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GRE 作文
孙远 https://www.doczj.com/doc/bf10236405.html,
第一天 6.17
两篇作文：
一、Analysis of an Issue (perspective 观点) 分析要 evidence reasoning ,
objective
二、二者择其一
Take a position and supported 立论，确定立场并支持
Analysis of an argument => critique your argument 批判、批驳
要求：
1.articulately express your idea clearly and complicatedly
2.examine claims and company evidence
3.support idea with relevant examples
4.sustain a well focus coherent discussions
5.control the element of standard of English
题库：共249题
安排： 1-3讲 argument
4-6讲 Issue
侧重 analytical thinking, 语言次之
4分够用，5分有竞争优势
[Argument]
----策略：
1. 掌握分析技巧
2. 掌握开头和结尾的module
3. 准备每道题的提纲 （chance favors only the prepared minds）
4. 学用一些闪光句型
5. 熟读argument 题目
----审题：
论述包括： 论点claim （信号词： therefore,so,thus,consequently）
支持support ---- evidence: examples,facts,statistics,authorities
-----reasons: assumptions, values,beliefs
----验证逻辑 critique logic
survey ----quantity , quality(random) 包括 1.分组group 分为几个sub group
2.pecentage of each sub
3.select sample 取样
procedure 有没有sample 或人被排除在外
how large was the sample ?
Are the statistics complete ?
Different: Do the statistics make a difference ? 数据重要么？
闪光句型：
1. the assumption that … is open to doubt/ unreliable /unfounded / groundless
/ unwarranted
2. the arguer commits a fallacy of …
3. the arguer fails to establish a causal relationship between A and B
4. the result of the survey lacks credibility and therefore does not lend strong
support to the arguer’s assumption.
5. the arguer fails to convince us that … contribute to / lead to / result in …
6. the comparison between A and B is incomplete
7. it is possible / likely that …
第二天 6.19
一、写作步骤：
1. skim the question and write the introduction
2. input the topic sentence. 找出问题所在，一个问题一句话
3. develop the body paragraphs one by one. 逐一展开问题段落，按重要性递
减的规律展开
4. conclusion（略）
5. checking
二、开头段的写作：
找出原论证的结论或主张，指出原论证的论据和假设，指出原论证的逻辑错误。
忠实的保留原始信息。 用自己的词保留原始信息。
In this argument / analysis, the arguer concludes / claims that…..To
support / justify the conclusion , the arguer points out / provides the evidence
that …and that… In addition , the arguer re
asons (推理) that ….. This
argument suffers from several critical fallacies / flaws.
三、SURVEY 问题：
1. vague => misleading (majority, percent, base number, few, many)
2. question: what questions will ask in the survey?
Loaded questions 有误导性的问题
3. Who
4. Average 平均数不适合于每个成员
5. Confusing causal relationship with correlation 混淆因果关系与相关性
Every causal relationship implies a correlation, but the statistical correlation
does not necessarily implies a causal relation.
6. When was the survey conducted?
7. Are respondents (授调查者) being forthright (直率，说真话) ?
Image men / essence men
闪光句型:
1. the arguer over simplifies the issue of…
2. the arguer unfairly assumes that…
3. the arguer fails take into account other factors that …
4. the procedure of the survey might be problematic.
第三天 6.21
正文写作
一、 段数量：2~4段之间，一段含4~8个句子
二、 TOPIC SENTENCE 内参4页
三、 过渡句，承上启下
first… second…. Third….
In the first place… in the second place… last but not least…
The major problem with this argument is that…
Another problem that weakens/ undermines (削弱) the logic of this
argument is that…
Before I come to my conclusion, it is necessary to point out another
flaw (several other flaws) that undermines the argument.
四、 攻击的方法：
例证法： for example / instance
假设法： if, even if , given that (考虑到) ，granted that (姑且承认)
only when (只有当) ，unless , in this / that case , even so
Unless the arguer provides substantial evidence regarding /
concerning / as to …, the assumption that … is unfounded /
problematic / unconvincing …
推测法： it is possible that … , it is equally possible that … , another
possibility is that … , it is also likely that …
possibly , perhaps
五、 运用闪光句型增加文采： P 88
六、 数据的问题：
1. Begging the question 把有待证实的关键性假设当作已经成立
Circular reasoning 循环论证 P35 2 , P44 37, P53 73
2. Fallacy of missing evidence
Hasty generalization 急于概括
Neglect a relevant evidence 忽略相关证据
P51 66 , P48 56
3. False analogy 只看到表层差异，而忽略深层差异
P63 112 , P42 29
4. False dilemma / either or fallacy 非此即彼的错误
P59 96 , P43 34
5. Non sequitor => non causal relationship
P50 62 , P52 70
闪光句型:
In the absence of all this information, it is impossible for us to evaluate …
that…
However, the arguer fails to provide any information regarding …
It is very likely that …
第四天 6.24
6. post hoc , ergo prepter hoc = after this , therefore because of this
P46 47 , P55 81
7. concurrence P36 5 , P50 61
8. incom
plete comparison or selective comparison P54 78
9. composition and division
composition: 把个体特征不恰当的移植到整体上
division: 把群体特征简单的移植到个体上
P48 55
最后段的写作：
两项任务：
1. 指出原论者未能有效的支持自己的结论
2. 指出原论者可以从正文分析的几个方面加强原论证。
针对正文几个topic sentence 作者应在这几个方面加强
Module: p75-p79
Issue (是非问题)
Strategy: P67
选题：
构思：brainstorm
开头：陈述问题背景，指出自己论点
正文：2~3 段，分别支持自己立场
1. 每段要有一个主题
2. 展开论述
3. 复杂性，让步，修正
4. 使用信号词
结尾：
语言问题： check P68
Brainstorm 快速构思
1. 从大脑里调出尽可能多的相关信息
2. 充分relax
3. 快速记忆
Issue的典型立场
Agree P104 3
Disagree P108 47
闪光句型:----结论
1. to sum up, the conclusion lacks credibility cause the evidence cited in the
analysis does not lend strong support to what the arguer maintains. To
strengthen the argument, the arguer would have to provide more evidence
concerning …
2. moreover, it would be necessary for the arguer to rule out all the
above-mentioned possibilities before we can better evaluate the argument.
3. As it stands, the argument is not well reasoned. To make it logically
acceptable, the arguer would have to demonstrate that …
4. additionally, the arguer must provide evidence to rule out other possible
causes …
5. To conclude, this argument is not persuasive as it stands. Before we accept
the conclusion, the arguer must present more facts to demonstrate that …
6. To solidify the argument, the arguer would have to produce more evidence
concerning …
7. In summary, the conclusion reached in this argument is invalid and
misleading. To make the argument more convincing, the arguer would have
to prove that …
8. Moreover, I would suspend (推迟) my judgment about the credibility of the
recommendation until the arguer can provide concrete evidence that …
第五天 6.28
一、Issue的典型立场
1. Agree P104 3
2. Disagree P108 47
3. Agree with concession P105 16
4. Disagree with concession P107 34
5. Refuse to take sides 拒绝站在任何一边 case by case attitude P111 73
二、典型结构 typical organizations
1. I. Introducion P293
II. support1
III. support2
IV. support3
V. conclusion
句型: In the first place / to begin with
In the second place / in addition
Last but not least / Moreover / furthermore / what’s more
2. I. support1 正 P217
II. support2 正
III. concession 反
句型： In the first place …
in the second place …
Admittedly / however , it should be admitted (confessed) that /
ho
wever, there is no denying that…
3. I. Introducion P283
II. Side A
III. Side B
IV. Conclusion
4. 反驳式： 逐一反驳对方理由
Refute 1
Refute 2
Refute 3
Conclusion
I. Many people may sincerely believe that… , However, one does
not have to go very far to see that …
II. Some people may also take for granted that (理所当然地认
为) … Yet careful examination would review that …
III. Another misconception that many people may hold is that …
But what they feel notice is that …
三、开头的策略：
应能抓住读者的注意力和好奇心
注意开头明确提出主张
1. 描述背景并提出立场 P68
2. 首先陈述相冲突的观点，然后提出自己的主张 P71
3. 先用问句提出问题，然后提出在这个问题上的典型主张（可提可不提），最后
说自己的观点 P72
4. 讲述一段轶文（anecdote）趣事 P70
5. 先提出典型反对派立场，然后简要驳斥，最后提自己主张 P260
6. 先提出自己主张，然后简要陈述自己的基本理由 P255
闪光句型：
According to the title statement, … while I agree that … I insist that …/ it is
natural that…
It is natural that people may disagree over such a controversial issue due to
their different experiences and values. On balance , I an inclined to support
(<-> oppose ) the idea that ..
There is a growing public concern over the issue of … The speaker in the title
statement advocates that …. In the last analysis, I argue that…
四、how to support your claim 正文论证
1. inductive reasoning 逻辑推理 具体 一般
1） facts and examples: P282 P 219
句型：For example / instance, To illustrate , As an illustration. There
is evidence that …
2) statistics : P 98-100
3) authorities or quotations :
句型：
Professor / or … , a well-known / influential scholar of …
In china said , “… ”
第六天 7.1
四、how to support your claim 正文论证
4）anecdotes, cases, stories P256
句型： a case in point is … ABC serves as a typical example.
5) Personal experience P192
6) Scenarios 假设
可能发生的事情，可作为一种依据 P70
Imagine / Suppose that …
7) Analogy P269
句型：similarly , likewise , in the same way / manner
2. Deductive Reasoning 演绎推理 P30 P6 内参
五、结尾段的写作：
1. restate your position P71
句型： P101
2. restate your position and summarize your reasons P285
3. restate your position and extand your argument
建议，号召，展望 P70. 72. 73
句型：In conclusion, I hold that … not only because that …, but also
because …
语言方面技巧：
1. 使用高分词汇
情态动词： could, would, might, can, may, will
程度副词： 肯定 certainly, naturally, obviously, unders
tandably,
undoubtedly, plainly
可能性 possibly, probably, potentially, likely, presumably.
信号词： P155
分析性词汇：
in the case, given that (考虑到…), granted that (姑且承认), actually, as
a matter of fact, admittedly, to some extent, in a sense, in
the last analysis, on balance.
2. 正规语言与非正规 P161
3. 句式的变化 P170
1) 使用不同的句子结构
2) 变换相邻句子的开头结构
4. 复杂句式 P6 内参
备考建议
1. 熟悉每道题及其提纲
充实论据（讨论、看书、工具箱），补充或重写
2. 背诵——工具箱
3. 模拟训练 issue, argument 各写 20 篇
孙远的工具箱（传媒类）
传媒类
1．宣传技术(propaganda techniques)
Today’s Advertising
Propaganda is not just the tool of totalitarian governments and dictators. Rather, propaganda is all around us—in the form of commercials and advertisements. The author of this selection shows how Madison Avenue uses many of the techniques typical of political propaganda to convince us that we need certain products and services.
American adults and children alike, are being seduced. They are being brainwashed. And few of us protest. Why? Because the seducers and the brain washers are the advertisers we willingly invite into our homes. We are victims, content—even eager—to be victimized. We read advertisers’ propaganda messages in newspapers and magazines; we watch their alluring images on the television. We absorb their messages and images into our subconscious. We all do it—even those of us who claim to see through advertisers’ tricks and therefore feel immune to advertisers’ charm. Advertisers lean heavily on propaganda to sell their products, whether the “products” are a brand of toothpaste, a candidate for office, or a particular political viewpoint.
Propaganda is a systematic effort to influence people’s opinions, to win them over to a certain view or side. Propaganda is not necessarily concerned with what is true or false, good or bad. Propagandists simply want people to believe the messages being sent. Often, propagandists will use outright lies or more subtle deceptions to sway people’s opinions. In a propaganda war, any tacit is considered fair.
Indeed, the vast majority of us are targets in advertisers’ propaganda war. Every day, we are bombarded with slogans, print ads, commercials, packaging claims, billboards, trademarks, logos, and the designer brands-all forms of propaganda. One study reports that each of us, during an average day, is exposed to over five hundred advertising claims of various types. This saturation may even increase in the future since current trends include ads on movie screens, shopping carts, videocassettes, even public television.
Advertisers use seven types of propaganda techniques:
1)Name calling
Name calling is a propaganda tacit in which negatively charged names
are hurled against the opposing side or competitor. By using such names, propagandists try to arouse the feeling of mistrust, fear, and hate in their audiences.
Political advisement may label an opposing candidate a “loser”, “fence-sitter”, or “warmonger”
Products: An American manufacturer may refer, for instance, to a “foreign car” in its commercial—not to a “imported” one. The label of foreignness will have unpleasant connotations on many people’s mind.
2)Glittering Generalities
Using glittering generalities is the opposite of name calling. In this case, advertisers surround their products with attractive--and slippery—words and phrases. They use vague terms that are difficult to define and that may have different meanings to different people: freedom, democratic, all-American, progressive, Christian, and justice. Many such words have strong, affirmative overtones. This kind of language stirs positive feelings in people, feelings that may spill over to the product or idea being pitched. As with the name calling, the emotional response may overwhelm logic. Target audiences accept the product without thinking very much about what the glittering generalities mean—or whether they even apply to the product. After all, how can anyone oppose “truth, justice, and the American way”?
Politics: The ads for politicians and political causes often use glittering generalities because such “buzz words” can influence votes. Election slogans include high-sounding but basically empty phrases.
Products: Ads for consumer goods are also sprinkles with glittering generalities. Product names, for instance, are supposed to evoke good feelings.
3)Transfer
In a transfer, advertisers try to improve the image of a product by associating it with a symbol most people respect, like the American flag or Uncle Sam. The advertisers hope that the prestige attached to the symbol will carry over to the product.
Product: Lincoln Insurance shows a profile of the president; Continental Insurance portrays a Revolutionary war minuteman.
Corporations also use the transfer technique when they sponsor prestigious shows on radio and televisions. These shows function as symbols of dignity and class.
In this way, corporations can reach an educated, influential audience and, perhaps, improve their public image by associating themselves with quality programming.
Politics: Ads for political candidate often show either the Washington Monument, a Fourth of July parade, the stars and Stripes, a bald eagle soaring over mountains, or a white-steepled church on the village green. The national anthem or “America the Beautiful” may play softly in the background.
4）Testimonial
The testimonial is one of advertisers’ most-loved and most-used propaganda techniques. Similar to the transfer device, the testimonial capitalizes on the admiration people have for celebrity to make the product shine more brightly—even though the celebrity is not a
n expert on the product being sold.
Print and television ads offer a nonstop parade of testimonials: here’s Cher for Holiday Spas; here’s basketball star Michael Jackson sings about Pepsi.
5)Plain forks
The plain folks approach says, in effect, “Buy me or vote for me, I’m just like you.” And how do these folksy warmhearted (usually saccharine) scenes affect us? They’re supposed to make us feel that AT&T—the multinational corporate giant—has the same values as we do. Similarly, we are introduced to the little people at Ford, the ordinary folks who work on the assembly line, not to bigwigs in their executive offices. What’s the purpose of such an approach? To encourage us buy a car built by honest, hardworking “everyday Joes” who care about quality as much as we do.
Politics: candidates wear hard hats, farmer caps, and assembly-line coveralls. They jog around the block and carry their own luggage through the airport. The idea is to convince people that the candidates are average people, not the elite—not wealthy lawyers or executives but the common citizen.
Bandwagon
use many people have deep desire not to de different.
Politics: Political ads tell us to vote for the “winning candidate.” The advertisers know we tend to feel comfortable doing what others do; we cant to be on the winning team. Or ads show a series of people proclaiming, “I’m voting for the Senator. I don’t know why anyone wouldn’t.” Again, the audience feels under pressure to conform.
Why do these propaganda techniques work? Why do so many of us buy the products, viewpoints, and candidates urged on us by propaganda messages? They work because they appeal to our emotions, not to our minds. Often, in fact, they capitalize on our prejudices and biases. For example, if we are convinced that environmentalists are radicals who want to destroy America’s record of industrial growth and progress, then we will applaud the candidate who refers to them as “treehuggers.” Clear thinking requires hard work: analyzing a claim, researching the facts, examining both sides of an issue, using logic to see the flaws in an argument. Many of us would rather let the propagandists do our thinking for us.
Because propaganda is so effective, it is important to detect it and understand how it is used. We may conclude, after close examination, that some propaganda sents a truthful worthwhile message. Some advertising, for instance, urges us not to drive drunk, to become volunteers, to contribute to charity. Even so, we must be aware that propaganda is being used. Otherwise, we will have consented to handing over to others our independence of thought and action.
2. 电视瘾(TV addiction).
Unlike drugs or alcohol, the television experience allows the participant to blot out the real world and enter into a pleasurable and passive mental state. The worries and anxieties of reality are as effectively deferred by becoming absorbed in a television prog
ram as by going on a “trip” induced by drugs or alcohol.
In a way a heavy viewer’s life is as imbalanced by his television “habit” as a drug addict’s or an alcoholic’s. He is living in a holding pattern, as it were, passing up the activities that lead to growth or development or a sense of accomplishment. This is one reason people talk about their television viewing so ruefully, so apologetically. They are aware that it is an unproductive experience, that most any other endeavor is more worthwhile by any human measure.
The television habit distorts the sense of time. It renders other experiences vague and curiously unreal while taking on a greater reality for itself. It weakens relationships by reducing and sometimes eliminating normal opportunities for talking, for communicating.
The television viewer can never be sated with his television experiences—they do not provide the true nourishment that satiation requires—and thus he finds that he cannot stop watching.
No.1 孙远的工具箱（思想类）
思想类
1.critical thinking
Critical thinking is a path to intellectual adventure. Though there are dozens of possible approaches, the progress can be boiled down to concrete steps.
Be willing to say “I don’t know”
Some of the most profound thinkers of our time have practiced the art o critical thinking by using two magic phrases: I don’t know and I am not sure yet.
Those are words many people do not like to hear. We live in times when people are criticized for changing their minds. Our society rewards quick answers and quotable “sound bites.” We’re under considerable pressure to utter the truth in 15 seconds or less
In such a society, it is a courageous and unusual act to pause, to look, to examine, to be thoughtful to consider many points o view--- and to not know. When a society embraces half-truths in a blind rush for certainty, commitment to uncertainty can move us forward.
Think again
When we use the base-three number system, two plus two equals 11. A child learning to write numbers might insist that two and two makes 22. And a biologist might joke that two plus two adds up to a whole lot more than four when we’re talking about the reproductive life for rabbits.
Define your terms
Practice tolerance
Having opinions about issues is natural. When you stop having opinions, you are probably not breathing anymore. The problem comes when we hold opinions in a way that leads to defensiveness, put-downs, or put-offs.
Going hand in hand with critical thinking is tolerance for attitudes that differs from yours. Consider that many of the ideas we currently accept—democracy, Christianity, voting rights for women, civil rights for people of color---were once considered the claims of “dangerous” and unpopular minorities. This historical perspective helps us accept a tenet of critical thinking: What seems outlandish today may become accepted a century, a decade, or even a year fro
m now.
Understand before criticizing
Strictly speaking, none of us lives in the same world. Our habits, preferences, outlooks and values are as individual as our fingerprints. Each of them is shaped by our culture, our upbringing, our experience, and our choices. Speeches, books, articles, works for art, television programs, views expresses in conversation---all come from people who inhabit a different world than yours. Until we’ve lives in another person’s world for a while, it’s ineffective to dismiss her point of view.
Watch for hot spots
(hot spot: anger or discomfort when conversation shift to certain topics, such as death penalty or abortion)
To cool down your hot spots, seek out the whole world of ideas. Avoid intellectual ruts. Read magazines and books that challenge the opinions you currently hold. If you consider yourself liberal, pick up the National Review. If you are a socialist, sample the Wall Street Journal. Do the same with radio and television programs. Make a point to talk with people who differ from you in education level, race, ethnic group, or political affiliation. And to hone your thinking skills, practice defending an idea you consider outrageous.
Consider the source
Seek out alternative views
Dozens of viewpoints exist on every critical issue how to reduce crime, end world hunger, prevent war, educate our children, and countless others. In fact, few problems allow for any permanent solution. Each generation produces new answers, based on current conditions. Our research for answers is a conversation that spans centuries. On each question, many voices waiting to be heard. You can take advantage of this diversity by seeking out alternative viewpoints.
Ask questions
Stripped to this essence, critical thinking means asking and answering questions. If you want to practice this skill, get in the habit of asking powerful questions
Look for at least three answers
Using this approach can sustain honest inquiry, fuel creativity, and lead to conceptual breakthroughs.
Be prepared: The world is complicated, and critical thinking is a complex business. Some of your answers may contradict each other. Resist the temptation to have all your ideas in a neat, orderly bundle.
Be willing to change your mind
We should enter discussions with an open mind. When talking to another person, be willing to walk away with a new point of view---even if it’s the one you brought to the table. After thinking thoroughly, we can adopt new viewpoints or hold our current viewpoints in a different way.
Lay your cards on the table
Science and uncritical thinking differ in many ways. Uncritical thinkers shield themselves from new information and ideas. In contrast, scientists constantly look for facts that contradict their theories. In fact, science never proves anything once and for all. Scientific theories are tentative and subject to change. Scientists routinely practice critical thinking.
Examine the problems fr
om different points of view
Sometimes new ideas are born when we view the world from a new angle. When early scientists watched the skies, they conclude that the sun revolved around the earth. Later, when we gained the mathematical tools to “stand” in another place, we could clearly see that the earth was revolving the sun. This change in position not only sparked new thinking, it permanently changes our picture of the universe.
Write about it
Thoughts move randomly at blind speed. Writing slows that process down. Doing so allows us to see all points of view on an issue more clearly and therefore thinking thoroughly. Writing is an unparalleled way to practice precise, accurate thinking.
Construct a reasonable view
Instead, each point of view is one approach among many possible approaches. If you don’t think that any viewpoint is complete, then it is up to you to combine the perspectives on the issue. In doing so, you choose an original viewpoint.
2.The function of critical thinking
Critical thinking is a path to freedom from half-truths and deception. You have the right to question you see, hear, and read. Acquiring this ability is one of the major goals of a liberal education.
3.Critical Thinking as Thorough Thinking
Both critical thinking and thorough thinking point to the same array of activities: sorting out conflicting claims, weighting the evidence for them, letting go of personal bias, and arriving at reasonable views.
We live in a society that seems to value quick answers and certainty. This is often at odds with effective thinking. Thorough thinking is the ability to examine and reexamine ideas that may seem obvious. Such thinking takes time and the willingness to say three subversive words: I don’t know.
Thorough thinking is also the willingness to change our point of view as we continue to examine a problem. This calls for courage and detachment. Just ask anyone who has given up a cherished point of view in the light for new evidence.
Skilled students are thorough thinkers. They distinguish between opinion and fact. They ask powerful questions. They make detailed observations. They uncover assumptions and define their terms. They make assertions carefully, basing them on sound logic and solid evidence. Almost everything we called knowledge is a result of these activities. This means that critical thinking and learning are intimately linked.
4.Creative people
Two things are implied in the word “Creativity,” as I have come to understand it: novelty and significance. What is created is new, and the new opens up path that expand human possibilities.
Creative people, then, often look at something from the past that is the result of convergent thinking and by thinking about it divergently come up with a novel use of a familiar object. They look in the common place to find the strange. Instead of thinking toward to old solutions, they think away from them, making the leap from the unexpected to the i
nspired. Poets do it with metaphors and similes. Journalists can do it with garbage. Yes, garbage. It was the first subject we decided to explore because we sensed that it would be a usual vehicle for demonstrating that you can think creatively about almost anything, if you learn how to relate and connect what at casual glance seems odd to couple. In our research, we found an Arizona professor, a garbologist, teaching contemporary civilization through what people throw out; a New York artist turning ordinary things off the street into works of art; and an East Texas sewage plant where earthworms are used to turn sludge into topsoil.
Creative people tolerate ambiguity. They have unremitting desire to create a satisfying new order out of chaos, and the courage to persist to create that order on one’s own terms. This makes them often cantankerous, sometimes exasperating, always unconventional. What matters to them is not what others think o them, but what they think of themselves.
5.The lowest animal
Indecency, vulgarity, obscenity---these are strictly confined to man; he invented them. Among the higher animals there is no trace of them. Of all animals, man is the only one that is cruel. He is the only one that inflicts pain for the pleasure of doing it. It is trait that is not known to the higher animals.
The higher animals engage in individual fights, but never in organized masses. Man is the only animal that deals in that atrocity of atrocities, war.
Man is the only slave. And he is the only animal who enslaves. He has always been a slave in one form or another, and has always held other slaves in bondage under him in one way or another.
It seems pain to me that what ever he is, he is not a reasoning animal. His record is the fantastic record of a maniac. In truth, man in incurably foolish. Simple things which the other animals easily learn, he is incapable o learning.
6.Decision by Consensus
Westerners tend to make major decisions at the top, in board meetings, among department heads, and the like. They then pass the word down the line to managers and others, to implement and carry out the decision. The Japanese do the opposite. Their system, commonly known as ringi, is the corporate version of “government by consensus.”
Decisions are not made “on high” and handed down to be implemented. Rather, they are proposed from below and move upward, receiving additional input and approvals after deliberation through all levels of the company.
In Japan, in contrast, once the decision is finally and actually arrived at, all relevant staff members understand it thoroughly. They are familiar with its various ramifications. During the talking stages, they will have pretty well mastered the “what-when-how” of their own responsibilities vis-à-vis the project in question. So, although it may take a long time to arrive at the decision, once approval has been given they can put it into practice rapidly and smoothly. The fin
al time difference between the two system, therefore, may not be as far apart as it can sometimes seem.
Furthermore, in the Japanese system, those in low echelons feel that they have been involved. They have been able-often urged—to suggest proposals, projects, for refinements. Japanese bosses believe in encouraging suggestion from the rank and file. The idea o creating a consensus that incorporates the whole organizational hierarchy is at the heart of Japanese business philosophy and methods.
No.1 孙远的工具箱（教育类）
前两天看见有同志说新书里没有写作工具箱的，恰好有一本原来的版本，恰好本人在假期里练打字，就把孙老师工具箱里的黑体字笔记了一下，想用的就拿去吧，先贴一部分，要是大家都有了就不再贴了。黑体字部分都有，还摘抄了一部分有用的句子。
Issue
教育类
1.proverbs
lThe primary of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.
lNext in importance is to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.
lEducation’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.
l*It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and the intelligence to create our own destiny.
l*The most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is to ornamentation and decoration of the structure.
lThe essence of our effort is to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each a opportunity, not to become equal, but become to different-to realize whatever unique potential of a body, and spirit he or she possesses.
lIf you can read and don’t, you are an illiterate by choice.
教育的目的
lThroughout the nation and history, it has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity and preparing new generations of citizens in society.
lThe school’s job is to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information.
lLife skills---logical thinking, analysis, creative problem solving.
lThe actual content of lessons is secondary to the progress, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as uncreative and vulgar.
lSchoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities, that supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc.
lEducation should aim at improvement of both one’s morals and faculties.
lMadison once wrote that, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can
help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share that we should want all students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of a country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith.
lHonesty: Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents
Courage: Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf
Persistence: civil war
Respect the law: Socrates---I must submit to the decree of Athens
lAs any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be not only healthy, happy, and successful, but decent strong and good. None of these happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. . It takes careful attention.
lI see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure.
lThe intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics –an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field.
lUltimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be the prisoners of their parents’ dreams and the classmates’ fears. They must be jolt into believing in themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.
lCollege should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads.
lThere is no one “right way” to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point, and bound for a different destination.
成功和失败
lMost people consider success and failure as opposite, but they are actually both products of the same process. As a baseball player suggests, an activity which produce a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy which generates good creative ideas also produces errors.
lIf you learn that failing even a little penalizes you, you learn not to male mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself in situations where you might fall. This leads you to conservative thought patterns designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.
lMost of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.
lFrom the practical point of view, “to error is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousands of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand into a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, sto
ck brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.
lNevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you will probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain theses right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend little time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase, these errors are viewed as necessary by-product of creative thinking. As the player would put it, “If you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That is the way the game of life goes.
lAs a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filled with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping atones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled onto the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions which were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.
lErrors serve another useful purpose: they tell us when to change directions. Negative feedback means that the current approach is not working, and it is up to you to figure out a new one. We learn by trail and error, not by trial and rightness. If we do things correctly every time, we should never have to change directions—we’d just continue the current course and end up with more the same.
lYour error rate in any activity is a function of your familiarity with the activity. If you are doing things that are routine and have a high likelihood of correctness, then you will probably making very few errors. But if you are doing things that have no precedence in your experience or are trying different approaches, then you will be making your share of mistakes. Innovators may not bat a thousand—far from it—but they do get new ideas.
lThomas J. Watson, the founder of IBM, has similar words: “ the way to succeed is to double your failure rate.
lErrors, at the very least, are a sign that we are diverging from the main road to and trying different approaches.
lThere are places where errors are inappropriate, but the germinal phase of the creative process isn’t one of them. Errors are a sign that you are diverging from the well-traveled path. If you are not failing every now and then, it’s a sign you are not being very innovative.
If you make an error, use it as a stepping atone to a new idea you might not have otherwise discovered.
Differentiate between errors of “commission” and those of “omission”. The latter can be more costly than the former. If you ‘re not making any errors, you mig
ht ask yourself, “How many opportunities am I missing by not being more aggressive?”
Strengthen your “risk muscle”. Everyone has one, but you have to exercise it or else it will atrophy. Make it a point to take at least one risk every 24 hours.’
Remember these two benefits of failure. First, if you do fail, you learn what does not work; and second, the failure gives you an opportunity to try a new approach.
教育类
lLiberal art teaches you how to think, how to read, write, and speak intelligently, get along with others, and conceptualize problems.
lGrowing ranks of corporate executives are lamenting that college students are specializing too much and too early. What corporate America really needs is students soundly grounded in the liberal arts—English, especially---who then can pick up more specific business or technical skills on the job. Today’s best selling courses offer evidence that students want to take courses that provide direct job related skills rather than the most basic survival skills in the work place: communications and thinking skills.
lEducation for education’s sake is noble but impractical to today’s college student who is facing a competitive and rapidly changing job market.
lAdaptability and lifelong learning are the cornerstones of success in today’s complex and rapidly changing society. No longer can the person who is steeped in one academic discipline, but knows nothing about any thing else, meet today’s demands.
lThe time has come to rethink what education really is and how it relates to the functions of society. Perhaps what a liberal education does to an individual, which is more important than anything else, is to prepare him for more learning. The liberal arts background equips one with thinking skills, coupled with the desire to learn, are the best preparation for career and life that any of us can possess.
lFirst, granting that our graduates know a great deal, their knowledge lies about in fragments and never gets welded together into the stuff of a tempered and mobile mind. Secondly, our university graduates have been so busy boring holes for themselves, acquiring special knowledge and skills, that in later life they have astonishingly little in common in the way of ideas, standards, or principles.
lBut genuine education, as Socrates knew more than two thousand years ago, is not inserting the stuffings of information into a person, but rather eliciting knowledge from him; it is the drawing out of what is in the mind.
lThe most important part of education is this instruction of a man in what he has inside him.
lHe was being so stuffed with miscellaneous facts, with such an indigestible mass of material that he has no time (and was given no encouragement) to draw on his own resources, to use his own mind for analyzing and synthesizing, and evaluating this material.
lThe job of teaching is not to stuff them and then seal them up, but to help them open and reveal the riches within.
lTraining is intended primarily for the service of society; education is primarily for the individual. Education is for the improvement of the individual, it also serves society by providing a leavening of men of understanding, of perception, and wisdom. They are our intellectual leaders, the critics of our culture, the defenders of our free traditions, the instigators of our progress.
lIn the liberal arts college, student is encouraged to explore new fields and old fields, to wander down the bypaths of the knowledge.
lThe study of law gives him an understanding of the rules under which our society functions and his practice in solving legal problems gives him an understanding of fine distinctions.
lIn general, certain courses of study are for the service of society and other courses are for self-improvement.
No.1 孙远的工具箱（科技类）
有用的话，再传上来一些：）
科技类
1 计算机和教育
Computers enhance a student’s learning experience in many ways. First of all, the computer has the ability to accommodate individual difference in learning speed because the user (the student) is the one who controls the pace of the lessons. In addition, the learner does not have to be afraid of reprisal or humiliation when making errors. A third advantage of computer assisted instruction is that a computer can give a student immediate feed back.
Computer can make the teacher’s job easier. One advantage lies in the preparation of instructional materials. In addition, the computer offers numerous advantages to teachers in managing their classrooms. Finally, computer can help teachers keep student records and chart student progress, thereby cutting down on time-consuming paperwork..
2. 计算机与工作环境
In an atmosphere of computer monitoring, inept workstations, inflexible pacing, and nerve-wracking anxiety, workman’s compensation claims based on job stress have more than doubled since 1980, and now account for approximately 15 percent of all occupational disease claims. According to estimates by the OTA, stress-related illness costs business, between $50 and 75$ billion per year.
3. 太阳能
What’s making solar energy so hot? For one thing, the technology is getting better and cheaper. The price of the photovoltaic cells that convert sunlight to electricity has fallen sharply from $500 a watt in the 1960s to about $4 today. Companies are now rushing to break the $2 barrier. Texas Instruments and Southern California Edison have joined forces to produce flexible solar panels from inexpensive low-grade silicon. The innovative technology will allow the panels to be integrated into car and building design and, even more important, will crash the price to $2.50 a watt.
4. 微型机器
In the past, one of the biggest disadvantages of machines has been their inability to work on a micro (or tiny) scale. For example, doctors did not have devices allowing them to go inside the human body to identify
health problems to perform delicate surgery. Repair crew did not have a way of identifying broken pipes located deep within a high-rise apartment building. However, that’s about to change. Advances in computers and biophysics have started a micro miniature revolution that’s allowing scientists to envision and in some cases actually build microscopic machines. These devices promise to radically change the way we live and work.
5. 环境压力
*New technologies often cause new forms of pollution and environmental stress. Pollution may be defined as the addition to the environment of agents that are potentially damaging to the welfare of humans or other organisms. Environmental stress is a more general term that refers to effects of society on the natural environment. Pollution is the most common form of environmental stress, but it is not the only one.
One example of environmental stress resulting from technology is the surprising finding that winter fish kills in Wisconsin lakes were caused by snowmobiles. Heavy snowmobile ues on a lake compacts the snow, thereby reducing the amount of sunlight filtering through the ice and interfering with photosynthesis by aquatic plants. As the plant life dies, its decomposition further reduces the amount of oxygen in the water. The fish then die of asphyxiation.
In sum, although scientific discoveries and technological advances have produced tremendous improvements in the quality of human life, they have often had negative consequences as well. The risk of cancer caused by the inhalation of asbestos particles, the possibility of large-scale industrial accidents, the ethical issues raised by the use of life-prolong technologies, and the ever-present danger of nuclear holocaust are as much a part of the modern era as space travel, miracle drugs, and computers that can operate whole factories. Although technology is not “out of control’, there is clearly a need for improved procedures for anticipating and preventing the negative consequences of new technologies.
6. 高科技和就业
The term high technology is associated with computers, advanced electronics, genetic engineering , and other frontiers of technological change. The term high technology implies:
An extensive degree of technological sophistication embodied in a product
A rapid rate of employment growth associated with an innovative product.
A large research and development effort associated with production.
One implication of this definition is that it includes job-creating process like research and development as well as technologies like computers, which also have created new growth in employment.
Early machine technologies tended to replace human labor power, but high technology tends to reduce the need for human brainpower. Employment in occupations like drafting and industrial drawing in engineering and architecture, for example, is threatened by the accelerating use of computer design and graphics programs.
7. 科
技的影响
It should be noted that the effects of new technologies are not always positive. The phrase technological dualism is sometimes used to refer to the fact that technological changes often have both positive and negative effects. The introduction of diesel locomotives, for example, greatly increase the efficiency of railroad operations, but it is also led to decline and eventual abandonment of railroad towns whose economies were based on the servicing of steam locomotives. Another example is the automation of industrial production. Automation has greatly improved manufacturing process in many industries. It has increased the safety of certain production tasks and led to improved product quality in many cases. But it has also replaced thousands of manual workers with machines, and significant numbers of those workers find themselves unemployed and lacking the skills required by the high-tech occupations of postindustrial society.
Technology is dangerous to the real world. (in movie and science fiction) Events like the accident at the Three Mile Island nuclear-power plant in 1979; the toxic gas leak that killed more than 2,000 people in Bhopal, India, in 1984; and the disaster at the Chernobyl nuclear-power plant in the Soviet Union in 1986 seem to indicate human beings cannot control technologies they have created.
The result of our dependence on the benefits of complex technologies is an increasingly complex set of organizations and procedures for putting those technologies to work. This requires more human effort and skill, and the chances of error and breakdown are greater. The point is not that technology is out of control but that often there is lag between the introductions of new technologies.
8. 科技和社会变化
Inventions affect the size of populations, which in turn influences the course of history. Some inventions affect population directly: Improvements in sanitation, the development of cured for fatal illnesses, and more effective contraceptive techniques are examples. Some inventions can also have indirect effects on population: techniques that improve crop yields or permit long-term storage of food surpluses make it possible to support a larger population with a given amount of farmland. And improvements in military technology have had dramatic effects on the conduct of war and hence on population size.
9．对能量的要求
Throughout human history a central aspect of technological change has been the quest for new sources of energy to meet the needs of growing populations. That quest has given rise to a succession of energy technologies, each more sophisticated than the last.(animal power---steam-driven machines---internal-combustion engine---nuclear energy---fusion reaction, in which hydrogen atoms are fused into helium.)
Many people believe that societies can meet their growing energy needs by continually investing in more sophisticated technologies. This approach has led to the development of h
uge nuclear-power plants to replace oil-fueled generators, and it is widely hoped that investment in fusion, an even more complex technology, will eliminate the dangers posed by nuclear power.
The trend toward greater use of nuclear power to generate electricity has become a major social and political issue. Underlying the conflict over the safety of nuclear-power plants is the issue of control.
10. 日常生活中的科技
The place of technology in modern societies is a subject of continuing controversy. Key issues include not only the impact of technology on daily life but also the need to control the development and uses of technological innovations so that they benefit all sectors of society.
11. 科技和社会: 医学科技
Throughout most of human history, limitations on food production, together with lack of medical knowledge, have placed limits on the size of populations. Dreadful diseases like the bubonic plague have actually reduced populations. In England the plague, known as the Black Death, was responsible for a drastic drop in the population in 1348 and for the lack of population growth in the seventeenth century. In 1625 more than 35,000 residents of London died of the plague. Smallpox and dysentery have had similar, though less dramatic, effects.
As medical science progressed toward greater understanding of the nature of disease and its prevention, new public-health and maternal-care practices contributed to rapid population growth. In the second half of the nineteenth century, such discoveries as antiseptics and anesthesia made possible other life-prolonging medical treatments.
12. 科技的影响
The case of medical technology illustrates once again that technology can be both a blessing and a curse. In recent decades we have become increasingly aware that the problems of human life cannot always be solved by technological means. The “technological fix” can have adverse consequences. In the case of medical technology, vital ethical issues must be addresses. Other technologies, such as nuclear power and chemical plants, can directly threaten human life. As Charles Perrow writes, “Human-made catastrophes appear to have increased with industrialization as we built devices that could not crash, sink, burn or explode.” Perrow also points out that the increasing complexity of modern technology has led to a new kind of catastrophe: the failure of whole systems (i.e., activities and organizational networks as well as apparatus), as in the case of the Three Mile Island accident of the Challenger disaster.
13 学院
The work of scientists must be paid for, and the more their research is “pure” (in that it has no apparent uses that generate profits), the more it must be supported by other institutions like government or industry. This dependence of science on other institutions continually subjects scientists to pressure to make their work relevant to the needs of business or military.
14. 科学的
标准
Universalism. One of the basic norms of scientific institutions universalism: The truth of scientific knowledge must be determined by the impersonal criteria of the scientific method, not by criteria related to race, nationality, religion, social class, or political ideology.
Consider the case of the Russian geneticist Trofim D. Lysenko, who on the basis of some extremely unscientific research on plant genetics, claimed that acquired characteristics of plants could be inherited by the next generation. This claim seems to offer hope for improvement of the Soviet Union’s faltering agricultural production. It also fit well with Soviet ideology, which held that better human beings could be created through adherence to revolution. To Stalin and his advisers, science seemed to have proved the value of the Soviet culture and social system. Lysenko was granted a virtual dictatorship over biological research in the Soviet Union, and hundreds of Geneticists lost their jobs. Lysenko was deposed during the Khrusbchev era, but the damage done to Soviet agriculture and biological research in the name of ideology lasted many years longer.
Common ownership. Another norm of science is common ownership of scientific findings. Those findings are a result of collaboration and hence are not the property of any individual, although in some cases they may bear the name of the person who first published them, as in “Darwin’s theory of evolution” or “Einstein’s theory of relativity”. Secrecy is out of place in science.
Disinterestedness. A further norm of scientific institutions is disinterestedness. The scientist does not allow the desire for personal gain to influence the reporting and evaluation of results; fraud and irresponsible claims are outlawed. In fact, more than most other activities, scientific research is subject to the scrutiny of others. This is part of the nature of that research, which involves the search for results that can be verified; in other words, science is, in a sense, self-policing. The norm of disinterestedness does not imply that scientists cannot hope to profit from their findings, and there are many instances in which scientists have held lucrative patents for their discoveries. But it does imply that related norms of scientific research, such as unbiased observation and thoroughness in reporting findings, must take precedence over any selfish motives.(it appeared that a new era of------- might be on the horizon)
15. 现代社会中的科技
We noted earlier that a significant aspect of modern science is its contribution to the rapid pace of technological change. The technologies produced by scientific research are applied to all aspects human life and hence are a major force in shaping and changing other institutions in addition to scientific institutions themselves. An example is the impact of technological change on the institutions of mass communication. The advent of radio and then television dramatica