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第一章语言的性质
语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学
语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学
发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学
音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学
词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；
自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学
词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语
与搭配。
第七章句法
句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；
句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学
语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics
1.1. What is language?
“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.
1.3 Design features of language
The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.
1.3.1 Arbitrariness
Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.
1.3.2 Duality
Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two
levels has its own principles of organization.
1.3.3 Creativity
Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without
any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the
possibility of creating endless sentences.
1.3.4 Displacement
Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.
加1 Each sound in the language is treated as discrete.
加2 the direct/non-arbitrary/non-symbolic relation between meaning and form. There are resemblances between the language form and what
they refer to. That relationship is called icon. Iconicity exists in sounds,
lexicons and syntax. It is the motivation between language forms and
meanings. It is a relation of resemblance between language form and what
they refer to.
What is cultural transmission?
This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation
to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned
anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human
beings(N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a
genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a
cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog?s barking system. If a
human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The
Wolf Child r eared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf?s
roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small
difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.
What is interchangeability?
Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer
and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can
receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me
happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex
differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women
may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or
sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the
other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the
listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and
the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social
communication possible and acceptable.
Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or
cannot?) , and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a
dog barks, all the neighbouring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly
tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which listening.
Why do linguists say language is human specific?
First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal
communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of
them(see I .2-8). Let?s borrow C. F. Hocket?s Chart that compares human
language with some animals? systems, fr om Wang Gang(1998,p.8).
Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as
chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing
inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human
child by Beatnice and Alan Gard ner. She was taught “American sign
Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot
make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching
chimpanzees.
Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human
language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the
“Wolf Child”in I.7)
1.5 Functions of language
As is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:
1. Referential: to convey message and information;
2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;
3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;
4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;
5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;
6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.
three metafunctions:
1. function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is
unknown to the hearer;
embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;
3.
of spoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living
passage different from a random list of sentences.
According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:
1.5.1 Informative
The informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.
1.5.2 Interpersonal function
The interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.
1.5.3 Performative
The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children,
the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.
1.5.4 Emotive function
The emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or
something.
1.5.5 Phatic communion
The phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day,etc., to
maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.
1.5.6 Recreational function
The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby?s babbling or a chanter?s chanting.
1.5.7 Metalingual function
The metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the
word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.
1.6 What is linguistics?
Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.
What makes linguistics a science?
Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.
1.7 Main branches of linguistics
1.7.1 Phonetics
Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.
1.7.2 Phonology
Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.
1.7.3 Morphology
Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.
1.7.4 Syntax
Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.
1.7.5 Semantics
Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.
1.7.6 Pragmatics
Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context.
1.8 Macrolinguistics
1.8.1 Psycholinguistics
1.8.2 Sociolinguistics
1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics
1.8.4 Computational linguistics
To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually
conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.
Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.
For example, “Don?t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don?t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and
describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were
studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the
nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of
prescription.
1.9.2
A synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of
observation. Saussure?s diachronic description is the study of a language through the
course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare?s
time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then
would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy
priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language
are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken
place in its historical development.
1.9.3
Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and
systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken
by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do,
according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the
regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.
1.9.4
According to Chomsky, a language user?s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete
situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and
understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes
and ambiguities. A speaker?s competence is stable while his performance is often
influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker?s performance does not
always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study
competence, rather than performance. Chomsky?s competence-performance distinction
is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure?s langue-parole distinction.
Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence
is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more
from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals
with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.
1.9.5 Etic vs. emic
Being etic means researcher s?making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics
analysis in linguistics proper.
An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to
the investigator?s ingenuity or intuition alone.
What is speech and what is writing?
No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds : individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.
In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore. What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior?
These two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, were made by M. A. K. Halliday in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).
In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?
Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker?s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or
repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
2.1 Speech production and perception
Phonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:
1. – the study of the production of speech sounds
2. –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in
speech
3. – the study of perception of speech sounds
Most phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.
How are the vocal organs formed?
The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al.,p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.
2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription
2.3.2 Phonetic transcription
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International
Phonetic Association. The symbols consist of letters and diacritics. Some letters are
taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.
What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?
In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinction between “narrow” and “broad” transc riptions, which he called “Narrow Romic”. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.
What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology?
(1) “Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.
(2) Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a
phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make u p new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one?s language.
What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?
A “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speec h sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different[p]?s, readily making possible th e “narrow transcription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].
The phones representing a phoneme are called its “allophones”, i. e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]?s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.
What are minimal pairs?
When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).
What is free variation?
If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”. The plosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme. What is complementary distribution?
When tw o sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after, and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of[l], for example, are also in complementary distribution. The clear[l] occurs only before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of[l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words “please”, “butler”, “clear”, e tc., and the dark[l] occurs only after a vowel or as a syllabic sound after a consonant, such as in the words “feel”, “help”, “middle”, etc.
What is the assimilation rule? What is the deletion rule?
(1) The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal[n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix “in-“ serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as [in], or [im] when occurring in different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete-[ ](alveolar)
inconceivable-[ ](velar)
input-[…imput](bilabial)
The “deletion rule” tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented. While the letter “g” is mute in “sign”, “design” and “paradigm”, it is pronounced in their corresponding derivatives: “signature”,“designation” and “paradigmatic”. The rule then can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling (see Dai Weidong ,pp22-23).
2.4 Consonants
How do phoneticians classify vowels?
Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,];
(4) rounded and unround vowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, e.g.[I,].
2.4.3 Manners of articulation
1. Stop/plosive:
2. Fricative:
3. (Median) approximant:
4. Lateral (approximant):
2.4.4 Places of articulation
1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.
2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upper
front teeth.
3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and the
upper front teeth.
4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and the
alveolar ridge.
5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the back
of the alveolar ridge.
6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curled
back so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the
back of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.
7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and the
hard palate.
8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft
palate.
9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the
uvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of
the velum.
10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and the
walls of the pharynx.
11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal folds
pushed towards each other.
2.4.5 The consonants of English
Received Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation.
It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it
is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most
newsreaders of the BBC network.
[b] voiced bilabial stop
[s] voiceless alveolar fricative
[z] voiced alveolar fricative
[m] bilabial nasal
[n] alveolar nasal
[l] alveolar lateral
[j] palatal approximant
[h] glottal fricative
[r] alveolar approximant
Chapter 3 Lexicon
3.1 What is word?
1. What is a lexeme?
A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be
distinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”
2. What is a morpheme?
A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression
and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes”
has two morphemes: “box”and “es,”neither of which permits further division or analysis
shapes if we don?t want to sacrifice its meaning.
3. What is an allomorph?
An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse –mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.
4. What is a word?
A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete
utterance in speech or writing.
3.1.1 Three senses of “word”
1. A physically definable unit
2. The common factor underlying a set of forms
3. A grammatical unit
3.1.2 Identification of words
1. Stability
2. Relative uninterruptibility
3. A minimum free form
3.1.3 Classification of words
1. Variable and invariable words
2. Grammatical words and lexical words
3. Closed-class words and open-class words
4. Word class
What are open classes? What are closed classes?
In English, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are “open -class words”, since we can regularly add new lexical entries to these classes. The other syntactic categories are, for the most part, closed classes, or closed-class words. The number of them is hardly alterable, if they are changeable at all.
3.2 The formation of word
3.2.1 Morpheme and morphology
Morphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.
3.2.2 Types of morphemes
1.
Free morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes.
Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.
2.Root, affix and stem
A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed. An affix is
the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to
another morpheme. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to
which an inflectional affix can be added.
3. Inflectional affix and derivational affix
Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case,
which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.
The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational
morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways:
(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicate grammatical
meaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s, etc. Therefore, they serve
to produce different forms of a single word. In contrast, derivational
affixes often change the lexical meaning. E.g. cite, citation, etc.
(2) Inflectional affixes don?t change the word class of the word they attach to,
such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not,
such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that
between brother and brotherhood for the latter.
(3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by nonsemantic linguistic
factors outside the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence.
E.g. the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the internet.” is
determined by the subject the boy in the sentence, whereas derivational
affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions. E.g. The
choice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talk
about the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of being
clever.”
(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always
word final. E.g. drums, walks,etc. But derivational affixes can be
prefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, etc.
3.2.3 Inflection and word formation
1. Inflection
Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case,
which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.
2. Word formation
Word formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound)
and derivational type (derivation).
(1) Compound
Compounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form,
such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded,
wedding-ring, etc.
The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is deverbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, it is also called a verbal
compound or a synthetic compound. Usually, the first member is a participant
of the process verb. E.g. Nouns: self-control, pain-killer, etc. Adjectives:
virus-sensitive, machine washable, etc. The exocentric compounds are formed
by V + N, V + A, and V + P, whereas the exocentric come from V + N and V +
A. E.g. Nouns: playboy, cutthroat, etc. Adjectives: breakneck, walk-in, etc.
(2) Derivation
Derivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes. In contrast with inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original word either
changed or unchanged.
3.2.4 The counterpoint of phonology and morphology
1. Allomorph: Any of the different forms of a morpheme.
2. Morphophonology / morphophonemics: Morphophonology is a branch of
linguistics referring to the analysis and classification of the phonological
factors that affect the appearance of morphemes, and correspondingly, the
grammatical factors that affect the appearance of phonemes. It is also called
morphonology or morphonemics.
3. Assimilation: Assimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of the
influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact” or
“contiguous” assimilation.
4. Dissimilation: Dissimilation refers to the influence exercised by one sound
segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,
or different.
3.3 Lexical change
3.3.1 Lexical change proper
1. Invention
Since economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or
their brand names.
2. Blending
Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the
second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.
3. Abbreviation / clipping
A new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part or
cutting both the initial parts of the original words.
4. Acronym
Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.
5. Back-formation
Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imaged affix from a longer form already in the
language.
6. Analogical creation
The principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.
7. Borrowing
English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic and
other languages have all played an active role in this process.
3.3.2 Phonological change
1.Loss
The loss of sound can first refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system. The loss of sounds may also occur in
utterances at the expense of some unstressed words.
2. Addition
Sounds may be lost but they may also be added to the original sound sequence.
3. Metathesis
Metathesis is a process involving an alternation in the sequence of sounds.
Metathesis had been originally a performance error, which was overlooked and
accepted by the speech community.
4. Assimilation
Assimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact”or “contiguous”
assimilation.
3.3.3 Morpho-syntactical change
1. Morphological change
The form of inflectional affixes may also change.
2. Syntactical change
There are more instances of changes in the syntactical features of words
3.3.4 Semantic change
1. Broadening
Broadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its specific sense to a relatively general one.
2. Narrowing
Contrary to broadening, the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.
3. Meaning shift
All semantic changes involve meaning shift. Here meaning shift is understood in its narrow sense, i.e. the change of meaning has nothing to do with
generalization or restriction as mentioned above.
4. Class shift
By shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation
is also known as zero-derivation, or conversion.
5. Folk etymology
Folk etymology refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from the
influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.
3.3.5 Orthographic change
Changes can also be found at the graphitic level. Since writing is a recording of the sound system in English, phonological changes will no doubt set off graphitic changes.
End of Chapter 3
Chapter 4 Syntax
What is syntax?
“Syntax” is the study of the rules governing the ways in which words, word groups and phrases are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between sentential elements.
What is a phrase? What is a clause?
A “phrase” is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of “clauses”. Traditionally, it is seen as part of a structural hierachy, falling b etween a clause and word, e.g., “the three tallest girls” (nominal phrase). There is now a tendency to make a distinction between word groups and phrases. A “word group” is an extension of a word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged. Thus we have nominal group, verbal group, adverbial group, conjunction group and preposition group.
A “clause” is group of words with its own subject and predicate included in a larger subject-verb construction, namely, in a sentence. Clauses can also be classified into two kinds: finite and non-finite clauses, the latter referring to what are traditionally called infinitive phrase, participle phrase and gerundial phrase.
What is a sentence?
L. Bloomfield defines “sentence” as an independent linguistic form not included by some grammatical marks in any other linguistic from, i. e., it is not subordinated to a larger linguistic form, it is a structurally independent linguistic form. It is also called a maximum free form.
What are syntactic relations?
“Syntactic relations” refer to the ways in which words, word groups or phrases form sentences; hence three kinds of syntactic relations: positional relations, relations of substitutability and relations of co-occurrence.
“Positional relation”, or “word order”, refers to the sequential arrangement to words in a language. It is a manifestation of a certain aspect of what F. de Saussure called “syntagmatic relations”, or of what other linguists call “horizontal relations” or “chain relations”.
Relations of substitutability” refer to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in same sentence structures. Saussure called them “associative relations”. Other people call them “paradigmatic/vertical/choice relations”.
By “relations of co-occurrence”, one means that words of different sets of clauses may permit or require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations and partly to paradigmatic relations.
What is conjoining? What is embedding? What is recursiveness?
“Conjoining” refers to a construction where one clause is co-ordinated or conjoined with another, e. g., “John bought a cat and his wife killed her.” “Embedding” refers to the process of construction where one clause is included in the sentence (or main clause) in syntactic subordination, e.g., “I saw the man who had killed a chimpanzee.” By “recursiveness” we mean that there is theoretically no limit to the number of the embedded clauses in a complex sentence. This is true also with nominal and adverbial clauses, e.g., “I saw the man who killed a cat who…a rat which…that…”
What is hypotactic relation? What is paratactic relation?
“Hypotactic relation” refers to a construction where constituents are linked by means of conjunction, e.g. “He bought eggs and milk.” “Paratactic relation” refers to constructions which are connected by juxtaposition, punctuation or intonation, e. g., “He bought tea, coffee, eggs and milk” (pay attention to the first three nouns connected without “and”).
4.1 The traditional approach
4.1.1 Number, gender and case
4.1.2 Tense and aspect
[For these two sections, please consult materials on traditional English grammar. –
icywarmtea]
4.1.3 Concord and government
Concord (a.k.a. agreement) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of
some categories. E.g. in English the determiner and the noun it precedes should concord
in number as in this man, these men. And the form of a subject should agree with that of
the verb in terms of number in the present tense, e.g. He speaks English; They speak
English.
Government is another type of control over the form of some words by other words in certain syntactic construction. It differs from concord in that this is a relationship in
which a word of a certain class determines the form of others in terms of certain
category. E.g. in English, the pronoun after a verb or a preposition should be in the
object form as in She gave him a book; She gave a book to him. In other words, the verb,
or the preposition, governs the form of the pronoun after it. The former is the governor,
and the latter is the governed.
4.2 The structural approach
4.2.1 Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations
Syntagmatic (a.k.a. horizontal / chain) relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present, such as the relation
between weather and the others in the following sentence: If the weather is nice, we’ll
go out.
Paradigmatic (a.k.a. vertical / choice) relation is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one
element present and the others absent.
4.2.2 Immediate constituent analysis (IC analysis)
1. How to do it
Immediate constituents are constituents immediately, directly, below the level of a construction, which may be a sentence or a word group or a word.
Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents – word groups (phrases), which are in
turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until
the ultimate sake of convenience. The IC analysis of a sentence may be carried out with
brackets or shown with a tree diagram. E.g.
Poor John ran away. →
(1) ((Poor) (John)) ((ran) (away)).
(2)
Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, any ambiguities, if any, will be revealed in that IC analysis emphasizes not only
the linear structure of the sentence but also the hierarchical structure of the sentence. E.g.
the sentence Leave the book on the shelf. is ambiguous. It has two meanings: (1) Put the
book on the shelf;(2) Don’t touch the book on the shelf. These two meanings can be
shown by the following tree diagrams. (Omitted. See the textbook p125~128.)
3. Its problems
However, IC analysis has three disadvantages. First, at the beginning, some advocator insisted on binary divisions. Any construction, at any level, will be cut into
two parts. But this is not possible. E.g. Old men and women is ambiguous in that it may
mean old + men and women or old men + and women. It?s impossible to combine with
only the preceding part or only the succeeding part. Second, constructions with
discontinuous constituents will pose technical problems for tree diagrams in IC analysis.
E.g. the phrasal verbs like make up, turn on, or give up will cause problems in that when
the object is expressed by a pronoun, it will interrupt the phrasal verb as in make it up.
The most serious problem is that there are structural ambiguities which cannot be
revealed by IC analysis. E.g. the tree diagram and the labels can only do one analysis for
the love of God.
4.2.3 Endocentric and exocentric constructions
An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head,
of the whole. It is also called headed construction. Typical endocentric constructions are
noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases. They may be further divided into two
subtypes: subordinate and coordinate constructions. Those, in which there is only one
head, with the head being dominant and the other constructions dependent, are
subordinate constructions. In the coordinate construction, there are more than one head,
e.g. boys and girls, in which the two content constituents, boys and girls, are of equal
syntactic status, and no one is dependent on the other.
The exocentric construction is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. There is no
noticeable center or head in it. Typical exocentric constructions are prepositional phrases, subordinate clauses, English basic sentences, and the verb plus object constructions.
4.3 The generative approach
4.3.1 Deep and surface structures
In transformational generative grammar (a.k.a. T-G grammar), the deep structure may be defined as the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a
construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different
constituents, such as the relation between the underlying subject and its verb, or a verb
and its object.
The surfaces structure is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.
The example for the surface structure is The newspaper was not delivered today.
The deep structure of the above sentence would be something like: (negative) someone (past tense) deliver the newspaper today (passive). The items in brackets are not lexical items but grammatical concepts which shape the final form of the sentence. Rules which describe deep structure are in the first part of the grammar (base component). Rules which transform these structures into surface structures (transformational rules) are in the second part of the grammar (transformational component).
4.3.2 The standard theory and after
What is the trace theory?
[I think this is difficult. It is too abstract for me. – icywarmtea]
After the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the original position. This is the notion trace in T-G grammar. It?s suggested that if we have the notion trace, all the necessary information for semantic interpretation may come from the surface structure. E.g. The passive Dams are built by beavers. differs from the active Beavers built dams. in implying that all dams are built by beavers. If we add a trace element represented by the letter t after built in the passive as Dams are built t by beavers, then the deep structure information that the word dams was originally the object of built is also captured by the surface structure. Trace theory proves to be not only theoretically significant but also empirically valid.
4.3.3 Government, binding, etc.
1. Constituent command / C-command: α c-commands β if α does not dominate
βand every γthat dominates αalso dominates β, as shown in the diagram
below:
2. Binding theory: Part of the government / binding theory. It examines
connections between noun phrases in sentences and explores the way they
relate and refer to each other.
(1) An anaphor is bound in its governing category.
(2) A pronominal is free in its governing category.
(3) An r-expression is free.
3. Binding: The notion binding is borrowed from logic, which refers to the
relation between a quantifier and a variable, that is a variable is bound by a
quantifier. In the generative approach, binding refers to the relation between
different referring word and the subject of a sentence containing it.
4. Anaphor: A process where a word or phrase refers back to another word or
phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation. In a narrow sense, it
used to include only reflexives like myself and reciprocals like each other.
语言学纲要》练习题参考答案 导言部分 （一）名词解释 1 ?语言：语言是一个音义结合的符号系统，是人类独有的、最重要的交际工具，同时也是思维工具。 2 ?语言学：语言学是以人类语言作为研究对象的学科，研究人类语言的性质、结构、发展 及其在社会生活中的运用以及语言研究成果的应用问题，等等。分理论语言学和应用语言 学两个领域。 3 ?语文学：人类最早的语言研究是从解释古代文献开始的，是为了研究哲学、历史和文学 而研究语言的。我们把这种依附于其他学科存在的语言研究成为语文学。 4?小学”：在中国古代，小学先从教授字的形（六书）、音、义开始，就把研究文字、训诂、音韵方面的学问统称为小学。小学一直是经学的一部分，包括音韵学、训诂学、文字学三个分支学科。5?理论语言学：普通语言学的一个部分，与应用语言学相对。主要以语言系统的描写、语言运用机制、语言能力以及语言发展的历史为主要的研究对象。 （二）填空 1 ?古印度、古代中国、古希腊具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地。 2?文言是我国古代的书面语，用它写成的文章称为文言文。 3 ?文字学、音韵学、训诂学是我国传统的语文学。 4 ?研究语言的结构，主要是研究语音、词汇、语法三个部分。 5 ?运用语言传递信息的过程，可以分为编码、发送、传递、接收、解码五个阶段。 第一章语言的社会功能
一、名词解释 1. 语言的两个有限 任何一种语言都是一个音义结合的符号系统，其中作为基本符号的语素和词在数量上是有 限的，把语素或词组合起来构成词组或句子的规则也是有限的。语言的这两个有限性是区 别言语活动的基本特征。 2. 言语活动的两个无限 言语活动是以语言为工具展开的交际或思维活动，其中作为这个活动的最基本的单位一- 句子，在理论上可以是无限长的，在数量上可以是是无限多的。 3. 大脑左右半球分工 人类大脑左右半球分工不同，左脑主管语言、逻辑、书写及右侧肢体运动，而右脑主管色彩、空间感、节奏和左侧肢体运动。大脑两半球分工是人类特有的，但出生婴儿大脑两半球没有分工。 4. 非语言交际工具或副语言交际工具 人们在运用语言进行交际的时候，不但动嘴，而且脸部的表情、手的动作、乃至整个躯体的姿态等非语言的东西也都参加进来。我们这些非语言的交际工具称为副语言交际工具。副语言交际工具的使用范围非常有限，只能起辅助性的交际作用，以补充语言交际的某些 不足。 5. 辅助性交际工具 指的文字、旗语、电报代码等在语言的基础上产生的交际工具。这些交际工具若离开语言 就不能独立存在。其特点是：都有特殊的服务领域，使用的范围相当狭窄。
语言学教程笔记 第一章语言学导论 语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。 1. 任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核 心特征。例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作 a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pe n/。 任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。（2）句法层面上的任意性。 （3） 任意性和规约性。 2. 二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成， 每层都有自身的组合规则。话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是 相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产 性。 3. 创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性 和递归性。利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。 4. 移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的 物体、时间或观点。因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而 后者位置距我们非常之远。语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。移位性赋予人 们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化 的语境中。他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。 5. 文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。 6. 互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的 角色是可以随意更换的。 元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考"。所以只有人类才能提问：元语言功能对交际、思考及人类的意义是什么？
Q1：Give an elaborate account of the evolution of the models of the spoken language structure Language Structure…..pragmatics……use medium of transmission grammar meaning(semantics) phonetics phonology morphology syntax semantics lexicon In first level One end is structure, the other use, and in the middle pragmatics. Pragmatics is a branch of linguistics that deals with the meanings and effects that come from the use of language in particular situation. Meaning intended---- what you want to say Meaning realized---- what you actually say. If meaning realized matches meaning intended, you succeed in expressing your meaning. The present model shows the complexity of the language. We can see from the model how many different levels can be set up to explain the way the spoken language structure is organized. Q2：What do you know about the nature/characteristic of language? 1.purely human, for the possession of language distinguishes human beings from other animals. 2.systematic: meanings and sounds are linked into a system for the purpose of communication and social interaction. The use of language is a patterned behavior. It?s rule-governed. 3.spoken or written: 2 different channels of language 4.arbitrary and conventional: naming is arbitrary. The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. In any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way. 5. a set of habits: like any other habits, it?s easily formed in an early age and difficult to change. https://www.doczj.com/doc/bb11408693.html,plex, abstract and productive Q3：How do we justify the position that all languages and corresponding all dialects are equally good? Every language so far studied, no matter how …backward? or …uncivilized? the people speaking it, has proved on investigation to be a complex and highly developed system of communication. All languages and corresponding dialects are equally good, equally abstract, equally complex, equally productive and equally adequate to the communicative purposes. No language can be said to be …richer? than another: each is adapted to the characteristic pursuits of its users. Q4：What are major functions of language. (举例子) 1.phatic function: language is used to establish or maintain social contacts and to express sociability rather than specific meaning. You ask question for the sake of question. And the answer to the question is already known. Typical examples include greeting, farewell or comments on weather. 2: directive function: language is used to get the hearer to do something. Typical examples: the imperative sentence, would you please…, do you mind… 3: informative function: language is used to give or offer information. A typical example is the
1、历史比较语言学：是运用历史和比较两种方法，发现几种语言在历史演变中的对应规律从而确定语言的亲属关系，构拟产生这些亲属语言的原始母语。 2、组合关系：语言符号与符号之间组成的言语链条关系叫组合关系。组合关系是一种现实的、有顺序的、可数的横向关系。 3、聚合关系：在链条某一环节上能够互相替换的，具有相同作用的符号聚积成类的关系叫聚合关系。聚合关系是一种联想的、无顺序、不易精确数出来的纵向关系。 4、语言的融合：一种语言战胜另一种语言或一种语言被另一种语言吞噬的现象，叫做语言的融合。 5、语言的层级性：语言系统是一套层级装置，底层是一套音位装置，上层分为语素、词、句子三层。 6、音素：音素是人类语言在一次发音中从音质角度切分出来的最小的语音单位。 7、音位：音位是具体语言在一类发音中从能否区别词或语素的角度划分或归并出来的最小的语音形式。 8、国际音标：国际音标是国际语音协会于1888年公布的一套记音符号。大部分符号采用拉丁字母，少数用希腊字母，还有的采用大小写、正反写、合体写或添加符号与改变符号等方法。国际音标可分为宽式音标和严式音标两种。它的优点是形体简便，记音准确、灵活、完备。 9、音位变体：可归并为同一个音位的各个音素，我们称之为音位变体。 10、非音质音位：利用音高、音长、音强这些非音质要素形成的音位叫非音质音位。 11、语义：指语音形式表现出来的语言和言语的全部内容，它包括语言意义和言语意义两大类。 12、义素：义素是对某个义位的语义特征进行分析后得到的最小的语义单位。 13、语义场:语义场就是归属于一个总称之下的在意义上紧密联系的一组词的义位的聚合体。 14、语境：语言环境简称语境，指人们用语言进行交际时的具体环境。 15、词：词是语言中可以独立运用的最小音义结合单位。 16、语素：语素是语言中不能独立运用的最小的音义结合单位。 17、词缀：词缀指附着在词根之上的语素，它对词义的构成起附加作用。 18、复合词：复合词由两个或两个以上的词根复合构成。例：汉语中的“火车”、“心疼”，英语中的“black-board(黑板)”、“rail-way(铁路)”。 19、重叠词：是由相同的词根相叠构成。如：看看、试试、多多等。 20、语法：语法是音义结合的各结构单位之间的组织规则的汇集，它包括词的构词、构形的规则和组词成句的规则。 21、词组：词组是实词与实词的有机组合。词组在句子中具有相当于词的作用，但它是比词大的语法单位。 22、语法范畴：是把同一性质的语法意义进一步综合概括所形成的语法意义的类别，如词形范畴与词类范畴等。 23、语法手段：对语法形式再概括所得出的类别就是语法手段，也叫语法方式，一般包括内部屈折法、附加法、重叠法、异根法、重音法、词序、虚词、语调、冠词、前置词和后置词、助动词等。 24、直接成分分析法：指从句法结构的外部形式，特别是隐形形式入手，对句子的直接组成成分进行分析的方法。由于句子的直接成分与句子的层次性一致，所以也叫层次分析法。 25、意音文字：一部分字符是义符，一部分字符是音符的文字是意音文字。 26、字符：字符也就是文字符号，是文字的最基本的单位，也就是直接跟某种语言单位相联系的符号。
语言学模拟题（干明版） 一、填空题 1.语言是人类社会的（最重要的交际工具），而且也是思维的（最有效的工具）。 2.语言符号具有（任意性）和（线条性）特点。 3.语言的底层是一套（音位），上层是符号和符号的（序列），可以分为若干级，第一级是（语素），第二级是（词）， 第三级是由词构成的句子。 4.语言系统中的所有符号，既可以同别的符号组合，又可以被别的符号替换，符号之间的这两种关系是（组合关系） 和（聚合关系）。 5.（组合）关系是指构成线性序列的语言成分之间的结构关系，（聚合）关系是指在线性序列的同一位置上不同结 构单位的替换规则。 6.从物理属性角度看，语音具有（音高）、（音重）、（音长）、（音质）四个要素，汉语的声调，就是由于（音高）的 变化形成的。 7.人类发音器官分（动力）、（发音体）、（共鸣器）三大部分，（共鸣器）部分主要作用是调节气流，许多不同的音 素，就是这一部分的变化形成的。 8.音素可分（元音）和（辅音）两大类，其区别的根本点是发音时气流在口腔中是否（受阻碍）。 9.元音的音质是由（舌位高低）、（舌位前后）、（嘴唇圆展）三个方面决定的，例如[A]是（舌位低）（舌面中）（不 圆唇）。 10.辅音的发音特征是由（发音部位）（发音方法）决定的。例如[p]是（双唇）（清）（塞）（不送气）。 11.具体语言中具有区别词的语音形式的作用的最小语音单位就是（音位）。 12.音位变体可分（条件变体）、（自由变体）两类，例如汉语某些方言中，声母“l”可以无条件地换成“n”，这两 个音位就是（自由变体）。 13.汉语音节可分（声母）（韵母）（声调）三部分，其中（韵母）又可分（韵头）、韵腹和（韵尾）。 14.汉语i和y 的区别是（圆唇与否）不同，其它两个方面都相同。 15.人们在说话时，常常把[toufu]（豆腐）说成[touf]，这种音变现象叫做（脱落）。 16.语法的（组合规则）和（聚合规则）构成一种语言的语法规则。 17.我们可以根据语素在词中的不同作用把它们分为三类，例如happinesses中，es是（词尾），ness是（后缀）， happi是（词根）。 18.合成词“发指”的结构方式是（陈述式）。 19.“西瓜大”和“大西瓜”的（词序）不同，结果语法意义也不一样。 20.词的组合有五种基本方式，例如“研究问题”是（述宾结构），“跑得很快”是（述补结构），“火速准备”是（偏 正结构），“我们努力”是（主谓结构）。 21.孤立语的主要特点是缺乏（词形变化）；屈折语的主要特点是有丰富的（词形变化）。 22.基本词汇具有（普遍性）、（稳固性）、（能产性）三个特点。 23.（一般性）、（模糊性）、(全民性)是词义概括性的三个重要的表现形式。 24.多义词有多项意义，最初的那项意义叫（本义），离开上下文人们就能知道的那项意义叫（中心意）。例如“老” 有“年纪大”、“经常”、“过去的”等意义，“年纪大”是（本义），其余的是（派生意）。 25.派生义的产生方式主要有（隐喻）和（换喻）两种。 26.反义词可分（相对反义词）和（绝对反义词）两类。例如“老年”与“少年”是（相对反义词）。 27.文字突出的作用是打破了有声语言的（时间）、（空间）的局限性，扩大了有声语言的使用范围。 28.文字包括（字形）、（字音）、（字义）三个方面，这三方面在文字中缺一不可。 29.在文字产生以前，人类使用（实物记事）和（图画记事）帮助记忆。 30.各种不同体系的意音文字都包含（表意字）、（表音字）和（形声字）三种不同类型的字形。 31.人类造字的方法主要有（表意）和（表音）两种。 32.（渐变性）和（不平衡性）是语言发展的两大特点。 33.语言的发展中，（词汇）的变化速度最快，（语音）次之，而（语法）的演变最为缓慢。 34.在一个多民族的国家中，各民族之间往往还需要一个共同的交际工具，这就是所谓的（国家共同语），我国的（普 通话）就是这样的一种共同语。
《英语语言学概论》答案完整版 考核方法：闭卷考试 时间：100分钟 题型： I. 单项选择(15×1’=15’) II．判断(15×1’=15’) III．填空(10×1’=10’) IV．术语解释(5×2’ =10’) V．简答题(4×5’ =20’) VI. 分析题（30’） 重点掌握的术语： ? 1. Linguistics The study of the nature, structure, and variation of language, including phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. ? 2. design features They are a series of features which are uniquely a part of human language and unlikely to be found in the communication system of other creatures. They are displacement, productivity, cultural transmission, arbitrariness, discreteness and duality. ? 3. Displacement Language can be used to refer to things which are in the past, present or future, real or imagined,or in far-away places. ? 4. Duality It is generally the case that language is organized at two levels or layers which is known as the physical level and meaningful level simultaneously. ? 5. Arbitrariness It is generally the case that there is no ‘natural’ connection between a linguistic form and its meaning. ? 6. Manner of articulation It is the case that we describe the consonant sounds in terms of how they are articulated. ?7. Place of articulation It focuses on describing consonant sounds in terms of where they are articulated. ?8. articulatory phonetics The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds is called phonetics. And the study of how speech sounds are made, or ‘articulated’ is articulatory phonetics. ?9. Phonology The description of the systems and patterns of the speech sounds in a language. ?10. Assimilation It is the process when two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or ‘copied’ by the other. For example, the word ‘can’ in the sentence ‘I can go.’may pronounce as [k??] instead of [k?n] because of the influence of the following sound [g]. ?11. Back-formation A word of one type is reduced to form another word of different type. For example, the word ‘donation’ first came into use and then the verb ‘donate’ was created from it.
下定义 1.(P3)Sociolinguistics(社会语言学): The studies of all the social aspects of language and its relation with society is called sociolinguistics. 2.(P7)Language（语言）: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 3.(P8)Arbitrariness（任意性）: This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. 4.(P2)Phonetics（语音学）：Phonetic refers to the study of sounds used in linguistic communication. 5.(P16)Voicing（浊音化）: Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds. 6.(P26)Assimilation rule（同化规则）: The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. 7.(P29)Intonation（语调）: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. 8.(P42)Syntax（句法）: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. 9.(P42)Category（范畴）: Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. 10.(P48)Complementizers（补语化成分）:Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizers. 11.(P53)Head movement（中心语移动）: The movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head position in another is known as head movement. 12.(P64-65)Linguistic context（语言语境）: The linguistic context is concerned with the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word. 13.(P66)Reference（所指）: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.
绪论及语言本质 1.我国古代学者为读懂古书而建立的训诂学、文字学、音韵学组成了我国的语文学，通称为“小学”。 2.“语言学概论”课程容在语言学学科分类中，属于理论语言学。 3.狭义的应用语言学一般是指语言教学。 4.17世纪，法国波瓦雅的修道院里有两位学者阿尔诺.兰斯洛合编了一本普遍唯理语法。 5.历史比较语言学的出现，标志着语言学走出传统语文学，成为一门独立的科学。 6.传统语文学一般主要指古代印度、古代希腊和古代中国三个地方的语文学。中国传统的语文学通常叫小学。 7.语言系统的两种基本关系是组合关系和聚合关系。它们是打开语言的两把钥匙。 8.1786年，英国的威廉琼斯在皇家亚洲学会宣读的论文《三周年演说》中指出有共同的结构特点。为了纪念这一新发现，这一年被认为是历史比较语言学诞生的一年。 9.历史比较语言学的奠基人是丹麦的拉斯克、德国的葆朴和格里木。 10.语言的分类一般从两个方面进行：第一，按照语言的（结构/形态）特点分类；第二，按照语言的（亲属/来源）关系分类。 11.著名语言学家瑞士的索绪尔的著作《普通语言学教程》标志着结构主义语言学的诞生。 12.美国结构主义语言学的代表人物是布龙菲尔德，他的代表著作是《语言论》。 13.转换生成语言学的代表人物是乔姆斯基，他被称为“标准理论”的著作是《句法理论问题》。 14.根据语言的结构或者形态特点，一般把语言分为孤立语（词根语）、粘着语、屈折语和多式综合语（编插语）四种。 1.人类语言和动物的交际方式有着根本区别。 2.什么样的声音与什么样的意义相结合，取决于约定俗成的社会习惯。这里的“约定俗成”的容既有任意性，也有强制性。
Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 5.语言能力Competence Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performance Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。 7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period
《语言学纲要》（叶蜚声、徐通锵版）复习资料 一、语言学纲要期末复习要注意的几个问题 复习语言学概论课程，总的要求是：弄清楚基本概念的准确含义，抓住重点，全面复习。“语言学概论”是语言学方面的一门基础课，重点讲授语言学的基本概念、基础知识和基本理论，是我们今后进一步学习本科阶段的其它语言类课程和撰写语言方向毕业论文的理论基础，在整个专业中具有非常重要的地位。现在这门课的学习即将结束，要进行复习考试，弄清楚基本概念的准确含义自然是一个最基本的要求；这一点做到了，基础知识和基本理论的掌握也就不会有什么大的障碍。复习的时候应抓住重点，就是要根据我们的考核说明规定的重点进行复习；但“抓住重点”不是“只学重点”，而是要通过重点问题的复习达到全面复习的目的，不要自己从主观愿望出发来划定复习范围。复习的总要求可以从以下几个方面来理解： 第一，吃透内容要点 复习不但要掌握比较重大的要点，弄清楚各个章节的框架结构，对各个重点内容的要点也要非常熟悉，每个要点要求都能展开阐述，比如基本词汇的特点，什么是全民常用，什么是稳固，什么是有构词能力，这些特点相互之间是怎样影响的，都必须能结合实例说出个所以然来。如果复习不全面不细致，理解问题不深入透彻，遇到这样的问题恐怕就只能是干巴巴的条款了，那样是很难取得优异成绩的，也不符合本课程掌握基础知识、基本概念、基本理论的“三基”的要求。 第二，掌握常用的名词概念 专门就名词概念提出复习要求，这是因为两个方面的原因：一方面，名词概念是一门学科体系的重要组成部分，是学科知识的基础部分，学科体系在很大程度上是通过一系列的名词概念串连起来的。另一方面，期末试题名词解释题目还是一个考核重点，而且还占有非常重的分量。不但如此，而且在填空、选择、问答题里都要涉及重要的名词概念，至于占试题主要内容的分析题，更是离不开名词概念，否则就无从下手分析。例如：合成词、词与词的组合方式、词组的层次分析等，都涉及到名词概念。 名词概念分两个层次要求：一个层次是对名词概念要求理解其内涵，能结合问题进行分析、解释，能举例说明；一个层次名词概念主要是一些涉及到下位概念的名词，要求理解其内涵，能结合语言实际进行类别分析辨认。我们在中央电大编辑部发行的《期末复习指导》中列出了一些重点名词，复习可参考这部分内容，我们今天也重点介绍一下。 第三，弄清基本理论知识并能灵活地加以运用。 本课程是一门理论性很强的课程，因此，复习首先要注意把基本理论吃透。所谓吃透，就是能理解其内容，能灵活运用理论来分析问题，而不是死记硬背。当然，我们强调灵活运用，不是反对有关的记忆，一些基本知识，课程内容的框架，还是应该搞清楚，这样才能做到成竹在胸，所以复习时对所学的知识还要进行必要的梳理，比如像国际音标和元音辅音的发音特点，就必须强化记忆。 第四，加强实践练习。 本课程理论性比较强，内容比较抽象，理解、把握起来也有一定难度。要真正吃透理论
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.1 Why study language? 1. Language is very essential to human beings. 2. In language there are many things we should know. 3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically. 1.2 What is language? 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness 1.3.2 Duality 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement 1.4 Origin of language
《语言学概论》作业参考答案 一、名词解释 1.音位：最小的可以区别意义的语音单位，通常由一簇互相不区别意义的音素构成。如|A|音位里就有前A、后A、央A等几个音素。 2.塞擦音：辅音的发音方式之一。其特点是发音时，两个发音部位紧靠在一起形成阻碍，在保持这个阻碍的同时，留出一个窄缝，让气流从窄缝中磨擦成声，最后除去这个阻碍。如：b‘ｐ‘ｋ‘就是。 3.递归性：语言的递归性是指，组合结构中的某个单位，可以不断地被一个同功能的短语替换，从而使基本结构里的某个扩展为非常复杂的结构，但其作用仍然等于原始项。也即语言的整体结构与基本框架不变。语法结构的这种性质，我们称之为语言结构的递归性。语言的递归性是语言结构一种非常重要的特性。如：人打倒了|敌人/凶恶的敌人/盘踞在中国大陆的敌人/曾经盘踞在中国大陆的不可以一世的敌人/曾经盘踞在中国大陆不可一世但最终被人民打倒的敌人 4.复综语：语言类型之一。这种语言的动词内有用不同的形态表示各种复杂的语法成分。多见于美洲印第安人的语言。举例。 5.自由变体：音位变体的一种类型。通常指对出现的组合条件没有硬性要求的音位变体。举例。 6.元音：音素的类型之一。即发音时气流在口腔中不受阻碍而形成的音。举例。 7.语法形式：表示语法意义方式与材料。举例。 8.词干：一个词的主要部分，词汇意义的承担者。举例。 9.音色：语音四要素之一，又叫音质，指声音的特色。由物体振动的不同形式所决定。举例。 10.塞音：辅音的发音方式之一。其特征发音时两个发音部位紧靠在一起，保持一段时间，然后突然除阻，爆破成声。也叫爆破音。举例。 11.共同语：随着社会政治经济集中，会以一种方言为基础形成共同语，以满足整个社会交际往来。共同语又叫天下通语、雅言。举例。 12.数：语法范畴之一。指是用一个词的不同形态表示出来的词语数的语法意义。在单数、复数、双数等。举例。 二、谈谈语言符号的特点 答案要点： 1.单位明晰性 2.任意性 3.结构二层性 4.开放性 5. 传授性 答：（1）.语言是一种工具，即交际工具和思维工具；而思维是一种能力和过程，即人脑能动地反映客观现实的能力和过程。 （2）.概念用词语表达，判断用句子表达，但概念按照逻辑规律构成的种种判断和词语按语法规则构成的啊、种种句子是有区别的。如：语言中的每个词不一定都表示一个概念，每个句子不一定都表示判断。 （3）.思维过程是运用概念按照逻辑规律构成种种判断，语言运用过程则是运用词语，按照句法构成各种句子。 （4）.语言是具有民族特点的，各民族都有自己的语言特点，世界上有许多种语言。但思维是各民族共同的，全人类具有共同的思维形式和思维规律。 三、试分析汉字跨越方言交际的特点与原因
语言学概论复习资料 1、人类的语言与动物的“语言”有何本质区别？ 动物之间也有相互用来交际的信号，但这跟人类的语言有本质的区别，人类语言具有如下特点： 1、功能开放：米、分米、厘米、微米、纳米 2、构造灵巧：音位，音节语素，词，句子 3、需要学习 2、人类语言构造灵巧的三个条件: 任意性：保证任何事物都能用语言表达 离散性：保证了语言单位自由拆装 层次性：电+影电影彩+色彩色 电影+彩色彩色电影 3、荀子说：“名无固宜，约之以命。约定俗成谓之宜，异于约谓之不宜。”你如何 理解？ 语言符号系统具有任意性，音义之间不具有内在的、本质的、必然的联系，而是一种人为约定的联系，音义在结合之初具有多动选择的可能性。因此说“名无固宜，约之以命”但命名一旦成立就具有强制性。因此说，“约定俗成谓之宜，异于约谓之不宜。” 4、什么是语言符号的任意性原则？你如何理解？请联系语言事实加以论述。 语言符号的任意性是指音义之间不具有内在的，本质的，必然的联系，而是一种认为约定的联系，音义在结合之初具有多种选择的可能性。索绪尔：任意性是语言符号的最高原则。1、形式内容的联系是非本质的，是人赋予的，具有约定性。如“马”“车”对这两个语素本身的例句，现代词源学还没有找到一致的认识，因此他们是任意约定的。2、一旦形成后对个人具有强制性。3、非本质的联系不意味
着没有联系，理据性是可以成立的，帮助记忆。人、鸡、鸭。布谷鸟。联系是成立的，但不是本质的。 5、关于幼儿是如何习得语言的有哪几种假说？试加评述。 1、模仿说：认为幼儿是通过摹仿听到的语句而学会说话的。通过成人的重复，更 正、赞许等反馈，正确的说法得到强化，由此而形成幼儿的说话习惯。 2、天赋说：以乔姆斯基为代表，认为有一种可遗传的“语言习得机制”，儿童在后 天具体语言输入刺激下，经过语言习得机制习得一种具体的语言。区分语言能力和语言行为，儿童习得母语学的是抽象的规则，即语言能力，虽然他们接触到的是具体的语言行为。 3、认知说：儿童的语言习得机制是伴随着认知能力而发展起来，语言习得能力仅 是认知能力的一部分。斯洛宾、皮亚杰认为，不能脱离智力发展的全局来考查语言习得。如先有判断事物大小的能力，然后才会有“狗比猫大”直螺纹ideas 语言表达。儿童学话的早期似有此种情况，但两者都比较发达后，关系就比较复杂，语言也可影响认知能力。 各学说局部真理，互相补充。 6、语言作为一个符号系统有哪些特性？ 1、任意性：音义之间不具有内在的、本质的、必然的联系，而是一种认为约定的 联系，音义在结合之初具有多种选择的可能性。索绪尔：任意性是语言符号的最高准则。 1）形式内容的恋歌是非本质的，是人赋予的，具有约定性。 2）一旦形成后对个人具有强制性 3）非本质的联系不意味着没有联系，理据性是可以成立的，帮助记忆。 2、线条性 3、层次性：语言单位具有层层“套装”的性质。小的组成大的，大的组成更大的： 我们学习语法。 4、系统性：语言符号相互联系、相互制约形成一个整体的性质。其中聚合关系和 组合关系是两种最重要最基本的关系。 7、简述语言和言语的关系？