamancy. We are also proud of being “Descendants of the Loong”. As imagined by the Chinese, the dragon has the head of a camel, the horns of a deer, fiery eyes and a long beard. Its ears are like those of a cow, its paws like the tiger’s and its sharp claws like an eagle’s. Its neck is serpentine; it has the belly of a frog and the scales of a carp. When the dragon first appeared in the sky, after an heir was born, and the country was blessed with peace and prosperity for many generations thereafter. Thus, dragon also served as a symbol of good fortune. As time went by, in ancient time, the emperor of each dynasty was thought as the “the Real Loong” and the top dog in the world. In this way, a variety of the words and phrases about “龙”mean “auspicious”.
lively and vigorous in calligraphy---like dragons flying and phoenixes dancing 龙飞凤舞
make the finishing point---画龙点睛
the dragon and the phoenix bringing prosperity-excellent good fortune---龙凤呈祥
a scene of bustling activity---龙腾虎跃
full of vim and vigor--生龙活虎
(3) “individualism” and “个人主义”
In Chinese dictionary, “个人主义” means “一切从个人出发，把个人利益放在集体利益之上，只顾自己，不顾别人的错误思想。”[14] In traditional ideas, it is another name of “self-concern”, which belongs to a word of derogatory sense. While in English, “individualism” means “theory that favors free action and complete liberty of belief for each individual person.(contrasted with the theory that favors the supremacy of the state).”[15] This is the synonym of “hard-working”, which belongs to a word of commendatory sense.
These words are difficult to master for students. They often ignore the discrepancies of the cultural connotations of two languages and misuse the words. Many students translate “拦路
虎”into “a tiger in the way”, but in fact it should be “a lion in the way”. While facing the first kind—the same literal meaning, a part of the same connotation, teachers should relate the same literal meanings together, and then draw the derivations of different cultural connotations so that make students active in remembering the word meanings, also improve the interests of learning. To deal with the second kind—the same literal meaning, the opposite cultural connotations, teachers should focus on the opposite point and introduce the different cultural background of the countries to make students understand the real reasons which lead to the different cultural connotations. In this way, students can have these words at their finger tips.
3.3 No corresponding relationship
One language has no corresponding words and cultural connotations in another language. Besides the similar or the same objects and phenomenon in different countries, there are many kinds of special things in their own countries. Some unique objects are produced by their particular culture. For example:
(1) a very well-known judge in the Chinese history “包公”,if we translate it into “Judge Bao”, foreigners can not understand it. So we have to add some explanations to it, “Judge Bao (the just and impartial judge in Chinese history[16]”.
(2)There are some other words only appearing in Chinese produced by Chinese traditional culture. For example:
阴lunar 阳solar
小脚tootsies 八卦the Eight Diagrams
天干地支Chinese era
十二生肖twelve representatives of animals
Then in China, people always use special things to compare to others, e.g. “mand arin duck 鸳鸯” compared to “couples”, “crane鹤” compared to “longevity”, “bamboo 竹子” compared to “humility”.
In English, there also appears some special words if Chinese people don’t know the cultural connotations. For example:
(1)“hippie”—“嬉皮” refers to so me youth wearing strange clothes, indulging in drug and playing
(2)“jazznik”---“爵士迷” means “some people like jazz very much”
(3)“peacenik”---“和平迷” means “some people like peace”
(4) “punk”---“朋克” means “some youth who wear uglily, appear angry, depressed.
Such words originate from different countries’ history, culture, tradition, custom, thought and national character. If teachers never explain clearly to students, they wouldn’t understand them and use them fluently and correctly. Students fail to guess and conclude the meaning.
4.The danger of ignoring the corresponding relationships of the cultural connotations between English and Chinese vocabulary
From the above, three kinds of the relationship of the cultural connotations between English and Chinese vocabulary, we know that the connotations are the embodiment of the accumulation of culture and history from generation to generation. We could not only pay attention to the denotative meaning so that students may lose their applicable ability of using words or communicating with others. Here are some harmful points caused by neglecting the connotations of words.
4.1Lowering students’ interests
Students’ interests will be lowered in learning the language. Language learning is a complex cognitive procedure especially the motivation, and it greatly influences language learners. It will drive them to study actively. Learning motivation, impetus and interests determine the results. For many language learners, they want to communicate with others, find a good job, and master a skill to join in the group members whose language is their native one. However, nowadays most of the
students are taught the strict and difficult grammar to make sentences and asked to recite the teaching materials without any cultural background. After years of studying English or Chinese, they even don’t know how to make foreigners understand what they said or wrote. They make mistakes in expressing the connotations of vocabulary and using words. In the end, misapprehension happens even the cultural shock. Students make little of practicability of languages. Get half the result with twice the effect. Being lack of the lead-in of the cultural connotations of English and Chinese vocabulary hurts the motivation of learners, lowers their interests and makes their attitude inactive.
4.2Unscientific learning methods
Students don’t have scientific methods of learning. Many students exert themselves to recite words, sentences, passages, and grammar, always forgetting while remembering. In class, teachers have a test to check how students master the knowledge by dictation or writing from memory. And then students spend much time in burdening the memory with foreign languages. Because of being departed from the cultural background and the real linguistic atmosphere, they waste much time but fail to master the effective learning methods. Therefore, teachers should apply the cultural connotations to practical teaching, improve the styles of giving a class, build good linguistic atmosphere.
4.3 Bad competence of using language
Students have bad competence of using languages. In teaching, teachers often find that students only remember by rote, and fail to do the practical communication. In reading, they only understand the denotation, but know little language function and significance. Without the apprehension of the cultural connotations, students would apply the language freely. So teachers should harmonize the language learning with the culture background.
5. Enlightenment of English teaching
Any kind of language learning means not only studying the language system itself, but also studying about the knowledge of the cultural background and social customs that a language relies on. It is said that “To be bilingual, one must be bicultural.”[17] In lear ning our mother tongue, we understand our language while getting to know the cultural background. But in learning foreign languages, the development of linguistic competence and cultural competence always comes apart. Here are some suggestions about how to make students realize the cultural connotations of vocabulary and what should be done in English teaching.
5.1 The constitutions of syllabus
Etymologically syllabus means a “label” or “table of contents”. The Oxford Dictionary defines syllabus as “lists of subjects, topics, texts, etc. included in a course of study.”[18] We all know syllabus should contain an outline and a schedule of topics and many more items of information. However, we suggest that the primary purpose of a syllabus is to contact with students what the course is about, why the course is taught, what the most important point will be in the course, what will be required of the students for them to complete the course with a passing grade and what skills will be trained after learning. So we call it “the basic law” of foreign language teaching. In order to train students’ cultural competence, when making appropriate syllabus, the following two points should be taken into account: (i)Besides considering the structure, significance and
function of language, we should think about the problem about how to integrate language teaching with the lead-in of the culture of the language.(ii) And we had better make affirm what it should be emphasized particularly on during each period of introducing the cultural aspects. Only in this way, the theory and applications of linguistic system will be integrated together.
5.2 The choosing and composing of teaching materials
At the present time, there exists plenty of teaching materials—textbooks about languages. But what kinds of books are fit for our students? Traditional teaching materials are composed according to the whole language system. On the contrary, we should transform it into another way. They should be made to base on the facts of social language. To combine with the culture that the language refers to, we may design more programs and styles which reflect the character of that nationality, offering more proper and pure styles of languages, offering a certain copy of the authentic teaching materials.
For example:
(1) Students are wanted to know the usages and meanings of some idioms or slang. “go west” and “上西天” both mean “die”. But how to let students really understand this kind of saying? Teachers would introduce some cultural origins to students: the Ancient Egyptians considered “sun rising from the east” as “the starts of life”, while “sun hiding at the west” as “the ends of life”. Therefore they buried the dead bodies at the west coast of Nile. Such cultural background happens to be consistent with the view in the Chinese history. In China, we often consider that people would go to the west sky after they died.[19]
(2)Students are required to learn language from their daily life. “lay an egg” means “下蛋、产卵”. But in the English slang, people often understand it as “be lost completely”, which originates from a cricket game in ancient England. At that time, that the competitors got no score in the game would be teased as “make a duck’s egg”. Because the shape of “0” is like “a duck egg”, Chinese people also accept it to be the meaning--- score 0 in an exam.
Moreover, practical English and the authentic material are good for students. Designing more practical learning programs for students is to train students to speak pure English, not only cater for the grammatical rules. For example: teachers can cite some English papers from New York Times when teaching English to Chinese students. Students are required to guess the meaning of words behind the certain language circumstances. Teachers would use the words of the speech when China applies for the Olympic Games in 2008 to make students learn some good words and expressions to talk about what China is about, including industries, agriculture, natural resources and so on. Such knowledge of English is useful for all students.
In a word, to design a teaching material is to gather authentic languages and teaching activities together.
5.3 Teaching activities in-class and the art of teaching
While teaching, teachers are required to remember the principle “Never forget the cultural background.” Teachers are required to have good basic skills in language, and know much about foreign history, culture and so on. The most important is that they must be aware of culture between the lines. If not, how could a teacher who is only good at grammar teach students about the cultural connotations of the vocabulary?
During the teaching procedures, teachers should pay more attention to the cultural background that
the text is talking about and explain it in the form of “culture aside” at any time, pointing out the cultural connotations and stipulations. For example:
When teaching vocabulary, besides teaching the conceptual meaning of new words or idioms, teachers should also explain the certain background, allusions, literary quotations and derivations. When people want to express “willful misrepresentation” There is an idiom “指鹿为马” in our ancient history which also means “misrepresentation”. It originates from a story: The Qin Emperor Two’s Prime Minister, Zhao Gao, called “a stag” as “a horse” to test whether other ministers dare betray what he said. Some clever ministers misr epresent “a stag” to “a horse” and avoid being killed willfully. Of course if we keep the character of Han Nationality, we could translate “指鹿为马” into “call a stag a horse”. But no foreigner will understand. So we have to translate--- “call a stag a horse—willful misrepresentation”. Teachers should tell students that in our Chinese background, people will understand the meaning but foreigners fail to do this. So we should adjust it.
In class teachers should pay attention to the art of teaching and design some programs to make students adopt the cultural atmosphere.
Take “vocabulary teaching” for an example. As far as I know, the vocabulary teaching situations in China is far from satisfactory. Some teachers still teach vocabulary in traditional ways. Some of them just let students go and look up a new word in a dictionary, find the definition and then make a sentence with the word. But how much vocabulary can be retained and used in the future? Sometimes many of the words most needed have never been learned after months or even years of English. Some teachers think that students should focus more on reading while learning texts once vocabulary is taught beforehand. This method is neither effective nor interesting and it only sends students sleeping. There are some methods which integrate the study of the words with the connotations of words as follows:
5.3.1Contextual guessing of idioms
Students can guess meanings from context. This way helps them to understand not only the denotations of words, but also the connotations. In the given context, the certain words are
used ,representing the connotative meanings of them. For example: teaching idiom phrases based on “Trouble on Cloud Nine”(taken from Idio Magic by John Ryan,1994) [20] The idioms are in italics as following:
Roy had liked Sylvia for a long time. She was a really nice girl—one in a million. Talking to her made him nervous though. In fact, he didn’t invite her until the eleventh hour, the day before the dance. Sylvia wanted to go out with Roy, but she had to baby-sit her eight-year-old brother. “I promised my parents,” she said, “They can’t find anyone else to look after Joey.
“Hmm, that’s too bad,” said Roy. After a moment of thought he said, “How about taking him to the dance with us? We kill two bi rds with one stone.”
“I suppose we could. He’s not easy to handle, though.”
At 7:00, Roy drove to Sylvia’s house in his parents’ car. Sylvia wasn’t ready to go yet, so he chatted with her parents. “Keep an eye on Joey,” they told him, “He is a very active boy. Don’t let him pull a fast one on you.” Roy nodded, but their warning went in one ear and out the other. He wasn’t paying attention. He was thinking about Sylvia. Finally Sylvia was ready to go. She looked lovely. She called Joey in and introduced him to Roy.
“Is that your boyfriend?” Joey asked his sister. Roy blushed. “We’d better go, Sylvia,” he said quickly, “The school is very close. Would you like to walk or drive there?”
“Oh, it’s six of one, half a dozen of the other.” she replied.
“Let’s drive,then.” Roy said. He liked to show people that he could drive a car. The school gym was full of young people dressed to the nines……
At the contextual background, the connotations of idioms are explained and understood well. “the eleventh hour” means “the last moment 最后一刻”
“kill two birds with one stone” means “doing one thing can solve two troubles. 一箭双雕”
“pull a fast one” means “deceive sb. Or make trouble 欺骗或捣鬼”
“go in one ear and out the other” means “forget at once 一耳进一耳出”
“six of one, half a dozen of the other” means “ One situation is the same with the other. 半斤八两，各有千秋。”
“to the nines” means “perfectly 完美地”.
5.3.2By contrasting synonyms and antonyms
For example: in Chinese, we use “小屋” to express the meaning “a small house”. But in English, there are 4 words: “cabin, cottage, hut, shed”, each of which has different implications. “cabin” is “a rough wooden house”, it also means “the place where travelers live in”; “cottage” is “a small bothy where the poor live in”, it also means “villa” in American; “hut” is “a small house which is used to dodge rains and winds”; “shed” is “a simple shanty used to store things and not obdurate completely”. In English different words means different connotations so that they are used in different places.
Teachers introduce the difference between synonyms and antonyms, including the connotations. With the help of the cultural connotation, students would discriminate them.
5.4 Activities after-class
Teachers should channel students off to extend their cultural knowledge of the target language that they learn after class. Students would improve their knowledge through:
5.4.1 Extensive reading
Teachers should make students read more literary woks, newspapers and magazines in America and England, which causes students to accumulate the cultural background of every aspect, social customs and the knowledge of social relationship and trains students the competence and the realization of cross-cultural communication. [21]
5.4.2 Contacting more native English
Teachers should encourage students to watch more English films and advertisements because these films and advertisements epitomize a part of foreign culture and society.[22] Students would know much more non-verbal ways of communicating through appreciating the performance about the culture of the target knowledge. For example: When teaching a passage about America blacks. Teachers would play the video—“Do The Right Thing”, which tells the discrimination that blacks suffer from. Students will understand “the racial discrimination” after watching.
5.4.3 Discussion
Teachers should hold some discussions about the customs and culture of America and England in the form of culture capsules, then analyze the corresponding Chinese cultural background. The purpose is to discriminate two styles of culture and to train the sensitivity to the culture of the
target language. To hold a debate about “religion”, students are divided into two groups. One group is arranged to talk about “religion in China”, while the other “religion in western world”. After the debate, they would understand why foreigners don’t like “dragon” but Chinese people respect it. Bible is the divine criteria in their belief. As a result that westerners believe in Christianity, they often say: “thank Goodness.”---“谢天谢地” means “we should thank God of Christianity.”, which in China means “thank God of the Taoist religion and Buddhism”.
5.4.4Communication
Teachers should encourage students to contact with foreign teachers more. They can also take part in the English Corner, and go with them to do shopping, travel, celebrate festivals and so on. By contrasting with foreigners in daily life, students will feel the discrepancies and conflicts of two different cultures directly.
6. Conclusion
In a word, language and culture restrict one another, and influence one another. One language is one aspect of the social culture. Language and culture supplement each other. In language teaching, teachers should integrate language skills with the cultural connotations by a variety of channels, levels to impart the culture and knowledge of the target language to learners. As a result, linguistic competence of learners would be developed to the mature of cultural competence.
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[笔试] 专利翻译常见词汇列表 专利英语翻译 下面是我在网上偶尔看到的翻译，希望对大家有帮助。 该装置的特点是: The device is characterized in that 本实用新型采取的方法是: The methods of the utility model are that 其主要技术特征为: The utility model is characterized in that 本实用新型突出的优点是: The utility model has the advantages of 本实用新型同现有的技术相比: Compared with the prior art 本实用新型通过下述技术方案予以实现: The utility model is realized by the following technical scheme 本实用新型的任务是这样实现的: The task of the utility model is realized in such a way that 本方案具体特点还有: the scheme also has other specific features of 本实用新型主要技术特征是: The utility model is characterized in that 本实用新型克服了已有技术结构复杂: The utility model overcomes the complicated structure in the existing technology 本实用新型与现有技术结构产品相比: Compared with the product of the existing technique structure 它主要特点是: which is characterized in that 本实用新型同现有技术相比: Compared with the prior art 本实用新型弥补了现有技术的不足: The utility model makes up defects of the prior art 本实用新型解决了现有技术的不足之处: The utility model solves the defects existing in the prior art 其主要特征在于: The utility model is characterized in that 本实用新型解决问题的技术方案是: The technical scheme of the utility model for solving the problem be 且特征在于: The utility model is characterized in that 装置特点是: The device is characterized in that 主要特点是: which is characterized in that 通过上述优化结构: by the optimal structure 本实用新型的显著优点是: The remarkable advantages of the utility model are that 本实用新型克服了现有技术不足: The utility model overcomes the defects of the prior art 由于改进上述结构: Due to the improvement of the above structure 由于采用了这种结构: Due to the adoption of the structure 由于采用了以上改进: Due to the adoption of the improvement 本实用新型与公知技术相比: Compared with the common technique 本实用新型主要特征是: The utility model is characterized in that 其结构特点是: The structure is characterized in that 由于采用了以上技术方案: Due to the adoption of the technical scheme 由于采用此种结构: Due to the adoption of the structure 通过上述改进: by the improvement 本实用新型与传统工艺相反: The utility model is opposite to the traditional craft 本装置主要结构是: The primary structure of the device is that 本实用新型所要解决的技术问题是克服现有技术的不足: The technical problem to be
浅谈英语教学中的文化意识的培养 在英语教学中要注重语言和文化的关系，应提高对中西文化差异的敏感性和适应性，应树立文化意识并注重文化知识的传授。就本人 多年的教学经验拙议如下： 一、语言和文化 语言和文化是密不可分的。语言不仅仅是一套符号系统，人们的言语表现形式更要受语言赖以存在的社会/社团（community）的习俗，生活方式，行为方式，价值观念，思维方式，宗教信仰，民族心理和性格等的制约和影响（参见胡文仲：《文化与交际》，1994）。长期以来，在英语教学中语言和文化的这种关系一直未得到足够的重视。在教学实践中，似乎认为只要进行听，说，读，写的训练，掌握了语音，词汇和语法规则就能理解英语和用英语进行交际。而实际上由于不了解语言的文化背景，不了解中西文化的差异，在英语学习和用英语进行交际中屡屡出现歧义误解频繁，语用失误迭出的现象。如：用How much money can you earn a month?来表示对外国人的关心，殊不知这是一句冒犯的问话，侵犯了别人隐私（privacy），会激起对方的反感。中国人以谦逊为美德，如当外国人称赞中国人某一方面的特长时，中国人通常会用You are overpraising me (“过奖”)来应酬，这往往会让说话者感到你在怀疑他的判断力；抑或是用“Where? Where?”来回答，弄得外国人莫名其妙，不知所云。美国社会学家G.R.Tucker 和https://www.doczj.com/doc/b014566378.html,mbet对于外语教学中只教语言不教文化有这样的看法：“我们相信，任何这类企图都会使学生失
去兴趣，使他们不仅不想学习语言符号本身，而且也不想了解使用这一符号系统的民族。相反，帮助学生在学习语言时提高对文化的敏感性，就可以利用他们发自内心的想了解其他民族的兴趣和动力……，从而提供了学习该民族的语言的基础”。 二、中西文化的差异 不同民族的文化有可能存在某些相同或相似的地方，这被称为文化的偶合现象。这主要是由于不同的民族在与大自然作斗争的过程中会有相同或相似的生活体验和经历。这种相似性必然会反映到语言中来。因而在英语和汉语中，我们不难发现许多相同或相似的表达。例如：“披着羊皮的狼”，英语为wolf in sheep’s clothing；“同舟共济” ，英语为in the same boat；“破土动工”，英语为break ea rth；“三思而后行”，英语为think twice before you act；“蓝图”，英语为blue print，等等，这样的偶合现象不胜枚举。文化的这种偶合现象，可以促进English learners在目的语（target langua ge）学习中的“正迁移”（positive transfer）。但是，不同的民族所处的地理环境和历史环境不同，因而对不同的事物和经历有着不同的编码（code），分类；不同的民族因不同的宗教信仰，也导致了他们独特的笃信，崇尚和忌讳心态；不同的民族因其发展的特殊历史过程也产生了本民族自己的历史典故，传说轶事。如：汉语中的“龙”，“生死轮回”，“八卦”，“阴阳”，“气功”等，对不了解中国文化的外国人来说必然是云里雾里，不知何物。同样，当我们看到英语中He i s a wolf这个句子时，还以为是“这个人很凶”，实为“他是个好色之
国外大学结构及官衔 president(大学校长university dean(学校分院长college/school head of the faculty faculty head of the division division chairman department principal中学校长 headmaster小学校长 headmistress小学校长(女 新生入学及入学后大致过程 register/enrole(登记、报到一般会student union office opening ceremony(开学典礼 orientation meeting(介绍会指学校综合情况 lecture(报告 tutorial(一个学生发言那种 关于学科的单词 basic course基础课specialized course专业课 required course必修课optional/selective course选修课literature文学philosophy 哲学
history历史art艺术 sociology社会学linguistics语言学 psychology心理学engineering工程学 architecture建筑学business商务 law法学economics经济学 fiancé金融学accounting会计学 banking银行学biochemistry生物化学 相关教育单词 kindergarten幼儿园elementary education初等教育secondary education中等教育higher education高等教育adult education成人教育open admission免试入学制 day-care center幼儿园(美nursery school托儿所primary/elementary school小学(英/美 secondary school中学coeducation男女生同校制度 junior high school初中senior high school高中 attached middle school附中technical school技校polytechnic institute理工学院/科技大学key school重点中学graduate school研究生院open university夜大、函大private school私立学校public school公立学校 universal education普及教育educationist/educator教育家postgraduate研究生alumnus/alumna校友(男/女 undergraduate本科alma mater母校 auditor=guest student旁听生
初中英语课堂中的创新教育 初中英语课堂中的创新教育 以培养创新精神和实践能力为重点的素质教育是当今教育改革的主旋律，课堂教学则是培养学生创新精神及实践能力的主阵地。如何转变教育观念、弃旧汲新，培养出一代有扎实基础、有创新精神、有开拓能力的高素质人才是当今教师的首要任务。放眼当今世界，科学技术突飞猛进，知识经济已见端倪。教育的发展已经与国家的安危、民族的兴衰息息相关。因此，培养具有创新思维能力的新型人才，已经成为当务之急。由“应试教育”向“素质教育”转轨，是我国教育思想，教育观念，教育模式的一次飞跃性变革。英语教学工作也必须顺应时代的要求，构建新的模式，探索新的途径。中小学生英语课堂教学需要创新。时代在发展，形势在变化，英语教学发展不断呈现出新特点，英语课堂教学要适应新情况，解决新问题，就需要在继承以往英语课堂教学的经验和成果的同时善于创新。离开创新，如果简单地沿用过去的思路和办法，英语教学显然难于奏效。 长期以来，中国教育一直受传统的“应试教育”的影响，学生学习被动且负担过重，主体意识和参与能力不强，独创精神欠缺。因此，在与西方学生的比较中，我国学生的创造能力往往偏低。正如著名教育家尼尔波斯特曼所批评的：“孩子们入学时像个‘问号’，毕业时却像个‘句号’，这只能是学校教育的失败。”因此，我们的课堂教学只有在创新中求发展。 一、什么是创新教育 创新教育是在创造教育思想基础上，根据“创造学”和“教育学”原理，针对传统教育中有碍人的创造力提高的问题而提出的。 所谓创新教育就是培养学生综合的创新素质。它包括：创新意识与动机、创造精神、创新能力和创造个性等要素。 创新教育是通过“创造的引导者”——教师应用创造性思维教学策略提供创造的环境，能激发“创造者”——学生的“创造动机”，培养“创造的人格物质”，以发挥创造的潜能，而有创造的行为或结果。就其目的而言，创新教育在于启发学生的创造动机，鼓励学生创造地表现，以增进创造才能的发展。就其内涵来看，它是教师通过课程内容及有计划的教学活动，以激发和增长学生创造行为的一种教学模式。就教师本身来讲，创新教育要求教师因时制宜，变化教学方式进行创造性思维教学。 创新教育的课堂教学有以下几个特征： 1、创设自由、安全、和谐的情境和气氛。 2、学习活动以学生为主体，在教学中教师不独占整个教学活动时间。 3、注重激发学生兴趣，鼓励学生表达与容忍不同的意见，不急于下判断。 4、鼓励学生应用想象力，增进其创造性思维能力。 创新教育，也可以说是指导学生发展创造的才能，鼓励学生经由创造的过程，学习做有效创造的活动。 二、英语课堂教学中如何实施创新教育 英语课堂教学要创新首先要树立正确的学生观，许多科学家的研究证明：“人的大脑就像一个沉睡的巨人，它比世界上最强大的电脑还要强几千倍。”因此，教师要以人为本，相信潜能，相信学生能够独立学习，自主学习，要用发展的眼光看待学生，相信每个学生都有很大的可塑性，是不断变化发展与进步的个体。所以，教师在课堂教学中必须树立正确的学生观，实施“因材施教”，做到尖子生吃饱，中差生吃好。使全体学生自主参与，激励竞争，形成一个“兵教兵，兵教官，官教兵”，全班学生共同提高的统一整体。老师的任务是教会学生学习，而不应把学生看作是只会输入的“机器”，要了解，我们的学生也和我们一样，
大梁girder 复式桁架complex truss 承受withstand 拉伸 stretch 屈曲 buckle 断裂brea k可行的feasible 地基土subsoil 面板deck 柔性的flexible 索 cable 桥台 abutment 传递 transmit 相交 intersect 推力 thrust The amount of bridge traffic 桥梁交通流量 jammed traffic 交通堵塞cost 费用financing 筹款Acquire 获取survey 勘察Tide 潮汐 Flood 洪水 current 水流 Bore 钻孔samples of soil and rock 岩土试样 Girder 大梁cantilever 悬臂梁truss 桁架arch 拱suspension 悬索location 地理位置 purposes 功用Span length 跨度Strength 强度harmony 协调 Alloy steels 合金钢 Steel wires 钢丝tension 拉力compression 压力bending 弯曲 shear 剪力torsion 扭矩Static loads 静载 vehicle 车辆impact 冲击vibration 振动Dynamic loads 动载live loads 活载tremors 地震震动Floating debris 浮物model testing 模型测试 Scale-down model test 缩尺模型试验Wind tunnel tests 风洞试验 Erect安装 cofferdams 围堰caissons 沉箱piles 桩上部结构 superstructure False work 脚手架 Floatation 浮运 cantilevering 悬 lifting 提升suspension悬吊 signs 标识 guardrails 护栏 Sea Works海洋工程maritime engineering 海事工程 Fishing ports渔港 marinas码头Reclamation and conservancy填海与保护 Maintenance 维护 estuaries河口Hydraulic水力的 Natural harbor天然海港 artificial harbor人工海港 Tidal cycle潮汐周期 scour冲刷 siltation淤积 breakwater防波堤 Secondary wave次生波 Reflected wave反射波 disturbances干扰 Bay海湾 jetty防波堤mole防波堤 locality地区 conservancy保护 ruin废墟 wharf码头alluvial冲积的 destructive破坏的 bar沙滩 anchorage锚地 littoral drift沿岸漂浮物 coast海岸 maintain保持 beach海滩 frailty弱点 craft工艺 indestructibility不可破坏性 implement执行outlast比…经久 durability耐久性 ingress入口 egress出口 underpin 支撑 dewater排水 hydraulic cement水硬性水泥 lime石灰dam水坝 retain保持 discharge流量 hydroelectric水电的
abandonment of a patent 放弃专利权abandonment of a patent application 放弃专利申请 abridgment 文摘 abstract 文摘(摘要) abuse of patent 滥用专利权 action for infringement of patent 专利侵权诉讼 action of a patent 专利诉讼 address for service 文件送达地址affidavit 誓书 allowance 准许 amendment 修改 annual fee 年费 annuity 年费 anticipation 占先 appeal 上诉 appellation of origin 原产地名称applicant for patent 专利申请人application date 申请日期 application documents 申请案文件application fee 申请费 application for patent 专利申请(案) application laying open for public inspection 公开供公众审查的申请application number 申请号 application papers 申请案文件arbitration 仲裁 art 技术 article of manufacture 制品 assignee 受让人 assignment 转让 assignor 转让人 author of the invention 发明人 author's certificate 发明人证书 basic patent 基本专利 Berne Convention 伯尔尼公约 Berne Union 伯尔尼联盟 best mode 最佳方式 bibliographic data 著录资料 BIRPI 保护知识产权联合国国际局 board of appeals 申诉委员会 breach of confidence 泄密Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of the Deposit of Microorganisms for the Purposes of Patent Procedure 国际承认用于专利程序的微生物保存布达佩斯条约 burden of proof 举证责任 case law 判例法 caveat 预告 certificate of addition 增补证书 certificate of correction 更正证明书certificate of patent 专利证书 certified copy 经认证的副本 Chemical Abstracts 化学文摘 citation 引证 claim 权项 classifier 分类员 co-applicants 共同申请人 co-inventors 共同发明人 color coding 色码制 commissioner 专利局长 Community Patent Convention 共同体专利公约 complete application 完整的申请案complete description 完整的叙述complete specification 完整的说明书comptroller 专利局长 compulsory license 强制许可证conception 概念 conception date 概念日期 confidential application 机密申请confidential information 保密情报 conflict award 冲突裁定 conflict procedure 冲突程序 conflicting applications 冲突申请案continuation application 继续申请continuation-in-part application 部分继续申请案 contractual license 契约性许可证contributory infringement 简介侵犯convention application 公约申请convention country 公约国 convention date 公约日期 Convention Establishing the World
龙源期刊网 https://www.doczj.com/doc/b014566378.html, 英语教学中的文化意识 作者：邱胜尧 来源：《读写算》2014年第05期 在美国有这样一个尽人皆知的句子：“When you’re down，you are not necessarily out.”但是许多English learners却对其含义不甚了了。原因是不了解这句话的文化背景。这原是一句拳击术语，在拳击比赛中拳击手若被对方击倒，裁判数到10还不能起来则被判输。但在很多情况下不等裁判数到10，倒地的拳击手便能爬起来再战。因此，这句话的表层意思是：当你被人击倒，并不意味着输了这场比赛。其寓意为：当你遇到挫折，并不一定丧失了成功的机会。 由此我们可以得到启示：在英语教学中要注重语言和文化的关系，应提高对中西文化差异的敏感性和适应性，应树立文化意识并注重文化知识的传授。 一、语言和文化 语言和文化是密不可分的。语言不仅仅是一套符号系统，人们的言语表现形式更要受语言赖以存在的社会/社团（community）的习俗，生活方式，行为方式，价值观念，思维方式，宗教信仰，民族心理和性格等的制约和影响（参见胡文仲：《文化与交际》，1994）。长期以来，在英语教学中语言和文化的这种关系一直未得到足够的重视。在教学实践中，似乎认为只要进行听，说，读，写的训练，掌握了语音，词汇和语法规则就能理解英语和用英语进行交际。而实际上由于不了解语言的文化背景，不了解中西文化的差异，在英语学习和用英语进行交际中屡屡出现歧义误解频繁，语用失误迭出的现象。如：用How much money can you earn a month？来表示对外国人的关心，殊不知这是一句冒犯的问话，侵犯了别人隐私（privacy），会激起对方的反感。中国人以谦逊为美德，如当外国人称赞中国人某一方面的特长时，中国人通常会用You are overpraising me （“过奖”）来应酬，这往往会让说话者感到你在怀疑他的判断力；抑或是用“Where？ Where？”来回答，弄得外国人莫名其妙，不知所云。美国社会学家G.R.Tucker 和https://www.doczj.com/doc/b014566378.html,mbet对于外语教学中只教语言不教文化有这样的看法：“我们相信，任何这类企图都会使学生失去兴趣，使他们不仅不想学习语言符号本身，而且也不想了解使用这一符号系统的民族。相反，帮助学生在学习语言时提高对文化的敏感性，就可以利用他们发自内心的想了解其他民族的兴趣和动力……，从而提供了学习该民族的语言的基础”。 二、中西文化的偶合现象与文化差异 不同民族的文化有可能存在某些相同或相似的地方，这被称为文化的偶合现象。这主要是由于不同的民族在与大自然作斗争的过程中会有相同或相似的生活体验和经历。这种相似性必然会反映到语言中来。因而在英语和汉语中，我们不难发现许多相同或相似的表达。例如：“披着羊皮的狼”，英语为wolf in sheep’s clothing；“同舟共济” ，英语为in the same boat；“破土动工”，英语为break earth；“三思而后行”，英语为 think twice before you act；“蓝图”，英语为
文化交流（Cultural Exchange） 一、词汇 汉字的四声（平声、上声、仄声和去声）the four tones of Chinese characters, namely, the level tone, the rising tone, the falling-rising tone, and the falling tone 笔画stroke 部首radical 偏旁basic character component 象形文字pictograph 独角戏monodrama/one-man play 皮影戏shadow play 折子戏opera highlights 单口相声monologue comic talk 对口相声comic cross talk 说书monologue story-telling 传说legend 神话mythology 寓言fable 武术martial art 气功controlled breathing exercise 气功疗法breathing technique therapy 春联spring couplet 剪纸paper-cut 戏剧脸谱theatrical mask 草药的四气：寒、热、温、凉four properties of medicinal herb: cold, hot, warm and cool 草药的五味：酸、苦、甘、辛、咸five tastes of medicinal herb: sour, bitter, sweet, hot and salty 二十四节气the twenty-four solar terms 天干地支the heavenly stems and earthly branches 清明节the Pure Brightness Day 端午节the Dragon Boat Festival 中秋节the Mid-Autumn Festival 文化事业cultural undertaking 民族文化national culture 民间文化folk culture 乡土文化native/country culture 跨文化交流cross-cultural communication 文化冲击culture shock 表演艺术performing art 舞台艺术stage art 流行艺术popular/pop art 高雅艺术elegant/high art 电影艺术cinematographic art
小学英语课堂教学中的创新教育浅谈 创新是一个民族进步的灵魂,是一个国家兴旺发达的动力, 创新教育是素质教育的延伸与提高。为适应当前时代的要求，创新教育已成为当今教育改革的主旋律,课堂教学则是培养学生创新精神及实践能力的主阵地。但是长久以来,受应试教育的影响,教师在教学中忽视了学生创新意识和创造能力的培养。如何在小学英语课堂教学中进行创新教育，是我们每位英语教师值得深思的课题。以下是我结合几年来的英语教学实践谈谈自己的看法。 Innovation is the soul of a nation, is a driving force for national p rosperity, innovation education is the extending and promoting the qu ality education. In order to meet the requirements of the times, the innovation education has become the main theme of current education r eform, classroom teaching is the main position of cultivating student s' innovative spirit and practice ability. But for a long time, the i mpact of examination-oriented education, training of teachers in teac hing ignores students' innovation consciousness and creative ability. How to carry out innovative education in primary school English clas sroom teaching, is each of our English teacher thought-provoking topi c. The following is my with several years of English teaching practic e to talk about his own views. 一、激发兴趣，是培养学生创新意识的动力源泉。 A, stimulate interest, is the source of power to cultivate students' innovative consciousness. “兴趣是最好的老师”。从生理、心理的角度来看，学生对所学内容产生了兴趣，大脑就会立即引起兴奋，思维变得敏捷和活跃，在学习中就能进入最佳状态，并能兴致勃勃地全身心投入，从而收到事半功倍的效果。为此，我在教学中根据教材内容，去了解学生的喜好，采用教学卡片、图片等直观教具以及学生喜欢的游戏、竞赛、绘画、表演、唱歌，chant等形式，在教学中集知识和趣味为一体,以满足学生好动、好奇的心理，调动学生的积极性。 " Interest is the best teacher ". From the physiological, psychologic al point of view, students interested in the learning content, the br ain will immediately excited, thinking more agile and active, can ent
第一部分必须掌握，第二部分尽量掌握 第一部分： 1 Finite Element Method 有限单元法 2 专业英语Specialty English 3 水利工程Hydraulic Engineering 4 土木工程Civil Engineering 5 地下工程Underground Engineering 6 岩土工程Geotechnical Engineering 7 道路工程Road (Highway) Engineering 8 桥梁工程Bridge Engineering 9 隧道工程Tunnel Engineering 10 工程力学Engineering Mechanics 11 交通工程Traffic Engineering 12 港口工程Port Engineering 13 安全性safety 17木结构timber structure 18 砌体结构masonry structure 19 混凝土结构concrete structure 20 钢结构steelstructure 21 钢-混凝土复合结构steel and concrete composite structure 22 素混凝土plain concrete 23 钢筋混凝土reinforced concrete 24 钢筋rebar 25 预应力混凝土pre-stressed concrete 26 静定结构statically determinate structure 27 超静定结构statically indeterminate structure 28 桁架结构truss structure 29 空间网架结构spatial grid structure 30 近海工程offshore engineering 31 静力学statics 32运动学kinematics 33 动力学dynamics 34 简支梁simply supported beam 35 固定支座fixed bearing 36弹性力学elasticity 37 塑性力学plasticity 38 弹塑性力学elaso-plasticity 39 断裂力学fracture Mechanics 40 土力学soil mechanics 41 水力学hydraulics 42 流体力学fluid mechanics 43 固体力学solid mechanics 44 集中力concentrated force 45 压力pressure 46 静水压力hydrostatic pressure 47 均布压力uniform pressure 48 体力body force 49 重力gravity 50 线荷载line load 51 弯矩bending moment 52 torque 扭矩53 应力stress 54 应变stain 55 正应力normal stress 56 剪应力shearing stress 57 主应力principal stress 58 变形deformation 59 内力internal force 60 偏移量挠度deflection 61 settlement 沉降 62 屈曲失稳buckle 63 轴力axial force 64 允许应力allowable stress 65 疲劳分析fatigue analysis 66 梁beam 67 壳shell 68 板plate 69 桥bridge 70 桩pile 71 主动土压力active earth pressure 72 被动土压力passive earth pressure 73 承载力load-bearing capacity 74 水位water Height 75 位移displacement 76 结构力学structural mechanics 77 材料力学material mechanics 78 经纬仪altometer 79 水准仪level 80 学科discipline 81 子学科sub-discipline 82 期刊journal ,periodical 83文献literature 84 ISSN International Standard Serial Number 国际标准刊号 85 ISBN International Standard Book Number 国际标准书号 86 卷volume 87 期number 88 专着monograph 89 会议论文集Proceeding 90 学位论文thesis, dissertation 91 专利patent 92 档案档案室archive 93 国际学术会议conference 94 导师advisor 95 学位论文答辩defense of thesis 96 博士研究生doctorate student 97 研究生postgraduate 98 EI Engineering Index 工程索引 99 SCI Science Citation Index 科学引文索引 100ISTP Index to Science and Technology Proceedings 科学技术会议论文集索引 101 题目title 102 摘要abstract 103 全文full-text 104 参考文献reference 105 联络单位、所属单位affiliation 106 主题词Subject 107 关键字keyword 108 ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers 美国土木工程师协会 109 FHWA Federal Highway Administration 联邦公路总署
专利词汇 abandonment of a patent 放弃专利权 abandonment of a patent application 放弃专利申请abridgment 文摘 abstract 文摘(摘要) abuse of patent 滥用专利权 action for infringement of patent 专利侵权诉讼 action of a patent 专利诉讼 address for service 文件送达地址 affidavit 誓书 allowance 准许 amendment 修改 annual fee 年费 annuity 年费 anticipation 占先 appeal 上诉 appellation of origin 原产地名称 applicant for patent 专利申请人 application date 申请日期 application documents 申请案文件 application fee 申请费 application for patent 专利申请(案) application laying open for public inspection 公开供公众审查的申请 application number 申请号 application papers 申请案文件 arbitration 仲裁 art 技术 article of manufacture 制品 assignee 受让人 assignment 转让 assignor 转让人 author of the invention 发明人 author's certificate 发明人证书 basic patent 基本专利 Berne Convention 伯尔尼公约 Berne Union 伯尔尼联盟 best mode 最佳方式 bibliographic data 著录资料 BIRPI 保护知识产权联合国国际局 board of appeals 申诉委员会 breach of confidence 泄密 Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of the Deposit of Microorganisms for the Purposes of Patent Procedure 国际承认用于专利程序的微生物保存布达佩斯条约 burden of proof 举证责任 case law 判例法 caveat 预告 certificate of addition 增补证书certificate of correction 更正证明书 certificate of patent 专利证书 certified copy 经认证的副本 Chemical Abstracts 化学文摘 citation 引证 claim 权项 classifier 分类员 co-applicants 共同申请人 co-inventors 共同发明人 color coding 色码制 commissioner 专利局长 Community Patent Convention 共同体专利公约 complete application 完整的申请案 complete description 完整的叙述 complete specification 完整的说明书 comptroller 专利局长 compulsory license 强制许可证 conception 概念 conception date 概念日期 confidential application 机密申请 confidential information 保密情报 conflict award 冲突裁定 conflict procedure 冲突程序 conflicting applications 冲突申请案 continuation application 继续申请 continuation-in-part application 部分继续申请案contractual license 契约性许可证 contributory infringement 简介侵犯 convention application 公约申请 convention country 公约国 convention date 公约日期 Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization 建立世界知识产权组织公约 convention period 公约期限 convention priority 公约优先权 copyright 版权 correction slip 勘误表 counter pleadings 反诉状 counterclaim 反诉 country code 国家代号 cross license 交叉许可证 data 资料 data exchange agreement 资料交换协议 data of application 申请日期 date of grant 授予日期 date of issue 颁发日期 date of patent 专利日期 date of publication 公布日期 dedication to the public 捐献于公众 defendant 被告人 defenses 辩护
A Type Wooden Ladder A字木梯 A-frame A型骨架 A-truss A型构架 Abandon 废弃 Abandoned well 废井 Aberration of needle 磁针偏差Abnormal pressure 异常压力abnormally high pressure 异常高压Abort 中止 abrasion 磨损 Abrasion surface 浪蚀面 abrasive cut-off machine 磨切机Abrasive Cutting Wheel 拮碟abrasive grinding machine 研磨机Abrasive Grinding Wheel 磨碟abrasive particle 磨料颗粒 Absolute address 绝对地址Absolute altitude 绝对高度Absolute damping 绝对阻尼Absolute deviation 绝对偏差Absolute flying height 绝对航高Absolute gravity 绝对重力 absolute permeability 绝对渗透率absolute porosity 绝对孔隙率absolute temperature 绝对温度absorbability 吸收性；吸附性absorption 吸收 abutment 桥墩 abutting end 邻接端 acceleration 加速 acceleration lane 加速车道Acceleration of gravity 重力加速度acceleration pedal 加速器踏板accelerator 催凝剂；加速器；催化剂acceptance criteria 接受准则 access 通路；通道 access door 检修门；通道门access lane 进出路径 access panel 检修门 access point 入口处；出入通道处access ramp 入口坡道；斜通道access road 通路；通道 access shaft 竖井通道 access spiral loop 螺旋式回旋通道access staircase 通道楼梯 access step 出入口踏步 access tunnel 隧道通道 accessible roof 可到达的屋顶accessory 附件；配件accident 事故；意外 accidental collapse 意外坍塌 accommodate 装设；容纳 accredited private laboratory 认可的私 人实验室 accumulator 储压器；蓄电池 accuracy limit 精度限制 acetylene cylinder 乙炔圆筒 Acetylene Hose 煤喉 Acetylene Regulator 煤表 acid plant 酸洗设备；酸洗机 acid pump 酸液泵 acid tank 酸液缸 acidic rock 酸性岩 acoustic couplant 声耦合剂 acoustic coupler 声音藕合器；音效藕 合器 acoustic lining 隔音板 acoustic screen 隔声屏 Acoustic wave 声波 acrylic paint 丙烯漆料(压克力的油漆) acrylic sheet 丙烯胶片(压克力的胶片) active corrosion 活性腐蚀 active earth pressure 主动土压力 active fault 活断层 active oxidation 活性氧化 actual plot ratio 实际地积比率 actuator 促动器；唧筒；激发器 adapt 改装 adaptor 适配器；承接器；转接器； addition 增设；加建 additional building works 增补建筑工 程 additional horizontal force 额外横向力 additional plan 增补图则(附加的平面 图) additional vent 加设通风口 additive 添加剂 Address 地址 adhesive 黏结剂；胶黏剂 adhesive force 附着力 Adhesive Glue 万能胶 Adhesive Reflective Warning Tape 反 光警告贴纸 adit 入口；通路；坑道口 adjacent construction 相邻建造物 adjacent level 相邻水平 adjacent site 相邻基地 adjacent street 相邻街道 adjoining area 毗邻地区 adjoining building 毗邻建筑物 adjoining land 毗邻土地 adjoining structure 毗邻构筑物 adjustable 可调校 Adjustable Wrench Spanner 昔士 adjuster 调节器 adjustment 调校；调整 Administrative Lawsuit 行政诉讼 Administrative Remedy 行政救济 admixture 掺合剂；外加剂 advance directional sign 前置指路标 志；方向预告标志 advance earthworks 前期土方工程 advance warning sign 前置警告标志 advance works 前期工程 aeration 曝气 aeration tank 曝气池 aerial 天线 Aerial mapping 航空测图 aerial photograph 航测照片 Aerial photography 航照定位 aerial rapid transit system 高架快速运 输系统 aerial ropeway 高架缆车系统 aerial view 鸟瞰图 aerofoil 翼型 aerosol 悬浮微粒；喷雾 aerosphere 大气圈 affix 贴附 aftercooler 后冷却器 afterfilter 后过滤器 aftershock 余震 agent 作用剂；代理人 aggradation 堆积 aggregate 骨材；集料；碎石 aggregate area 总面积 aggregate grading 骨材级配 aggregate superficial area 表面总面积 aggregate usable floor space 总楼地板 空间 agitator 搅拌器；搅动机 air bleeding 放气(空气渗出) air blower 鼓风机 air brake 气压制动器 Air chambor 气室 air circuit 空气回路 air circuit breaker 空气断路器 air cleaner 空气滤清器