语言学整理

应用语言学语言测试理论知识点整理在应用语言学领域，语言测试理论是一个重要的分支，它对于评估语言学习者的语言能力、指导教学实践以及推动语言教育的发展都具有关键意义。

以下将对应用语言学语言测试理论的一些重要知识点进行整理。

一、语言测试的定义与目的语言测试是对语言学习者的语言能力进行测量和评估的一种手段。

其主要目的包括：1、为教育决策提供依据，例如确定学生的升级、留级或毕业。

2、评估教学效果，帮助教师了解教学方法的有效性和学生的学习进展。

3、为学生提供反馈，让他们了解自己的语言水平和不足之处，以便进一步改进学习策略。

二、语言测试的类型1、水平测试（Proficiency Test）旨在测量考生对某种语言的整体掌握程度，不考虑考生之前的学习经历或特定的课程内容。

常见的水平测试如雅思（IELTS）、托福（TOEFL）等。

2、成绩测试（Achievement Test）侧重于检测考生在特定课程或学习阶段所掌握的语言知识和技能，与教学内容紧密相关。

比如学校的期末考试、单元测验等。

3、诊断测试（Diagnostic Test）主要用于发现考生在语言学习中存在的具体问题和薄弱环节，以便为后续的教学和学习提供针对性的指导。

4、潜能测试（Aptitude Test）预测考生学习语言的潜力和能力，而非对现有语言水平的评估。

三、语言测试的质量评估标准1、效度（Validity）指测试能够准确测量出其所要测量的语言能力或语言知识的程度。

效度分为内容效度、结构效度、预测效度等。

内容效度：测试内容是否涵盖了所要考查的语言技能和知识点。

结构效度：测试结果是否与语言能力的理论结构相一致。

预测效度：测试成绩能否有效地预测考生在未来语言学习或实际语言运用中的表现。

2、信度（Reliability）反映测试结果的稳定性和一致性。

包括重测信度、复本信度、分半信度等。

重测信度：对同一批考生在不同时间进行相同测试，两次测试结果的相关性。

复本信度：使用两份内容相似但不完全相同的试卷对同一批考生进行测试，两次结果的相关性。

Chapter one1.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. System means it is rule-governed; arbitrary means there is no logical relationship between language elements and their meaning; vocal means speech is primary; symbols related to arbitrariness, it means language elements are only the symbols for the meaning they express. Human, it means language is uniquely human; communication is the primary function of language.2.What are the design features of language, give their definitions and examples. Arbitrary: arbitrary is the core feature of language, which means that there is no logical relation between meanings and sounds. Arbitrary is a matter of degree, language is not entirely arbitrary, first, the onomatopoeia are words that sound like the sound they describe, to some extent, they have natural basis. Second, some compounds are not entirely arbitrary either, “snow” and“storm” are arbitrary words, but the compound word “snowstorm”is less so. Thirdly, some surnames, such as Longfellow, Johnson.Examples: a rose by other name would smell as sweetDuality: is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization .we call sounds secondary units as opposed to primary units as words, since the secondary are meaningless and the primary unit have distinct and identifiable meaning.Creativity: language users can understand and produce new sentences to express new meanings. By creativity, we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness. By duality the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never produced or heard before. Language is creativity in another sense, that is, itspotential to create endless sentences. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis of this possibility.Example: He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who……Displacement: means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts, which are not present at the moment of communication.Examples : we can refer to Confucius and Bush at the moment of communication , but the former lived thousands of years ago and the latter live far away from us .3.Functions of the language and their examples⑴informative function: when language is used to express human experience and knowledge about the world. It is predominantly the major role of language.⑵interpersonal function is the most important sociological use of language by which people establish and maintain their status in a society. Language marks our identity, physically in terms of age, sex, and voiceprints; psychologically in terms of language, personality, and intelligence; geographically in terms of accents and dialects; ethnically and socially in terms of social stratification, class, status, role, solidarity, and distance.(3) Performative function: is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony and the cursing of enemies. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.(4) Emotive function: changes the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.(5) Phatic communion: occurs when language is used for pure interpersonal purposes, e.g. greetings, farewell, etc.(6) Recreational function: when language is used for the pure joy of using it, such as baby’s babbling and chanter’s chanting.(7) Metalingual function: when language is used to discuss itself. For example, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought.4. What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language.4.Main branches of the linguistics1)Phonetics: studies speech sounds, it is the description, classification, andtranscription of speech sounds. It includes articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and auditory phonetics.2)Phonology: the study of speech sounds as a system: the relations betweenspeech sounds, the way in which speech sounds are related to meaning, the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds. 3)Morphology: the internal structures of words. It studies the minimal units ofmeaning-morphemes and word-formation processes.4)Syntax: studies the internal structure of sentences5)Semantics: the study of meaning as encoded in language6)Pragmatics: the study of language use, meaning in context5. Macrolinguistics1) Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition. The psycholinguistics constraints on the form of grammar are studied. It also studies language development in the child, biological foundations of languages, and the relationship between language and cognition.2) Social linguistics: is an umbrella term, which covers a variety of different interest in language and society, including the social functions of language and the social characteristics of its users.3) Anthropological linguistics: anthropology and linguistics combined: the relationship between language and culture.4) Computational linguistics: the use of computers to process or produce human language: machine-translation, information retrieval, expert systems.6. Important distinction in linguistics1) Descriptive VS PrescriptiveThe distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. Describing language as it is used by its native speakers is descriptive; trying to lay down language rules for correct uses of language is prescriptive. To say linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them rules, or norms, of correctness.2) Synchronic VS diachronicStudying language as it is used at a particular point in time is synchronic study; studying language as it changes over time is a diachronic study.3) Langue Vs paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is the language system, which is social, essential, and stable while parole is the actual use of the language system, which is individual, accidental, and unstable.4) Competence VS performanceA language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence, and performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situation. (Chomsky)5) Syntagmatic VS paradigmatic relationsSyntagmatic relations are relations between units present in the same sequence or construction, syntagmatically related elements form structures.Paradigmatic relations are relations between a unit and other units that can replace it in a given sequence. Paradigmatically related units form systems.how he can get to his destination. Then you tell him all that you know about the course, including which bus or subway he should take. This is the very process in which you use your experience and knowledge to help him. If you have no idea about his destination, you would say “Sorry, I can’t help you”. At this moment, he may buy a map of the city. This is the reason why map came into being. Map provides the detailed information including not only the complicated and crossing roads, but also the course of bus and subway. Map is an instrument by that peopleuse language to show their experience and knowledge. By analogy, there are also many other instruments for people to express content, such as books, papers, magazines and dictionaries and so on. These forms are utilized by human to record the facts of social development; conversely, the recorded facts is a prerequisite of social development. Having talked so much, I believe there are two important points to be captured. 一是，人这个主体通过使用语言将内容传递出去；另一个是语言通过报纸、杂志、书、字典等的外在形式把知识和经验传递出去。

语⾔学导论——课件整理语⾔学导论现代语⾔学介绍交叉学科原因：1. ⼈类知识和理解能⼒的中⼼2. 关于普遍语⾔和语⾔学知识，帮助学⽣探索神奇的语⾔世界，学习思考和研究的⽅法。

3. 以语⾔学为⾸的合成学科4. ⼤量的相互交叉内容：1. 语⾔和语⾔学2. 语⾳学3. 书写系统4. 形态学5. 词汇6. 句法7. 语义学8. 语⽤学9. 社会语⾔学语⾔的起源：1. 神造论：巴别塔2. 进化论3. 模仿动物4. 来⾃⾃然环境5. 来⾃⼿势6. ⼈类感情表达7. 来⾃劳作⼝号语⾔的性质：⼈类⽤于交流的任意的发⾳符号。

⼀、语⾔是⼀种符号体系⼈们所指的物体与声⾳之间没有任何⾃然间的相似或联系。

社会习俗将词与物体、动作、观念联系起来，跨语⾔的社会习俗⼗分巨⼤。

1. 任意性2. 像似性理据：~语⾳学理据：。

拟声造字。

间接拟声构词（声⾳唤起动作）英语：PPT汉语：声象乎意；平声去声字意；声调不同意义改变，升调疑问，降调肯定；⼆、语⾔是⼀种交流的⼯具（思维）1）语⾔服从思维，是⼈类思想赖以表达的媒介或⼯具2）语⾔表达的思想具有可译性，不会⽤另⼀种语⾔来表达⽽损失其意义。

据说⼀种⼯具⼀经创造，它就独⽴于⼈甚⾄控制⼈和⼈的思维。

现在⼈服从语⾔。

现实的延伸取决于语⾔的发展。

语⾔制约着我们思考社会问题的⽅式。

……语⾔对思维的影响实例分析：1.特点：单⾳节字对应概念词影响：对仗⼯整，韵律节奏，表达模糊（上义词⽂化），统⼀辩证，同义反复思维极端，凑⾜⾳节识字重要所需要的能辨别意义的⾳节不多，不利于准确便捷的交际2.特点：双⾳节词3.特点：同义词影响：中国⽂化、政治和经济借以同⾳词⽽表现出特有的形式⽂化思维：诗歌，歇后语⽂化，谜语⽂化，⼴告⽂化，⼿机⽂化，外来词意译4.特点：形象思维（VS.抽象思维）影响：对事物的命名四字成语缺乏逻辑性三、语⾔是有系统的最基本的：声⾳与意义双重性语⾔的特征任意性线性离散性创造性（与双重性相关）:低层：声⾳（⽆意义）⾼层：通过组合或重组的意义单元，可以组成⽆限的句⼦置换性（虚构）⽂化传递性语⾔分类1.遗传学分类（共同祖先—语系）2.类型分类（形态学的和句法结构）~形态结构：。

3.What are the branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? (语言学的主要分支是什么。

每个分支的研究对象是什么？)Linguistics mainly involves the following branches:1)General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study2)Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication3)Phonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication4)Morphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words5)Syntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences6)Semantics, which is the study of meaning in language.7)Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in the context of use8)Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to society9)Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.10)Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.11)Other related branches are anthropological linguistics(人类语言学), neurological linguistics（神经语言学）, mathematical linguistics （数学语言学）, and computational linguistics（计算机语言学）.4.What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? (现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？)Traditional grammar is prescriptive（规定性）; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive（描述性）; its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.5.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic（共时性）or diachronic（历时性）? Why?(The description of language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.)Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. Unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.6.Which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writing? Why?在现代语言学里说话或写作哪一个有优先权？为什么呢？Modern linguistics gives priority to the spoken language for the following reasons:First, speech precedes writing. The writing system is always a later invention used to record the speech. There are still some languages that only have the spoken form.Then, a larger amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing.Third, speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language.7.Saussure 是如何区分语言langue和言语parole的？(The distinction between langue and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are French words.)Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.8.Chomsky的语言能力competence和语言使用performance各指什么？(American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance.)Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc… Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard (偶然的).9.How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance? And what is their difference?索绪尔是如何区分语言和言语类似乔姆斯基的区分能力和表现？和它们的区别是什么？Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Their purpose is to single out one aspect of language for serious study. They differ in that Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 10.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?你认为应该怎样用一个良好的，全面的定义来总结语言的特征？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.First of all, language is a system, i.e. elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it refers to.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages.The term “human” is meant to specify that language is human-specific.11.What features of human language have been specified by Charles Hockett to show that it is essentially different from any animal communication system? 人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？1.Arbitrariness（任意性）: (课本答案：a sign of sophistication only humans are capable of) It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Although language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. Non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the total number. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2.Productivity（创造性）: （课本答案：creativity: animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send）Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con¬struction and interpretation of an infinitely large number of sentences, including those they have never said or heard before.3.Duality（二重性）: （课本答案：a feature totally lacking in any animal communication）It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of individual and meaningless sounds, which can be grouped into meaningful units at the higher level. This duality of structure or dou¬ble articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.4.Displacement（移位性）: （课本答案：no animal can “talk” about things removed from the immediate situation）Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5. Cultural transmission（文化传递性）：（课本答案：details of human language system are taught and learned while animals are born with the capacity to send out certain signals as a means of limited communication）While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.12.Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?人类的语言是否是完全任意的？为什么？Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash, etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.2.What are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why? 语言交际的两大媒介是什么？哪一个是基本的交际媒介？为什么？Speech and writing are the major media of communication. Speech is considered primary over writing. The reasons are: speech is prior to writing in language evolution, speech plays a greater role in daily communications, and speech is the way in which people acquire their native language.3.What are the three branches of phonetics? How do they contribute to the study of speech sounds? 语音学的三个分支是什么。

自考语言学概论复习资料最新整理1. 语法：词的构成，变化和词构成词组和句子的规则。

2. 语法意义：语法形式所体现的意义。

3. 语法范畴：语法意义的类。

4. 历时语法：从语法发展变化角度纵向地、动态地研究语法，研究的重点是某些语法现象在特定时间过程中产生和消失的原因及其规律。

5. 共时语法：从某一时期存在的语法现象的角度横向地、静态地研究语法，研究的重点是某一语言在特定空间范围内的语法表现形式和语法规则系统。

6. 个别看法：指对个别看言，语法的研究，既包括研究一种语言的语法系统，也包括研究一种语言中与其他语言不同的语法特点，这类研究的意义在于发现各种语言独特的语法现象。

7. 语法规则：语法规则本身也就是客观存在的语法，即人们说话时直觉和习惯上所遵守的某种语感。

8. 普遍语法：指对人类语言的语法共性的研究，其意义在于发现人类语言中共有的语法机制。

9. 核心语法：又叫小语法，仅指句法结构规则。

10. 外围语法：又叫大语法，它研究与语法有关的词语知识、语义知识和语音知识。

11. 语法形式：能体现一类意义或有共同性作用的形式都是语法形式，能体现语法意义的形式。

12. 语法手段：根据语法形式的共同特点把它们归并为几个基本类别，这种语法形式的类就叫做“语法手段”。

13. 递归：相同的规则可以在一个结构里重复使用。

14. 语境：说话时的环境条件，包括特定的场所、对话人和上下文等。

15. 句子：由若干个词或词组按照一定的规则组合成的，能表达相对完整的意义，前后有较大的停顿并带有一定的语气和句调的语言单位。

16. 句法范畴：由结构的变化来表示语法意义的形式就是司法范畴。

17. 句法手段：通过结构的变化来表现语法意义的形式叫做句法手段。

18. 句法：语法中主要说明句子成分和句子类型的部分称为句法，也称造句法。

19. 词法：语法中主要描写词的形态特征和变化规则的部分称为词法，也称形态学。

20. 词法范畴：由词的变化来表示语法意义的形式就是词法范畴。

语言：语言是一种特殊的社会现象，是人类最重要的交际工具和思维的工具。

是音义结合的词汇和语法构成的符号系统，注意，文字不是语言。

语言符号：语言符号是由声音形式和意义内容构成，语言符号是音与义相结合的统一体，是说的和听的历史比较语言学：对不同语言或同一语言的不同发展阶段做比较分析，构拟语言的原始基础形式。

语流音变：语流音变是音位和音位组合时发生的语音变化。

这种变化是由于受相邻的音位的影响或说话时的快慢、高低、强弱等因素的影响造成的。

汉语的轻声、变调，都是，如“西瓜”中的“瓜”念轻声，“展览”中的“览”念阳平。

常见的语流音变现象主要有同化、异化（如汉语变调）、弱化（如轻声音节）、脱落（豆腐）等。

音素：音素是语音的最小单位，它是人类语言从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位。

音位：是具语言或方言中有区别意义作用的最小语音结构单位，如送气和不送气的分别。

区别特征：具有区别音位的作用的发音特征叫区别特征，不同的音位正是通过区别特征来实现其区别意义的功能。

语言联盟：也称“语言的区域分类"是指一片地理区域内的不同语言不仅在词汇上相互有大量的借贷，而且在语音、语法系统的结构格局、结构规划方面也十分相似，但各语言仍有相当数量的核心词根彼此不同。

系统感染：是指处于同一地区的若干语言在语音、语法系统的结构格局、结构规则方面逐渐趋同，但仍然保持了各自的语言本质，有相当数量继承与自己语言祖语的核心词根。

亲属语言：从同一种语言中分化出来的几种独立语言，彼此有同源关系。

例如英语、德语来自日尔曼语，法语、意大利语来自拉丁语，就是亲属语言。

谱系分类：就是根据语言的亲属关系对语言所作的分类。

谱系分类分出的最大的语言类别是语系，语系下面是语族，语族下面再分语支。

例如汉语属于汉藏语系，英语、法语属于印欧语系。

屈折语：屈折语以词形变化作为语法关系的主要手段，以印欧语系为代表，如俄语、英语、法语等。

黏着语：黏着语也有丰富的词形变化，通过词本身形式的变化来表示各种语法关系。

名1、Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是用于人类交际的任意的声音符号系统。

2、Linguistics Definition: The scientific and systematic study of language.3、Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.4、IPA国际音标: a standardized and internationally accepted phonetic system used to transcribe speech sounds devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 and underwent several revisions after then, the basic principle of which is to use one letter selected from one major European language to represent one speech sound.5、Morphemes: the most important unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.Design features of language:1) Arbitrariness:2) Productivity生产力:3) Duality二元性:4) Displacement移位性:5) Cultural transmission:6) Interchangeability:填空1、Scope of Linguistic Study ：1) Phonetics 语音学2）Phonology音系学3）Morphology 形态学4）Syntax 句法学5）Semantics语义学6）Pragamatics 语用学2、Some Important Distinctions in Linguistics（见课本）（简答、论述、填空）3、Classification of phonetics：Articulatory phonetics发音语言学：studies the sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e., how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds。

Chapter 1 Introduction1. What is linguistics? Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study oflanguage.2.The scope of linguistics:(1 ). phonetics 语音学；phonology 音位学；morphology 形态学；syntax 句法学；pragmatics 语用学(2). sociolinguistics 社会语言学；psycholinguistics 心理语言学；applied linguistics应用语言学3.Some important distinction in linguistics(1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描述性与规定性①If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language peopleactually use, it is said to be descriptive;②If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for” correct and standard”behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say andwhat they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.(2)Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历时性①A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily,the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.②Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.(2)Langue & parole 语言与会话①Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all themembers of a speech community.②Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.(4)Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用①A language user's unconscious knowledge about the system of rules iscalled his linguistic competence.②Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.(5)speech and writing 语言与文字Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.(6)traditional grammar and modern linguistic 传统语法与现代语言学4.Definition of language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistics symbol and what the symbol stands.Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific.5.Design features of language6.(1) Arbitrariness 任意性refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)(2) Productivity(creativity)能产性Language is productive in that it makes possiblethe construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(3) duality双重性The property of having two levels of structures, such that units ofthe primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(4) displacement移位性Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.(5)cultural transmission 文化传承性7.Functions of language(1) referential (to convey message and information),(2) poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),(3) emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),(4) conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests),(5) phatic (to establish communion with others)(6) metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).①Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)②Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in asociety.(age, sex, language, background, accent, status)③Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certainactions. (name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)④. Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of thespeaker.⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions toestablish a comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factual content. (health, weather)⑥Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.8.9.Chapter 2 Phonology1.Phonetics（语音学）is the study of the phonic medium of language; it isconcerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.2.Orthographic representation of speech sounds：broad transcription（宽式标音）and narrow transcription（严式标音）A broad transcription（宽式标音）is the transcription with letter-symbols only.A narrow transcription（严式标音）is a transcription with letter symbols togetherwith diacritics.3.Phonology（音位学）is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems oflanguages.4.The differences between phonetics and phonology:（语音的正字表征）①Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. Butthey differ in their approach and focus.②Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in allhuman languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.③Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.5.Phone（音素）, phoneme（音位）, allophone（音位变体）A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produceduring linguistic communication are all phones.A phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit,not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context6.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.（音位对立，互补分布，最小对立体）7.Some rules of phonology（音位学规则）Sequential rules 序列规则Assimilation rule 同化规则Deletion rule省略规则8.Suprasegmental features （超音段特征）：stress重音，tone音调，intonation语调9.10.Chapter 3 Morphology1.Classification of words（1）Variable vs. invariable words:可变词类和不可变词类Variable words: One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains constant follow, follows, following, followed; mat, matsInvariable words: those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings.（2）Grammatical words vs. lexical words:语法词类和词汇词类Grammatical words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronounsLexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.（3）Closed-class words vs. open-class words:封闭词类和开放词类Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.Open-class: A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbsGrammatical---lexical words closed-class---open-class words2.Morphere(词素)：the minimal meaningful unit of language.3.Linguistics use the term morphology to refer the part of the grammar that isconcerned with word formation and word structure.4.Free morpheme & bound morpheme(自由语素和黏着语素)A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme; a morphemethat must be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.5.The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.(词素变体)6.Inflectional affix & derivational affix(屈折词缀和派生词缀)pound: those words that consist of more than one free morphemes, the way tojoin two separate words to produce a single form.In compounds, the lexical morphemes can be of different word classes.pounds can be further divided into two kinds:the endocentric compound (向心复合词) the exocentric compound(离心复合词)9.Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; egself-control: a kind of control armchair: a kind of chair10.Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, egscarecrow: not a kind of crow breakneck: not a kind of neck11.Chapter 4 Syntax1.What is Syntax （句法）?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences. 句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2.Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:relations of position 位置关系relations of substitutability 替代关系relations of co-occurrence 同现关系3.4.5.Chapter 5 Semantics1.What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2.The conceptualist view①The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic formand what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.②This is illustrated by the classic semantic triangle or triangle of significancesuggested by Ogden and Richard.Thought/reference/conceptSymbol/form referencentword/phrase/sentence③The symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words andphrases);The referent refers to the object in the world of experience;Thought or reference refers to concept.The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated withthe form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked atfrom this point of view is the meaning of the word.3.The contextualismMeaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:Situational context: spatiotemporal situationLinguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.4.BehaviorismBehaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.5.Lexical meaningSense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.6.Major sense relations（1）Synonymy 同义词①Dialect synonymy 方言同义词②Stylistic synonymy 文体同义词③Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning④Collocational synonyms⑤Semantically different synonyms（2）Antonym 反义词①Gradable antonyms 等级反义词②Complementary antonyms 互补反义词③Relational opposites 关系反义词（3）Polysemy 一词多义（4）Homonymy 同形异义词（5）Hyponymy 上下义关系①Superordinate 上义词②Hyponyms下义词ponential analysis 成分分析法——a way of analyze lexical meaningIt is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.The.word可编辑.approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.8.. 专业.专注.。

第三章语音关键词：语音音素元音辅音发音部位音位语流音变语音：语音是语言的物质外壳语音：是人类发音器官发出的、能够表达一定意义的声音，是语言符号的物质形式音素：从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位（元音和辅音是音素的分类）元音：又叫母音。

发音时，声带振动，气流不受阻碍而形成的音辅音：又叫子音。

发音时，气流受阻碍而形成的音。

国际音标：是国际语音协会于1888年制定并开始使用的，制定原则：一个音素只用一个音标表示，一个音标只表示一个音素在汉语普通话中没有意义区别功能的声学特征是音长音位：一种语言或方言中能区别意义的最小语音单位（辅音、元音、声调都可以是音位）音质音位：元音音位和辅音音位非音质音位调位重位record 时位seat sit音位变体：一个音位在不同的情况下可以有不同的发音，音位中所包含的不同的音素就是音位的变体（也叫做同位变体）可能以填空名词解释的方式出现语流音变：音位和音位组合时，由于受邻音的影响或者说话的快慢、高低、强弱的不同，可能发生不同的变化。

这种变化叫语流音变（注意语流音变的几种情况P76到P77同化，异化，弱化，脱落，增音要会区别特别是弱化和脱落可能以选择题的方式出现，举一个栗子问是哪一种情况）熟悉掌握元音舌位唇形P46现汉书亲一定要背熟和21个辅音声母的发音特征八个元音见书P56页辅音见现代汉语书必考熟练掌握国际音标来标注词语别忘了叫方括号声调在音节的右上角标明55，35，214，51 必考会判断两个音素是否属于同一个音位语法必考：洪堡特“语言是有限手段的无限运用”• 第一节语法和语法单位关键词：词语素词根词缀词干词尾• 词：造句的时候能够独立运用的最小单位；词是最重要的一级语法单位• 语素：语言中音义结合的最小单位• 词根：词的核心部分，词的意义主要由它体现出来。

它可以单独构成词，也可以组合成词词缀（构词语素）：是只能粘附在词根上构成新词的语素，它本身不能单独构成词。

如“第一”“第二”的第词尾（构形语素变词语素）：是粘附在词（词根或词缀）后面表达某种语法意义的语素，词尾只能改变一个词的形式，不能构成新词。

语言学概论考点整理（1）一、名词解释1.组合关系说话时语言单位呈线性排列，其中一个语言与其前后的语言单位之间形成的关系叫做组合关系。

2.聚合关系说话时语言单位呈线性排列，能够替换其中一个语言单位的所有语言单位之间的联系叫做聚合关系。

3.语言变异语音、词汇的选择、句子的构造差异，从共时层面来看是语言的差异。

4.语调说话时语音高低轻重配置的而形成的腔调。

①狭义：指句子末尾语气的声调。

②广义：除了句子末尾语气的声调，还包括重音、句重音、停顿、节奏等。

5.派生词，合成词，单纯词一个十语素加一个或几个黏着语素构成的词叫派生词，一个语素构成的词是单纯词，两个或者两个以上语素构成的词是合成词。

6.语言语言也叫语言符号，语言包括结构、性质、功能。

①结构：语言是由词汇和语法构成的系统。

②性质：语言是一种符号系统。

③功能：语言是人类最重要的交际工具、思维工具。

7.语言结构的层次性（二层性）语言结构包括上层和下层次，上层次性有三种，第一层是语素，第二层是词，第三层是句子。

下层次性是首位，它们的特点是每一层都是上下面一层组合而成。

8.语法范畴把语法意义进一步综合概括形成的意义类别，称为语法范畴。

9.重音重音分为词重音和句重音，词重音是一个词中重读的音节，句重音是一个句子中重读的词或者词组。

10.词、语素、句子①词是能够独立运用的最小的造句单位。

②语素是最小的语音和语义结合体。

③句子是语言的使用单位，句子表达一个完整的意思并体现说话人的态度。

11.义素义素是构成词义的基本要素。

12.隐性结构、显性结构隐性结构:（1）可以是非连续性的；（2）可以是间接成分之间的关系；（3）一个成分可以同其他成分发生多种关系。

显性结构:（1）成分之间是连续的；（2）是直接成分之间的关系；（3）成分之间的关系是单一的。

二、简答题1.音位和音素有什么区别？（1）定义不同音位：具有区别意义作用的最小语音单位。

音素：从音色角度划分出来的最小语音单位。