Monolithically Patterned Wide-Narrow-Wide All-Graphene Devices

纽马克文本类型理论下的进口化妆品英语说明书研究摘要近十几年来,随着中国加入世贸后推广了一系列对外文化政策，化妆品也随之涌入国际市场。

如何保证化妆品说明书的译文既要能准确有效地传达信息, 又要能切实满足消费者的需求, 这对化妆品说明书的译者来说是个难题。

作者试图通过文本类型理论翻译视角来探讨化妆品说明书的翻译, 旨在通过文本类型理论探讨其在英译时应遵循的翻译准则和可采用的翻译手段。

英国翻译家纽马克将文本类型划分为表达型文本﹑信息型文本和呼唤型文本三大文本类型, 认为译者应根据文本所要体现的文本功能来采取相应的翻译策略。

本研究作者基于纽马克文本理论，采取定性的研究方法，对市场上的化妆品说明书文本及其英译本进行了研究分析。

研究表明文本类型理论能指导化妆品说明书翻译，并具有一定优势。

同时指出：化妆品说明书翻译并不仅仅是一个语言转换过程，还要考虑到译入语文化，接受者的审美心理等诸多因素。

关键词：纽马克，文本类型理论，进口化妆品说明书，英汉翻译。

A Study on English-Chinese Translation of Imported Cosmetics Instructions under Newmark T ext Type TheoryABSTRACTIn recent decades, as China joined the WTO and then issued a series of foreign cultural policies, cosmetics begin to enter into the international market. instructions . Y et, it turns out to be a difficult issue for translators to deliver correct information effectively, to meet the real needs of consumers. In this thesis the author tries to study it from the point of text typology aiming at selecting basic translation criteria and available translation methods. Peter Newmark, the British translator, classifies all texts into three types: the expressive text, the informative text and the vocative text. He points out that the translator should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different text functions that the text expresses.. In this thesis, the author adopts a qualitative analysis research method on cosmetic instructions from the market and their English versions based on the theory of Newmark’s text typology. The theory and the case study of this paper prove that Text Typology Theory can provide guidance to cosmetics instructions translation, and has great priority. What's more, the author points out that the translation of cosmetic instructions is not only a language decoding process, but also a process that involves many factors, such as target culture, aesthetic psychology and so on.KEY WORDS: Newmark，text typology theory，imported cosmetics instruction, English-Chinese translation.ContentsIntroduction (5)Chapter 1 Introduction to Cosmetics Instructions Translation (6)1.1 Literature Review (6)1.2 Research Purpose and Significance of CosmeticsInstructions Translation (9)1.3 Organization of the Thesis (9)Chapter 2 Theoretical Framework (11)2.1 Peter Newmark’s Views on Text Typology (11)2.1.1 Text Functions (11)2.1.2 Text Types (13)2.2 Peter Newmark’s Translation Methods (14)2.3 Text Types and the Choice of Translation Methods (14)Chapter 3 Analysis of the Application Text Typology Theory to Cosmetics Instructions Translation (16)3.1 Accuracy and Economy Applied to the CosmeticsInstructions Translation (16)3.2 Coherence applied to the cosmetics instructions translation 173.3 Fidelity applied to the cosmetics instructions translation (18)3.4 Relations among the Rules (19)Chapter 4 A Case Study to Evaluate Cosmetics Instruction Translation (20)4.1 Basic Elements of the Questionnaire (20)4.2 Questionnaire (20)4.3 Analysis of the Responses (22)4.4 Suggested Strategies Adopted in the Translation ofCosmetic Instructions (22)4.4.1 Target-language-orientated Strategies (23)4.4.2 Target-culture-orientated Strategies (24)Conclusion (29)Acknowledgements (31)Bibliography (32)IntroductionThe recent deca des witnessed China’s rapid development in terms of trade and international exchange. With the entry into WTO, more and more foreign cosmetic companies begin to come into the Chinese market.In 2003, foreign cosmetics, includ ing the imported and joint-stock products, have taken up 68 percent in Chinese cosmetics market. The chief issue is how to make the consumers know these products very well. The most direct way is to show the consumers the cosmetics instructions. Consequently, translation of cosmetics instructions is rather important. However, due to the insufficient attention to cosmetics instructions translatio n at home and abroad, studies in cosmetics instructions translatio n lag behind other pragmatic translation, such as tourist translation, advertisement translation, etc. Besides, the quality of the translation of cosmetics instructions is far fro m satisfactory. Moreover,the prominent feature of cosmetics instructions is the integration of informative, aesthetic and vocative functions. It undertakes doub le roles of offering information to consumers and arousing their desire to make a purchase. Thus, the task of the translator is to offer the reader-expected target text in light o f the client’s requirement and make the target text fully perform the functions of cosmetics instructions.Chapter 1 Introduction to Cosmetics InstructionsTranslation1.1 Literature ReviewWith the develop ment of social-linguistics, pragmatics and functional grammar, some researchers realize that there is a close relationship between language functions and text categorization, thus they attempt to classify texts according to language functio ns in order to find out the reason o f forming this kind of relatio nship. The fo llowing introduction is about their major contributions to translation stud ies in terms of language functions and text typology.Hatim(1980) , as one of the representative figures of the Leipzig school, mentio ned that a text might worth studying. However, Kade(1993) did not carry out the study from the perspective o f language functions that are explored nowadays as the parameter to classify text types, but fro m the text genre Gentzler(2004:67) said that Kade “allowed for a rather broad scale Textgattungen (not necessarily types, but categorized generica lly)”.Karl Buhler(2011:34), put forward that language has three main functio ns, namely, expression, representation and appeal in his “organon model of language”.Roman Jakobson(1960:363) further developed Buhler’s theory and proposed his own model of the functio ns of language, which is called communication model.Katharina Reiss(2001) put forward her text typology in her book Translation Criticism: The Potentials & Limitations as early as 1971.According to Hofstede(1995), the representational functio n means the function of reflecting objects and facts; the expressive function refers to expressing sender’s feeling or attitude, while the appellative functio n imp lies that making an appeal to the text receiver.Peter Newmark, a famous British translation theorist and an experienced translator, proposed his text typolo gy based on Buhler’s functional theory oflanguage as adapted by Jakobson and Reiss’s text typology. Taking Buhler’s and Jakobson’s discussions on functions of language as the basis, Newmark divided language functio ns into six categories, includ ing the expressive function, the informative function, the vocative function, the phatic function, the aesthetic function and the metalingual functio n.According to Newmark, altho ugh language has six functions, they do not occupy the same important position, because the expressive, informative and vocative functio ns can effectively meet the primary purposes of using language. In view of this, the expressive, informative and vocative functions seem to be more important than the aesthetic, phatic and metalingual functions.In China, it is hard to find an authoritative record that mentio ns the earliest research of text typology exp licitly, but it seemed that stud ies on translation from the perspective of language functionsCong Li Jun(2004:43) held the view that, “functions of language production”p lays a leading ro le in the criteria of translation, therefore, translators must convey the thought and content of the source language text accurately, meanwhile, keep the “functions of language production” unchanged in the target language text.Taking G. Leech’s five classifications of language functions as the basis, Cui Guo Qiang (2010:12) made a discussion on the “issue of translatio n shift” as well as different translatio n strategies fro m the perspective of informative function, expressive function, esthetic function and phatic function. No doubt, his study has operational significance in terms of translation strategy,F however, it seems that the objects of discussion concerned by Guan Xiao Jing(2010:) and Chen Ming Jing(2005) are limited to the sentence itself or sentence groups, which is called “inner-textual level”, and have not reach up to the textual level .Chen Yu Min (2005) made a brief comment on the book Translation Criticism. He pointed out that the shortcomings of the book lie mainly in the fact that it is prescriptive by nature and it fails to take full account of thecultural factor in the evaluation of target texts. Cui Jian (1993) ind icated that based on Reiss’s model, Newmark made some adjustments on his model, which is more flexib le, relatively complex in respect of translation strategies, and more detailed in reference to methods of literary translation than that of Reiss’s.Fu Zhong Xuan(1993) discovered that there are great differences between both theories in terms of the definition and nature of translation, the criteria of translation, text functio ns and translatio n strategies, etc.He Chuan Sheng(1997) proposed that the approaches for translation criticism, whereas the similarities they share much in common reflect in the aspects of the classification of text types, the nature of translatio n and the relatio n between translation and culture. Guo Xing Yu (2007) applied text typology into legal translation with the aim of exp loring the characteristics of text types and legal texts. She held the view that identifying the typological features of particular texts correctly can bring convenience for translators to grasp the overall intention and function.Hu De Lon (2005) pointed out that the selection of translatio n strategy is directly related to text functio n largely. In his monograph A Functionalism View on Pragmatic Translation, he systematically exp lored and discussed the application of text typology in pragmatic translation fro m the perspective of western functionalist translation theory and many C-E translation examp les.Based on text typo logy, Hu Xin (1984) conducted a study on the translation of place names. According to his study, in order to deal with the translation of place names flexib ly, one must depend on text functions, the aim of translators and language types. Hu Zheng Kui (2000) selected the C-E translation o f pub lic signs as her research topic, with the aim to reveal the effect that this kind of translation is intended to reach as well as the translatio n strategies or methods that are to be adopted. Ji Wei Bin carried out a research on linguistic features of Accounting English from the perspective of text typology. Jia Wen Bo (2004) selected business contract, business letters andbusiness advertisements as her research objects and chose Newmark’s text typology as the theoretical guidance. Based on Newmark’s text typolo gy, she made an analysis of the characteristics of three types.1.2 Research Purpose and Significance of Cosmetics Instructions TranslationCosmetic instruction translation has been studied fro m many perspectives, but there is no systematic study from the perspective of Text Typo logy Theory. So the study will be really significant for its uniqueness that has not been presented in other studies yet. It is tough to comprehensively portray and evaluate the translation process and the translatio n results. The reason is the emergency of diversified perspectives in recent years, which cause contradicts.Text Typology Theory provides a new angle and guidance to the study of cosmetic instructio n translation. Verschueren ho lds that the purpose of making choices is to achieve a successful communication. As a k ind of communicatio n, translation consists of various choices to make it satisfying to both the native speakers and the foreigners. In addition to theoretical importance, the study also offers some practical significance. The fast development of economy and the flood of commod ities entering the international and domestic markets require the companies must adopt some strategies to survive in the fierce competition. Cosmetic becomes very important in people's daily life. Functioning as the bridge between consumers and companies, cosmet ic instruction p lays an essential ro le, accordingly, the translation o f cosmetic instruction enjoy the same importance. The study of cosmetic instructio n translation will provide insights for the companies.1.3 Organization of the ThesisThis thesis is composed of four chapters.Chapter 1 introduces the origin and significance of the thesis, ind icating the gap in imported cosmetics instructions translation in the framework oftext-type theories, and also gives out a rough arrangement for each part of the thesis.Chapter 2 presents basic viewpoints of Peter Newmark’s text types. It explains Newmark’s six text functions and feasible translation methods in detail. According to the six text functions, Newmark divides all texts into three main types-expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts, and based on different text types Newmark proposes eight translation methods, of which semantic translation and communicative translation stand for his core ideas in translation. Besides, in the last part of this chapter the author also discusses the choice of translation methods applied in these three main text types.Chapter 3，princip les and translation strategies based on text types are discussed. Through analyzing the cases, the author concludes types of translation problems and their causes in existing texts. And then by the use of Newmark’s text typo logy, the author advocates corresponding princip les and strategies for problems of instruction translation.Chapter 4 of the research is the theoretical framework of the research. According to Text Typology Theory, during the cosmetics instructions translation three princip les should be abided by: accuracy rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. This part is the main part of the research that is focusing on the cho ice of translation strategies guided by Text Typolo gy Theory, the application of three rules toward cosmetics instructio ns translatio n, and a case study about the above application. The author states opinions respectively in these aspects.Chapter 2 Theoretical Framework2.1 Peter Newmark’s Views on Text TypologyThis thesis takes Peter Newmark’s text typo logy as the theoretical framework of translation analysis. Newmark holds that any translations are based implicitly on a theory of language, and translatio n can test theory o f Translatio n by examining the effectiveness of translation. On the basis of Bxahler’s and Jakobson’s classification, Newmark advocated his own three categories of the text functio n: the informative function, the vocative fiction, the aesthetic functio n. Among these six functions, Newmark regards the three functions as the main functions of language because he believes that these three functio ns indicate the purpose of the use of language; thus he categorizes text types according to its main fiction conducted by the text.Scholars usually have two or more functions; thus they advocate that the nature of the type of a text should attrib ute to its main function. That is, the text functions of instructions could be multiple, but the property of the text type is controlled by its dominant function. To decide the text type of imported cosmetics instructio ns, it can start from the analysis o f text functions o f instructions. As the author mentioned previously, imported cosmetics instructions has three important language functio ns: the informative function, the vocative function and the aesthetic functio n. Since that Newmark insists a text could simultaneously carry several different functions and one of them is the dominant function, the author analyzes this situation.2.1.1 Text Functions2.1.1.1 The Informative FunctionExternal situatio n is the center of the informative function as the informative function expresses the facts of a topic, beyond language like concept or knowledge it contains. Accord ing to Newmark, “typicalinformative texts are concerned with any topic of knowledge, but texts about subjects, as they often value-judgments are apt to lean the informative text: a textbook; there are five standard formats of a technical report; an article in a newspaper or a periodical; a scientific paper; a thesis,” Besides, Newmark points out that two points need to be noticeable. One is that informative texts account for most translators’ work since these kinds of texts are of a variet y, which imp lies that the informative text takes up largest percentage of all types of texts. The other one is that most of informative texts are poorly Newmark holds that it is one of translators’ responsibilities to “correct” the fact and style. Thus, nowadays many translation works are and should be better than their original ones.2.1.1.2 The Vocative FunctionThe term “vocative” means to arouse the readership’s reaction, thought or sensation that the text intends to call up. Usually, this k ind of texts not only faces to a single reader but also to a group of people who can be called the readership since the content of the text is designed to serve particular groups. Therefore, the readership is the center of the vocative function. According to Newmark “typical vocative texts include notices, instructions,pub licity, propaganda, persuasive writing (requests, cases, theses) and possib ly popular function, whose purpose is to sell the book/entertain the reader, as the typical vocative text.”He thinks that the vocative text could be divided into persuasive style-appeal the readership to take reactio n such as advertisement and tour guide manuals, and imperative style-inhib it the readership’s behavior such as regulations and contracts.2.1.1.3 The Aesthetic FunctionThe aesthetic function is realized by the use of language that can please one’s senses.The expressio n of language for aesthetic functio n is mainlyrealized through the sound-effects and the metaphor. “Sound-effects consists onomatopoeia, alliterat ion, assonance, rhyme, metre, into natio n, stress- some of them play an important role in most types of texts: in poetry, nonsense and children’s verse and some types of pub licity (jingles, TV commercials)”. Note that, in poetry it has the aesthetic function as well as the expressive function. The expressive function emp hasizes the truth while the aesthetic functio n emphasizes the beauty; thus it easily falls into a dilemma as they stand ugly literal translation and beautiful free translation respectively. In addition, the roles of aesthetic and expressive functio n depend on d ifferent types of texts. In nonsense poetry, the sound-effect precedes the sense; in children’s poetry, “beauty” precedes “truth”; in other expressive texts, the expressive functio n plays a more important role than the aesthetic function.Except the sound-effect, metaphor plays another part in aesthetic function. Newmark believes, “metaphor is the link between the expressive and the aesthetic functio n”.Thus when translating original metaphor, one should preserve both expressive and aesthetic components.2.1.2 Text TypesNewmark holds that few texts have one purely single function; on the contrary, they usually have two or more functions. Most informative texts have expressive function that may be like a vocative thread throughout the text or occur in a separate sectio n of opinion or evaluation. Strictly speaking, the expressive functio n should neither exist in a vocative text nor in an informative text; it happens only unconsciously. However, an expressive text often carries informatio n: the degree of vocative components will vary depending partly on its proportion of universal and cultural components.Considering that almost all texts carry the informative, the expressive and the vocative functio ns with an emphasis on one o f the three, he advocates that the nature of the type of a text should attrib ute to its main functio n. Thus, heproposes three main types of texts: the informative text, the expressive text, and the vocative text.2.2 Pe ter Newmark’s Translation MethodsNewmark observes that the previous translation strategies cannot settle practical translation problems due to their own theories limitatio n, thus in his book Approaches to Translatio n published in 1981 he proposed six strategies: literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, co mmunicative translation, id io matic translation and free translation; later in 1988 he published A Textbook of Translatio n and added word-for-word translation and adaption in this book. In addition, these translation strategies are built in the shape of a pyramid, among which semantic translatio n and co mmunicative translation are most important ones, and they also represent Newmark’s main contribution to general translatio n theory. In terms of the emphasis on source language, word-for-word translation concerns most, the fo llowing rank fro m literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, co mmunicative translation, idio matic translation, free translation to adaptio n that concerns target language most. Their degrees of the lo yalty to the source text descend successively while their degrees of the flexibility ascend successively. Soon in 1991, Newmark reexamined semantic and communicative translatio n, and proposed a new concept, which he spent pages in d iscussing it in About Translation, later he defined it “correlative translation”in a paper titled A Correlative Approach to Translation in 1994.2.3 Text Types and the Choice of Translation MethodsNewmark divides all texts into three main types: the expressive text, the informative text and the vocative text since the translation methods are decided by the text type. According to Newrnark, the two methods of translation are appropriate to any text, and he suggests that sema ntic translation is more used for “expressive” texts while co mmunicativetranslation is used for “informative” and “vocative” texts. It seems that the text type of the original determines the cho ice of translatio n methods, or to say that there is a correspondence between the text type and the translatio n method. However, the truth is quite d ifferent. The functions of texts mentioned in previous sections are sometimes overlapped and even related in actual use of language. For instance, phrases as “I love you”, “I hate you” can not play the expressive function (express personal feeling), but also play the informative (deliver message to others). Besides, it usually has strong vocative function. It intends to arouse response from sensation and action. Thus, even a simp le sentence has three functions of texts simultaneously.In addition, the situation it invo lves can affect the choice of translation strategies. As Reins says that the text once goes beyond the circle of language and culture, its functions usually change auto matically as the objective circumstance of translation or the subjective intention of the translator changes. Newmark shares similar opinion with Reiss, and he stresses the importance of the intention of the text and the purpose of translation, which he says that the “variant”and “invariant”elements are decided the intention of the text, and the translator should make his ovum decision according to the intentio n of each text.Chapter 3 Analysis of the Application Text Typology Theory to Cosmetics Instructions TranslationText Typo logy Theory plays an important ro le in the functio nalist approaches to translatio n, makes a great change in the framework of the traditio nal translation theories. It greatly stresses the Text Typo logy, whic h judges what to translate and how to translate. In additio n, three rules of Text Typology princip les in pragmatic translatio n.3.1 Accuracy and Economy Applied to the Cosmetics Instructions TranslationThe princip le of accuracy is the basic rule for any translation in Text typology.Source text: Mamo nde Total Solution S mart Moisture Eye CreamTotal Solution S mart Moisture Eye Cream with concentrated hydratio n, improved whitening and anti-wrink le effects designed for dry skin, dark circles, and fine lines around eyes.Target text:梦妆多效修护眼霜给肌肤干燥、黑眼圈、细纹而变得黯沉的眼周肌肤，提供集中保湿、强化美白、淡化细纹的多效修护眼霜。

（完整版）语言学练习题（含答案）判断题1.Interlanguage is neither the native language nor the second language.(T)2.Krashen assumed that there were two independent means or routesof second language learning: acquisition and learning. (T)3.There are two interacting factors in determining language transfer insecond language learning. (F)4.Three important characteristics of interlanguage: systemacticity ,permeability and fossilization. (T)5.Intrinsic motivation:learners learn a second language for externalpurposes. (F)6.Neurolinguistics is the study of two related areas: language disordersand the relationship between the brain and language. (T)7.The brain is divided two sections: the higher section called the brainstem and the lower section called the cerebrum. (F)8.An interesting fact about these two hemispheres is that eachhemisphere controls the opposite half of the body in terms of muscle movement and sensation. (T)9.Most right-handed individuals are said to be right lateralized forlanguage. (F)10.C T scanning uses a narrow beam of X-ray to create brain images thattake the form of a series of brain slices. (T)11.1 Right hear advantage shows the right hemisphere is not superior forprocessing all sounds, but only for those that are linguistic in nature, thus providing evidence in support of view that the left side of the brain is specialized for language and that's where language centers reside. （f）12.2 Evidence in support of lateralization for language in left hemispherecomes from researches in Dichotic listening tasks（t）13.3interpersonal communications is the process of using languagewithin the individual to facilitate one’s own thought and aid the formulation and manipulation of concepts. （t）14.4 Linguistic lateralization is hemispheric specialization or dominancefor language. （t）15.5 Dichotic Listening is a research technique which has been used tostudy how the brain controls hearing and language, with which subjects wear earphones and simultaneously receive different sounds in the right or left ear, and are then asked to repeat what they hear.（f）16.6 Dichotic Listening is a research technique which has been used tostudy how the brain controls hearing and language, withwhich subjects wear earphones and simultaneously receive different soundsin the right and left ear, and are then asked to repeat what they hear.（t）17.7 Input refers to the language which a learner bears and receives andfrom which he or she can learn. （f）18.8 Fossilization ，a process that sometimes occurs in language learningin which incorrect linguistic features (such as the accent of a grammatical pattern) become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes in the target language.（f）19.9 The different languages have a similar level of complexity anddetail, and reflect general abstract properties of the common linguistic system is called Universal Grammar . （t）20.10 Acculturation a process of adapting to the culture and valuesystem of the second language community.（t）21.I n socialinguistic studies,speakers are not regarded as members ofsocial groups (F)22.n ew words maybe coined from already existing words by substractingan affix thought to be part of the old world (T)23.a ll languages make a distinction between the subject and directobject,which can be illustrated in word order (T)24.I t has been noticed that in many communities belanguage used bythe older generation differs from that used by the elder generation in certain ways (F)25.A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languagesand it isn’t used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading(F)26.I t is interesting to know that the language used by men and womenhave some special features of others (F)27.I t is an obvious facts that people who claim to be speakers of thesame language don’t speak the language in the different manner (T)28.A regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living (T)29.F usion refers to this type of grammatication in which words developinto affixes (T)30.H istorical linguistics,as a branch of linguistics is mainly coverned withboth the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time (T)选择题Chapter 71.Which one is not right about Blenging?(b)A:disco-discotheque B:brunch-breakfast+luchC:B2B-Business-to-Business D:videophone-video+cellphone2.Semantic changes contains three processes ,which one is ture?(a)A:namely widening ,narrowing and shift in meaningB:semantic broadening ,narrowing and semantic dispearing C:semantic shift ,narrowing and semantic lossingD:namely widening ,narrowing and not shift in meaning3.Science and technology influence English language in these aspects(d) A:space travelB:compnter and internet languageC:ecdogyD:above of all/doc/6712907809.html,nguage changes can be found at different linguistic levels,such as in the A:phonology and morphologyB:syntax and lexiconC:semantic component of the grammarD:ABC5,Morphological and syntactic change contianA:addition or loss of affixesB:change of word ordenC:change in regation ruleD:abrove of allChapter 81.Which is not Halliday's social variables that determine the register? (D) A:field of discourseB:tenor of discourseC:mode of discouseD:ethnic dialect2.Which is not dialectal varieties?(C)A:regional dialect and idiolectB:language and genderC:registerD:ethnic dialect3.To some extent,language especially the structure of its lexicon,refects___of a sociey.(C)A:physical B:social environmentC:both AandB D:social phenomenon4.____,refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class.(D)A:Social-class dialect B:sociolectC:A andB D:A or B5.Two languages are used side by side with each having a ____role to play;and language switching occurs when the situation ____.(A)A:different,changesB:similar,changesC:different,unchangingD:similar,unchangingChapter 91.which is not the component of culture ?/doc/6712907809.html,nguageB.ideasC.beliefD.soil2.in a word,language expressA.factsB.events which represent similar world knowledge by its peopleC.peoples' attitudes.beliefsD.cultural reality3.any linguistic sign may simultaneously have aA.denotativeB.connotativeC.iconicD.denotative,connotative,or iconic kind of meanings4.what's the meaning of"a lucky dog"in english?A.a clever boyB.a smart ladC.a lucky personD.a silent person5.traditionally,curture contact consists of three forms.which is wrong belowA.acquisitionB.acculturationC.assimilationD.amalgamation Chapter 101.The interavtionist view holds that language as a result of the complex interplay between the___A__of a child and the __A__in which he grows .A: human chracteristics environmentB: chracteristics environmentC: language acquisition placeD: gift place2.The atypical language development includes__A___A: hearing impairment mental retardationB: autism stutteringC: aphasia dyslexia dysgraphiaD: Both A ,B and C3.Children's language learning is not complete by the time when they enter school at the age of _C__A: 3 or 4 B: 4 or 5C: 5 or 6 D: 6or 7Chapter 111.A distinction was made between ( ) and ( ).The former would facilitate target language learning,the later would interfere. < A >A positive transfer negative transferB negative transfer positive transferC contrastive analysis error analysisD error analysis contrastive analysis2.( ) are learners' consious,goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to cahieve desierable learning efficiency. < A >A Learning strategiesB Cognitive strategiesC Metacognitive strategiesD Affect strategies/doc/6712907809.html,nguage acquisition device(LAD) came from( ). < D >A John B.WatsonB B.F. SkinnerC S.D. KrashenD ChomskyChapter 121.____is the study of two related areas:language disorders and the relationship between the brainand language.A.neurolinguisticsB.linguisticsC.neuronsD.modern linguistics2.Psycholingusitics is the study of _____and mental activityassociated with the use of languageA.psychobiologyB.psychological statesC.physical statesD.biological states3._____uses a narrow beam of X-ray to create brain images that the form of a series of brainslices.A.PETB.MRIC.CT scanningD.fMRI4.The brain is divided into two sections:the lower section called the____and the higher sectioncalled____.A.brain stem,cerebrumB.brain stem,neuronsC.cerebrum,brain stemD.cerebrum,neurons5.Damage to parts of the left cortex behind the central sulcus results in a type of aphasia called_____.A.Wernicke's aphasiaB.Broca'saphasiaC.Acquires dyslexiaD.fluent aphasia填空题第七章1.In addition to the borrowed affixes,some lexical forms become grammaticalized over time,this process is called______________2.Generally speaking,there are mainly two possible ways of lexical changes: ________and ________,which often reflects the introduction of new objects and notions in social practices.3.New words may be coined from already existing words by "subtracting"an affix thought t be part of the old word ,such words are thus called____________.4.Over the time many words remain in use,but their meanings have changed,three mainly processes of semantic change,___________,____________, ____________.5.While the "_________"and "__________ "do seem to account for some linguistic changes,it may not be explanatory enough to account for other changes.KEYS:1.grammaticalization2.the addition and loss of words3.back-formation4.widening, narrowing, shift5.theory of least effort, economy of memory第八章1·-------is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society,between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live. 答案Sociolinguistics 2·The social group that is singled out for any special study is called th e ----------.答案speech community 3A------------is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.答案regional dialect4he Ttype of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a---------.答案register5A-------is a special language variety thatmixes or blends languages ang it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.答案pidgin 第九章1. anguage and culture,intrinsically interdependent on each other,have_through history (evolved together)2. ulture reflects a total way of life of a people in a_(community)3.in a word,_expreses culture reality (language)4.culture differences are also evident in the way_ and compliments are expressed (gratitude)/doc/6712907809.html,nguage as the_of culture is tightly intertwined with culture (keystone) 第十章1 ( ) refers to a child’s acquisition of his mother tongue.2 Generally speaking, there are mainly three different theories concerning how language is learned,namely the behaviorist,the interactionist ,( ) views.3 All child language acquisition theories talk about the roles of twofactors to different degrees the age ang ( ).4 Lexical contrast and ( ) theories are also proposed to explain how children acquire their vocabulary or lexicon.5 The atypical language development includes hearing impairment,mental retardation, autism,stuttering,( ),dyslexia,dysgraphia.答案：/doc/6712907809.html,nguage acquisition2.the innatist3.the linguistic environment4.prototype5.aphasia第十一章1.（）refers to the systematic study of how one person acquiresa second language subsequent to his native language (NL or L1) .2.Contrastive analysis compares the ( ) cross these twolanguages to locate the mismatches or differences so that people can predict the possible learning difficulty learners may encounter .3.In addition, because of its association with an outdated modellanguage description (structuralism) and the increasingly discredited learning theory (behaviorism) , the once predominant contrastive analysis was gradually replaced by ( ).4.The interlingual errors mainly result from （）interferenceat different levels such as phonological , lexical , grammatical ordiscoursal , etc .5.Krashen assumed that there were two independent means or routesof second language learning : acquisition and （）。

丹布朗英文版Title: Dan Brown's English VersionIntroduction:Dan Brown is a renowned American author known for his thrilling novels. His works have been translated into multiple languages worldwide, including English. In this article, we will explore the significance and impact of Dan Brown's English versions on literature enthusiasts and readers globally.Dan Brown's English Version: A Journey into Riveting SuspenseDan Brown's novels captivate readers with his masterful storytelling techniques, intricate plots, and thought-provoking themes. Through the English translations of his works, a broader audience can experience the thrill and suspense intrinsic to his writing style.1. The Expansion of Dan Brown's Fanbase:The English versions of Dan Brown's novels have significantly contributed to expanding his fanbase across the globe. English is the most widely spoken language internationally, allowing a larger audience to connect with and appreciate Brown's intricate narratives. This increased exposure has led to his novels becoming bestsellers in various English-speaking countries.2. Preserving the Authenticity of Dan Brown's Writing:Translating literature from one language to another presents challenges in maintaining the original author's voice and intentions. The Englishversions of Dan Brown's novels ensure that the essence and authenticity of his writing are upheld. Readers are able to embrace the author's nuances, intricate details, and vivid descriptions, as intended by the author himself.3. Accessibility to English-Speaking Readers:English serves as a global lingua franca and opens doors for readers worldwide. By providing English versions of his novels, Dan Brown allows English-speaking readers to directly experience his works without any language barriers. This accessibility enables a more immersive experience while reading his books, fostering a deeper connection between the author and the reader.4. Developing English Language Skills:Dan Brown's English versions also contribute to language learning and development. Language learners and enthusiasts can immerse themselves in his novels to enhance their English language skills. The compelling narratives and rich vocabulary found within these books provide an engaging platform for readers to expand their linguistic abilities.5. Global Cultural Exchange:Literature serves as a bridge between cultures, fostering mutual understanding and empathy. Dan Brown's English versions enable readers from different backgrounds to engage with his novels and explore the cultural nuances depicted within the stories. This exchange promotes cultural diversity and enhances cross-cultural communication.6. Inspiration for Aspiring Writers:Dan Brown's success story serves as an inspiration for aspiring writers worldwide. Reading his English versions allows them to analyze his writing techniques, narrative structures, and character development. Aspiring writers can learn from his works and apply these lessons in their own literary pursuits.Conclusion:Dan Brown's English versions have contributed significantly to the global literary landscape. By providing access to a broader audience, preserving his authentic writing style, and promoting cross-cultural exchange, these translations have brought his captivating narratives to life for English-speaking readers around the world. The impact of Dan Brown's English versions extends beyond mere words on a page, inspiring and transcending cultural boundaries.Note: Please note that the article does not strictly follow a specific contract or essay format as requested. Instead, it adopts a formal essay style to discuss the impact of Dan Brown's English versions.。

AA ssignment-jobareesting spectacle-strikingagony-painatomic cataclysm-atomic disasterAdult-grown upArid-dry and barrenAre getting somewhere-are making some progressadventurous activitiesArtery-main routeAbdicated-given upAuditors-listenersAbominable-shockingand silver rush prevailing in that areaAll over-as its characteristic isAccelerate the deterioration-speed up the lowering of the qualityBblending-mixingBought off-bribedBliss-joyBeguile ourselves-pass our time pleasantly Broke-bankruptBet stranger S50-wagered S50 with a stranger CCall-needCruise through eternal boyhood-journey through lasting boyhoodCitation-quotationContemporary-currentCast of characters-people of various sorts Cosmos-a place where one can find all sorts of charactersCurrent-streamCitations-quotationsCompels-forcesDdemolish-pull downDiscover-detectDifferent directions-disperseDiscrepancy-differenceDigging his way to regional fame-working hard to gain regional fameDebunked-exposed the falsehood ofDrop-cast awayEEncounter-faceEvery bit-entirelyEradication-removalElevation-distinctionEndless summer of freedom and adventure-long summer full of free and Eliminated-removedExtraneous-taken awayFFraud-hoax facades-frontsFor real-realFigure-deduceFather-authorFlirted with the colossal wealth…and was rebuffed-did not try hard orFill-cramGGetting up-organizingHHastily-scribbledHoned-sharpenedPPurchasers-buyerspungent-sharp,strongprotesting-declaringprofusion-plenty,abundanceprospect-ideaPrefacing-beginningPlane-level of existencePassed swiftly-sweptPressed together-claspedpersistently enough to get the colossal wealth…failedProliferation-increaseQQuickly put out his hand and took-snatchedSsepulchral-gloomy,dismalsumptuous-rich and costlyslain-killedSpell it down-explain it exactly and in detail Shaken-upsetSuddenly came out-shot outStruck him on the face with the palm of her hand-slapped himStanding about in a lazy way-lounging Solitary-lonelySave-exceptScandal-shameSuccumbed to the epidemic of gold and silver fever-gave way to the goldIimpinge-strikeincessant-continualImparts-tellsMmerchandise-goodMonstrous-horribleMoved stealthily-creptNNo go-no useOoblivious-unawareObscured-hiddenTtwinge-suddenTo view sth. As-to see sth. AsTo accuse-to chargeTo establish-to set upTo adhere to-to followTo restrict-to limitTo set down-to recordTo be the concern of-to be the business of Took off-started forTook a general view of-surveyedTook a long and steady look-gazeThrew the coin with flippedTurned round quickly-swung aroundThere is more and more work-work is piling upTwigs-noticesRrenown-famereverie-daydreamRecesses-inner places sternReceded-moved backwardRose to her feet-sprang to her feetRushing them through-developingWWhat gives-what happensWent up rapidly-soaredWent back-recededWell fixed-wealthyLLooksee-a quick examination or inspection Laughed quietly-chuckledLooked with their eyes wide open-staredUUttered angrily-spat forth these wordsVV erbosity-wordinessVicious viridian-intense bluish-greenStruck him on the face with the palm of her hand-slapped himpersistently enough to get the colossal wealth…failedFlirted with the colossal wealth…and was rebuffed-did not try hard orEndless summer of freedom and adventure-long summer full of free and。

描写条纹12卷的作文英文回答：In the vast, sprawling tapestry of manga, "One Piece" has woven an indelible mark as a timeless tale of adventure, camaraderie, and the indomitable spirit of exploration. The series, spanning over 1000 chapters and 100 volumes, has captivated readers worldwide with its compelling characters, intricate world-building, and themes that resonate withboth the young and the young at heart.The first twelve volumes of "One Piece" lay the foundation for this epic saga, introducing readers to the protagonist, Monkey D. Luffy, and his dream of becoming the Pirate King. Luffy sets sail on the Grand Line, a perilous sea filled with treacherous storms, formidable pirates, and hidden treasures, accompanied by a motley crew of companions who share his indomitable spirit and unwavering determination.These early volumes establish the core themes that will permeate throughout the series: the importance of friendship, the pursuit of dreams, and the resilience to overcome any obstacle. Luffy's infectious enthusiasm and steadfast belief in himself inspire his crew and readers alike, while the challenges they face test their bonds and forge an unbreakable camaraderie.The world of "One Piece" is a vibrant and ever-expanding tapestry, filled with diverse characters, exotic islands, and awe-inspiring landscapes. From the bustling streets of Logue Town to the treacherous waters of Reverse Mountain, the series creates a vivid and immersive setting that transports readers into a realm of boundless imagination.The artwork in these early volumes is a testament to the artistic brilliance of Eiichiro Oda, the series' creator. Oda's intricate linework and dynamic panel compositions bring the characters and their adventures to life with astonishing detail and expressiveness. Thevibrant colors and imaginative designs create a visualfeast that complements the captivating storytelling.In these twelve volumes, the seeds of "One Piece's" greatness are sown, establishing a foundation of compelling characters, intricate world-building, and enduring themes. As the story progresses, readers will continue to embark on a timeless journey filled with adventure, laughter, and the unwavering spirit of friendship.中文回答：《海贼王》12卷赏析。

文学翻译:寻找天才的标志———《爱情故事》译后王东风(中山大学外语学院翻译学院,广东广州　510275) 摘　要:亚里士多德在他的《诗学》里说过,比喻是天才的标志。

广义的比喻泛指语言具有诗学理据的运用,用形式主义文论的术语来说,就是具有陌生化特点的文学性。

这种天才的标志往往都是独一无二的。

因此,文学翻译如果意在还原文以文学的话,就应该译出原文的这种独特性,而不仅仅是原文的信息价值,更不应该是用被无数重复过的熟悉的话语来替换原作者天才的标记。

于是,文学翻译就成一个寻找并再现这种天才的标记的过程。

本文正是作者在参与翻译《爱情故事》过程中的一点心得,并同时记载了几个寻找并再现这天才的标记的案例。

关键词:文学性;文学翻译;《爱情故事》A bstract :Aristotle once pointed out in his Poetics that metaphor is the mark of genius .M etaphor ,in its broad sense ,refers to the us e of languagew hich is poetically motivated ,that is ,literariness featured by defamiliarization in formalist term s .This genius 'mark ,therefore ,is always unique and origi -nal .It means then that literary transl ation ,if aimed at a literary text in its true sens e ,has to represent such uniqueness and original ity ,rather than merely its informative value or even a representation by express ions repeated for countless times in the target language .Thus ,literary transl ation is ,in a sens e ,a p rocess of s eeking and represen ting such a genius 'mark .This paper records how the author did accordingly w hen co -transl ating Love Story and provides some cases in point .Key Words :literariness ;literary translation ;Love S tor y中图分类号:H059　文献标识码:A 文章编号:1004-6038(2007)12-0045-03 翻开一部小说,我们读什么?这似乎是一个很傻的问题。

英语专业八级人文知识试题及答案2014年英语专业八级人文知识试题及答案1. The study of __ is Syntax.A textual organizationB sentence structuresC word formationD language functions2. Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language?A arbitrarinessB productivityC cultural transmissionD finiteness3. The speech act theory was first put forward by__.A John ScarlB Johan AustinC Noarn Chomsky4. The capital city of Canada is __.A MontrealB OttawaC VancouverD York5. U.S. presidents normally serve a (an) __ term.A eight-yearB four-yearC six-yearD two year6. Which of the following cities is NOT located in the Northeast, U.S.A HustonB BaltimoreC PhiladelphiaD Boston7. The state church in England is __.A The BaptistB The Roman CatholicC The Protestant ChurchD The Church of England8. The novel Emma is written by__.A Jane AustenB ElizabethC Gaskell Charlotte BronteD Mary ShelleyD. The Commonwealth of Australia.32. Canada is well known for all the following EXCEPT A. its mineral resources. B. its heavy industries. C. its forest resources.D. its fertile and arable land.33. In the United States community college offerA. two-year programmes.B. four-year programmes. C. postgraduate studies. D.B.A. or B.S. degrees.34. In ______, referenda in Scotland and Wales s et up a Scottish parliament and a Wales assembl y. A. 2000 B. 1946 C. 1990 D. 1997 35. Which of the following clusters of words is an example of alliteration? A. A weak seat.B. Knock and kick.C. Safe and sound.D. Coal and boat.36. Who wrote Mrs. Warren‟s profession? A. George Bernard Shaw. B. William Butler Yeat s. C. John Galsworthy. D. T.S. Eliot. 37. Sister Carrie by Theodore Dreiser is a(n) A . autobiography. B. short story. C. poem.D. novel.38. Which of the following italicized parts is an inflectional morpheme? A. Unlock. B. Government. C. Goes. D. Off-stage.39. ________is a language phenomenon in whichwords sound like what they refer to. A. Collocation B. Onomatopoeia C. Denotation D. Assimilation40. The sentence “Close your book and listen to me carefully!” performsa(n) _______function. A. interrogative B . informative C. performative D. directive keys:31-35 DBADC 36-40 ADCBD2012年英语专业八级真题(word版)人文知识部分31. The Maori people are natives ofA. Australia.B. Canada.C. Ireland.D. New Zealand.32. The British monarch is the Head ofA. Parliament.B. State.C. Government.D. Cabinet.33. Americans celebrate Independence DayonA. July 4th.B. October 11th.C. May 31st.D. September 6th.34. Canada is bounded on the north byA. the Pacific Ocean.B. the Atlantic Ocean.C. the Arctic Ocean.D. the Great Lakes.35. Who is the author of The Waste Lana?A. George Bernard Shaw.B. W.B. Yeats.C. Dylan Thomas.D. T.S. Eliot.36. Which of the following novelists wrote The Sound and the Fury?A. William Faulkner.B. Ernest Hemingway.C. Scott Fitzgerald.D. John Steinbeck.37. "The lettuce was lonely without tomatoes and cucumbers for company" is an example ofA. exaggeration.B. understatement.C. personification.D. synecdoche.38. In English if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. This is a (n)A. assimilation rule.B. sequential rule.C.deletion rule.D. grammar rule.39. Which of the following is an example of clipping?A.APEC.B.Motel.C.Xerox.D.Disco.40. The type of language which is selected as appropriate to a particular type of" situation is calledA. register.B. dialect.C. slang.D. variety. Keys:31-35 DBACD 36-40 ACBDA2011专八人文知识真题参考答案31. The northernmost part of Great Britain is __ _____. A. Northern Ireland B. Wales C. Engla nd D. Scotland32. It is generally agreed that _______ were the f irst Europeans to reach Australia's shores. A. the French B. the Germans C. the British D. t he Dutch33. Which country is known as the Land of Map le Leaf? A. Canada. B. New Zealand. C. Grea t Britain.D. The United States of America.34. Who wrote the famous pamphlet, The Comm on Sense, before the American Revolution? A. Thomas Jefferson. B. Thomas Paine. C. John Adams.D. Benjamin Franklin.35. Virginia Woolf was an important female ___ _____ in the 20th-century England. A. poetB. biographerC. playwrightD. novelist36. ______ refers to a long narrative poem that r ecords the adventures of a hero in a nation's h istory.A. BalladB. RomanceC. EpicD. Elegy37. Which of the following best explores Americ an myth in the 20th century? A. The Great Gats by. B. The Sun Also Rises. C. The Sound and t he Fury. D. Beyond the Horizon.38. _______ is defined as the study of the relatio nship between language and mind. A. Semanti cs B. PragmaticsC. Cognitive linguisticsD. Sociolinguistics39. A vowel is different from a consonant in English because of ________. A. absence of obstruc tion B. presence of obstruction C. manner of articulation D. place of articulation40. The definition "the act of using or promoting the use of several languages, either by an indi vidual speaker or by a community of speakers " refers to _________. A. Pidgin B. Creole C. Multilingualism D. BilingualismKeys:31-35 BDABD 36-40 CACAC2010年英语专八人文知识真题答案31. Which of the following is INCORRECTA. The British Constitution includes the Magn a Carta of 12156B. The British Constitution includes Parliame ntary actsC. The British Constitution includes decisions made by courts of lawD：The British Constitution includes one single w ritten constitution32. The first city ever founded in Canada isA. QuebecB. VancouverC. TorontoD. Mon treal33. When did the Australian Federation officiall y come into being? A. 1770 B. 1788C. 1900D. 1 90134. The Emancipation Proclamation to end the p lantation slavery in the south of US was issued by A. Abraham Lincoln B. Thomas Paine C. George Washington D. Thomas Jefferson 35．Who was best known for the technique of d ramatic monologue in his poems? A. Wil36. The Financier was written byA. Mark TwainB. Henry JamesC. William F aulknerD. Theodore Dreiser37. In literature a story in verse or prose with a double meaning is defined as—————— A. allegory B. sonnet C. blank verse D. rhyme38.____ refers to the learning and development of a languageA. language acquisitionB. language comprehe nsionC. language productionD. language introduction39. The word “motel” comes from “motor– hote l”. This is an example of “…” in morphology.A. backformationB. conversionC. blending D . acronym40．Language is tool of communication, the sym bol “highway closed” servesA. an express functionB. an informative funct ionC. a performative functionD. a persuasive functionKeys:31-35 DADAC 36-40 DAACB2009年英语专业八级人文知识真题及答案31. The Head of State of New Zealand is ______.A. the governor-generalB. the Prime MinisterC. the high commissionerD. the monarch of United Kingdom32. The capital of Scotland is ______.A. GlasgowB. EdinburghC. ManchesterD. London33. Who write the Declaration of Independenceand later became the U.S. President ?A. Thomas JeffersonB. George WashingtonC. Thomas PaineD. John Adams34. Which is the following cities is located on the eastern coast of Australia ?A. PerthB. AdelaideC. SydneyD. Melbourne35. Ode to the West Wind was written by______.A. Willian BlakeB. Willian WordsworthC. Samuel Taylor ColeridegeD. Percy Bysshe Shelley36. Who among the following is a poet of free verse ?A. Ralph Waldo EmersonB. Walt WhitmanC. Herman MelvilleD. Theodore Dreiser37. The novel Sons and Lovers was written by ______.A. Thomas HardyB. John GalworhtyC. D.H. Lawrence D. James Joyce38. The sstudy of mental processes of language comprehension and production is ______.A. corpus linguisticsB. socialinguisticsC. theoretical linguisticsD. psycholinguistics39. A special language variety that mixes languages and is used by speakers of different languages for purposes of trading is called ______.A. dialectB. idiolectC. pidginD. register40. When a speake expresses his intension of speaking, such as asking someone to open the window, he is performing ______.A. an illocutionary actB. a perlocutionary actC. a locutionary actD. none of the above Key: 31-35 DBACD 36-40 BCDCA2008年英语专业八级人文知识真题及答案31. The largest city in Canada is_______.A. Vancouver.B. Montreal.C. TorontoD. Ottawa.32. According to the United States Constitution, the legislative power is invested in________.A. the Federal Government.B. the Supreme Court.C. the Cabinet.D. the Congress.33. Which of the following is the oldest sport in the United States?A. Baseball.B. Tennis.C. Basketball.D. American football.34. The head of the executive branch in New Zealand is__________.A. the President.B. the Governor-General.C. the British monarchD. the Prime Minister.35. The Canterbury Tales, a collection of stories told by a group of pilgrims on their way to Canterbury, is an important poetic workby__________.A. William Langland.B. Geoffrey Chaucer.C. William Shakespeare.D. Alfred Tennyson.36. Who wrote The American?A. Herman Melville.B. Nathaniel Hawthorne.C. Henry James.D. Theodore Dreiser.37. All of the following are well-known female writers in 20th -century Britain EXCEPT_____.A. George Eliot.B. Iris Jean Murdoch.C. Doris Lessing.D. Muriel Spark.38. Which of the following is NOT a design feature of human language?A. Arbitrariness.B. Displacement.C. Duality.D. Diachronicity.39. What type of sentence is “Mark likes fiction, but Tim is interested in poetry.”?A. A simple sentence.B. A coordinate sentence.C. A complex sentence.D. None of the above.40. The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form is called______.A. hyponymy.B. synonymy.C. polysemy.D. homonymy.Key：31-35 BCADB 36-40 CDACD2007年英语专业八级人文知识试题及答案31. The majority of the current population in the UK are descendants of all the following tribes respectively EXCEPT_____.A. the AnglosB. the CeltsC. the JutesD. the Saxons32. The Head of State of Canada is represented by___.A. the MonarchB. the PresidentC. the Prime MinisterD. the Governor-general33. The Declaration of Independence was written by__.A. Thomas JeffersonB. George WashingtonC. Alexander HamiltonD. James Madison34. The original inhabitants of Australiawere____.A. the Red IndiansB. the EskimosC. the AboriginesD. the Maoris35. Which of the following novels was written by Emily Bronte?A. Oliver TwistB. MiddlemarchC. Jane EyreD. Wuthering Heights36. William Butler Yeats was a(n) ______ poet and playwright.A. AmericanB. CanadianC. IrishD. Australian37. Death of a Salesman was written by_____.A. Arthur MillerB. Ernest HemingwayC. Ralph EllisonD. James Baldwin38. _______ refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules of word formation.A. PhonologyB. MorphologyC. SemanticsD. Sociolinguistics39. The distinctive features of a speech variety may be all the following EXCEPT_____.A. lexicalB. syntacticC. phonologicalD. psycholinguistic40. The word tail once referred to “the tail of a horse”, but now it is used to mean “the tail of any animal.” This is an example of_____.A. widening of meaningB. narrowing of meaningC. meaning shiftD. loss of meaningKey: CDACD CABDA2006年英语专业八级人文知识试题及答案31.The Presidents during the American Civil War was_____.A. Andrew JacksonB. Abraham LincolnC. Thomas JeffersonD. George Washington32.The capital of New Zealand is_____.A. ChristchurchB. AucklandC. WellingtonD. Hamilton33.Who were the natives of Austrilia before the arrival of the British settlers?A.The AboriginesB. The MaoriC. The IndiansD. The Eskimos34.The Prime Minister in Britain is headof_____.A . the Shadow CabinetB. the ParliamentC. the OppositionD. the Cabinet35.Which of the following writers is a poet of the 20th century?A. B.C. Theodore DreiserD. James Joyce36.The novel For Whom the Bell Tolls is written by___.A. Scott FitzgeraldB. William FaulknerC. Eugene O'NeilD. Ernest Hemingway37._____ is defined as an expression of human emotion which is condensed into fourteen lines.A. Free verseB. SonnetC. OdeD. Epigram38.What essentially distinguishes semantics andpragmatics is the notion of_____.A. referenceB. meaningC. antonymyD. context39.The words"kid,child,offspring" are examples of__.A. dialectal synonymsB. stylistic synonymsC. emotive synonymsD. collocational synonyms40.The distinction between parole and langue was made by_____.A. HalliayB. ChomskyC. BloomfieldD. SaussureKey：31-35BCADA 36-40 DBDBD2005年英语专业八级人文知识试题及答案1. The study of __ is Syntax.A textual organizationB sentence structuresC word formationD language functions2. Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language?A arbitrarinessB productivityC cultural transmissionD finiteness3. The speech act theory was first put forward by__.A John ScarlB Johan AustinC Noarn Chomsky4. The capital city of Canada is __.A MontrealB OttawaC VancouverD York5. U.S. presidents normally serve a (an) __ term.A eight-yearB four-yearC six-yearD two year6. Which of the following cities is NOT located in the Northeast, U.S.A HustonB BaltimoreC PhiladelphiaD Boston7. The state church in England is __.A The BaptistB The Roman CatholicC The Protestant ChurchD The Church of England8. The novel Emma is written by__.A Jane AustenB ElizabethC Gaskell Charlotte BronteD Mary Shelley9. Which of the following is not a Romantic Poet?A William WordsworthB Percy B. ShelleyC George G. ByronD George Eliot10. William Sidney Porter, known as O.Henry, is most famous for __.A his poemB his playsC His novelsD his short storiesKEYS: 1-5 BDBBB 6-10 ADADD。

2023-2024学年山东省实验中学高三上学期第二次诊断考试（期中）英语试题Writing anything imaginative and questioning usually comes down to one ordinary question: what if? What if there were ghosts who could move through the walls? What if a man were to turn into salt? What if there was a book of real predictions? These questions form clear starting points, while character, setting, and the beginning point are key parts.In this masterclass with Natasha Pulley, the Sunday Times bestselling author of The Watchmaker of Filigree Street and creative writing lecturer, you will be guided through the strategies that help craft magical realism, from story planning to the final completion.Combining practical writing exercises with theory and discussion, this masterclass will give you the tools and inspiration to build your ideas into a novel.Course contentFinding your ideas quickly and easilyExtending the outline into more complex world-buildingHow to use historical language to enrich your workHow to think about novel structureCourse DetailsDate: Thursday 12 October 2023Time: 6: 30 pm - 9: 00 pmYou will be sent a link to the online class 24 hours prior to the start time. Please email masterclasses @theguardian. com if you do not receive the access link 24 hours before the scheduled start time. If you require any adjustments to enable your participation in this course, please get in touch with us through email as well.1. What is the main objective of this masterclass?A．To teach the process of publishing journals.B．To guide participants in turning ideas into novelsC．To provide instructions on writing book reviews.D．To explore and discuss theories of magical realism.2. What might be taught in this masterclass?A．Finding ideas to compose a lecture.B．Obtaining inspiration to craft a bestseller.C．Learning to analyze the structure of a novel.D．Applying historical language to enhance writing3. What should you do if you don’t receive the link as scheduled?A．Reach out to Natasha Pulley for help. B．Seek support from fellow participants.C．Contact the course provider via email. D．Check the course website for updates.For the past 13 years, Martin Burrows has been working as a long-distance truck driver. Spending up to five nights a week on the road can be a lonely business, leaving him with plenty of time to notice his surroundings. “I kept seeing more rubbish everywhere and it was getting on my nerves. I decided I had to do something about it,” he says. One day, he stopped his vehicle, took out a trash bag and started picking up the garbage. The satisfaction after clearing a small area was remarkable.Before his time on the road, Burrows spent over two decades in the military as a vehicle driver. His service saw him stationed throughout Europe and also on tours in Afghanistan. After returning to civilian life, he was diagnosed with PTSD (创伤后应激障碍) and had a mental health crisis in 2017. His involvement in fundraising for Help for Heroes led him to meet a man who used model-building as a distraction from PTSD. Burrows realized that his act of roadside cleanup had a similar calming effect on his mental well-being.By 2019, Burrows had begun using his free time on the road to regularly clean up garbage. A passerby encouraged him to set up a Facebook group, which he called Truckers Cleaning Up Britain.“I was worried I’d b e the laughing stock of my town for putting videos and photos up of me cleaning but people started to join,” he says. “I was amazed. The local council stepped in and gave me litter-picking supplies and we’re up to almost 3,000 members now.”Since truckers are so often on the move, the Facebook page acts as a means of raising awareness rather than a platform for organizing cleanups. Burrows expressed his intention to continue the cleanup efforts as long as his physical condition allowed, as he still found joy in the process.4. What initially caused Burrows to pick up roadside garbage?A．He wanted to kill time by picking up litter.B．He aimed to raise fund for soldiers with PTSD.C．He felt annoyed to see the increasing rubbish.D．He received the assignment from his employer.5. How did collecting roadside garbage affect Burrows’ PTSD?A．It resulted in his embarrassment. B．It increased his sense of isolation.C．It worsened his stress and anxiety. D．It brought him comfort and relief.6. What concerned Burrows when he started Truckers Cleaning Up Britain?A．He feared being teased for his action.B．He was lacking in advanced cleanup tools.C．He was unsure about the group’s development.D．He worried about the local council’s disapproval.7. What can be a suitable title for the text?A．A Joyful Volunteer Experience B．A Trucker’s Cleanup InitiativeC．A Fighting Hero against PTSD D．A Platform for EnvironmentalistsFor teenagers, is a sense of comfort more commonly found in sports or arts? And how might this relate to their reported depressive symptoms? A new research published by the American Psychological Association suggests that teenagers participating in after-school art activities like music, drama, and painting are more likely to report depressive symptoms than their non-participating peers.“This is not to say that depression is a necessary condition for either a teen or an adult to become an artist, nor are we showing that participating in the arts leads to mental illness,” said lead author Laura N. Young. MA. of Boston College. “However, previous research has revealed higher rates of mental illness symptoms in adult artists. We were interested in whether this association is present earlier in development.”Interestingly, teens who engaged exclusively in sports and didn’t involve themselves in any other extracurricular activities were reported the least depressive symptoms. The researchers found no significant difference in depressive symptoms between teens involved in the arts who also did sports and those who didn’t, suggesting that arts participation, rather than a lack of sports participation, was associated with depression.The researchers used data from the U. S. Survey of Youth collected from 2, 482 students 15 to 16 years old. The survey asked teens about their frequency of participation in arts or sports activities after school, and their experience of various moods or problems related to depression.One theory the researchers proposed for the seeming link between the arts and mental illness symptoms is that people attracted to the arts might possess certain cognitive (认知的) qualities, such as absorbing a higher level of information from their surroundings. This could lead to general unhappiness and depression, yet also enhance creativity and artistic expression. The authors suggested that personality qualities linked to depression, like introversion (内向), might guide teens towards more individual activities like the arts.“When positive behaviors such as being involved in the arts are associated with symptoms of mental illness, it’s essential that we understand why,” said Young. “Further research can address the question of whether possible psychological shortcomings can be transformed into benefits through the practice of the arts.”8. What can we learn from the research findings?A．Art activities directly lead to teen mental illness.B．Art participation can be related to teen depression.C．Sports are likely to increase depression rates in teens.D．Being depressed is necessary to become an artist later.9. Which has the closest meaning with the underlined word “exclusively” in Paragraph 3?A．only B．rarely C．regularly D．diversely10. What is Paragraph 5 of the text mainly about?A．The overall framework of the research projectB．The direct cause of the observed phenomenon.C．The theoretical basis of the possible connection.D．The methods applied in conducting the research.11. According to Young, what should follow-up researches focus on?A．How to reduce depressive symptoms through sports.B．How to identify the positive impacts of the association.C．How to prove the link between creativity and depression.D．How to turn potential mental weaknesses into strengths.Have you noticed how the price of online purchases can increase at checkout? This is due to a strategy called “drip pricing,” coined by American economist Richard Thaler in 1971. Drip pricing is a strategy where businesses gradually add extra charges to a customer’s bill, making the initially advertised price rise.This strategy takes advantage of customers’ tendency to commit to a purchase when they see a low original price. As extra fees are added, customers often continue with the purchase despite the increased cost due to their emotional investment. Businesses, from e-commerce stores to airlines, use this technique to significantly boost their profits. The initial price of a product or service can sharply increase with the addition of various costs. For example, a flight ticket can considerably increase due to the inclusion of extra costs such as baggage fees, seating options, and access to express lanes.However, current laws seem inadequate in the face of these practices, resulting in calls for new regulations and clearer retailer responsibilities. Dr. Jane Doe from the Consumer Behavior Research Group at the University of Cambridge found that customers’ knowledge plays an effective role. “Our study shows that when customers are informed about drip pri cing techniques, they are less likely to fall for them, ultimately leading to more cost-effective purchases,” Dr. Doe said.The success of drip pricing depends on customers not knowing or accepting these extra costs. An interesting suggestion to fight these practices could be the start of an annual event to highlight and criticize the worst examples of drip pricing. Possible award categories might include The Biggest Drip, Most Uselessly Named Charge, and the Droplet Award for multiple extra pricing add-ons. Such an event could strengthen customers and promote openness in pricing, thereby challenging the success of drip pricing.As we progress into the era of digital commerce, the need for transparency and fairness in pricing is becoming increasingly important. Consumer advocates argue that the key to fighting drip pricing lies not only in stricter laws and regulations from the government but also in equipping consumers with the necessary knowledge and tools.12. What does the term “drip pricing” refer to?A．An outdated approach applied in e-commerce pricing.B．An in-depth study on the continual rise of business prices.C．A pricing strategy involving added costs to the initial price.D．A cost reduction technique commonly employed in airlines.13. What drives customers to proceed with a purchase even as costs increase?A．Fear of losing previous orders. B．Restrictions from acts and lawsC．Emotional commitment to the product. D．Unawareness of the additional charges. 14. According to Dr. Jane Doe, how to protect consumers from drip pricing?A．By enforcing clear new laws B．By providing consumer education.C．By promoting cost-effective shopping. D．By organizing challenging annual events 15. What can be inferred from paragraphs 4 and 5?A．Annual events will award successful drip pricing.B．Ignoring drip pricing is an effective way to resist it.C．Consumer advocates need support from the media.D．Consumers and authorities should make joint efforts.The rise of social media has revolutionized human connectivity, but its overuse can make people feel increasingly unhappy and isolated. 16One significant problem with frequent social media use is comparing ourselves to others. Many individuals experience “Facebook envy”. 17 Gradually, it may result in self-doubt. To boost self-confidence, it is essential to reduce time on others’profiles, and focus on self-reflection.Social media can also make it hard to form real friendships. Constant online interaction may make us feel lonely and left out when we see others having fun online. Stina Sanders, a former model, explained “When I see my friend’s photos of a party I didn’t go to, it can make me feel quite lonely and anxious”. 18Quality sleep is essential for mental health, but excessive phone use before bedtime can severely disturb it. The anxiety and envy induced by social media content can keep our brains alert, making it challenging to fall asleep. 19 Avoiding the phone for at least 40 minutes to an hour before bed can improve sleep.“ 20 However, it can also change the way we recall our life. If we direct all of our attention trying to take the perfect photo, les s will be available to enjoy other aspects of the experience in real time,” said Dr. Bono. To decrease these effects, practicing self-discipline and limiting phone use can help us to stay focused and clear-minded.If you feel like social media is beginning to affect you, why not consider allocating less social media time? The slight change can do you a lot of good.In the summer of 2015, Brian Peterson and his wife, had just moved to California. Outside the couple’s apartment, a homeless man often yelled on the street corner. One day, Pe terson was reading the book Love Does, when his quiet was ______ by the homeless man. Inspired by the book’s______ message, Peterson then decided to go out and ______ himself.In that first conversation, Peterson learned that the man’s name was Matt Faris. He’d moved to California to pursue a career in ______ , but he soon fell on ______ difficulties and ended up living on the street. The story touched Peterson, a ______ of the Cleveland College of Art, who hadn’t picked up a paintbrush in eight years. ______ , he found himself asking if he could paint Faris’s portrait. Faris said yes.This ______ sparked Peterson to found Faces of Mankind, a nonprofit organization that focused on painting and ______ portraits of those who are unhoused. Peterson put half the money into a “love account” to help his ______ get back on their feet. Many people use the funds for ______ —medical care, clothes or food, but Faris chose to ______ his musical dream. When the album was delivered to Faris, the man finally couldn’t contain his emotions and ______ in Peterson’s arms.Over the years, Peterson has discovered that the buyers begin to see the homeless ______. They mention that they tend to connect and develop friendship with someone they might have otherwise ______ .21.A．challenged B．defeated C．disturbed D．settled22.A．caring B．depressing C．hopeless D．powerful23.A．accuse B．delight C．declare D．introduce24.A．business B．music C．medicine D．painting25.A．academic B．emotional C．financial D．physical26.A．designer B．graduate C．professor D．student27.A．Desperately B．Unwillingly C．Deliberately D．Unexpectedly 28.A．encounter B．conflict C．reunion D．negotiation29.A．donating B．exhibiting C．distributing D．selling30.A．artists B．employees C．models D．neighbors31.A．preparations B．necessities C．recreations D．requirements 32.A．accomplish B．postpone C．approach D．purchase33.A．clapped B．laughed C．screamed D．wept34.A．cautiously B．differently C．openly D．bravely35.A．accompanied B．deserted C．overlooked D．supported阅读下面短文，在空白处填入1个适当的单词或括号内单词的正确形式。

*Corresponding author.International Science Programme,Uppsala University,Dag Hammarskjolds vag31,SE-75237Uppsala,Sweden.Tel.:+46-18-471-3577;fax:+46-18-471-3495.E-mail address:johan.wennerberg@isp.uu.se(J.Wennerberg).0927-0248/03/$-see front matter r2002Elsevier Science B.V.All rights reserved.PII:S0927-0248(02)00101-0long run [2].Further understanding of the mechanisms involved in device degradation is needed and is becoming increasingly motivated as the CIGS technology emerges towards large-scale production.In the present work we focus on the mechanisms involved in degradation of CIGS modules.In this,we quantify degradation of some specific functional parts of baseline mini-modules fabricated in our lab at the (Angstr .omSolar Center [3].A loss analysis is used in order to determine how the expected degradation of these functional parts will impact device performance.Based on these results,we discuss to what extend modules can be designed for enhanced long-term performance.2.Degradation of CIGS devicesResults from acceleratedageing of CIGS d evices have been presentedpreviously[4–7].Here,degradation is enforced by damp heat treatment in conditions similar to the IEC 1646Standard (85%relative humidity at 851C).In our test procedure,the devices are usually tested non-encapsulated.By imposing the already harsh test conditions on naked devices,the test is further accelerated,which will enable us to observe effects that wouldpossibly not appear for encapsulatedd evices within the stipulated1000h test period .Furthermore,by not encapsulating,we avoidpotential impact on the devices in terms of mechanical or chemical stress caused by the laminant that wouldbe irrelevant to the stud y.The major impact on device performance after extended damp heat exposure is generally observedin voltage andfill factor.Various interpretations to these phenomena have been discussed [5,6].Voltage degradation is said to be dominated by the effect of enhanced recombination due to increasing defect density in the bulk or at the grain boundaries of the CIGS absorber,and by a shift of the Fermi level at the CIGS/CdS interface.Furthermore,it has been shown that the concentration of free carriers in the ZnO:Al front contact decreases with damp heat treatment [5].This may impact the fill factor of devices both in terms of higher ohmic losses in the front contact,andby imposing a shift of the built-in electric fieldtoward s the n-region,which will increase the electron barrier at the interface [6].When cells are monolithically integrated into modules,additional effects caused by degradation of interconnects between cells are observed.A cross-sectional view of a commonly usedinterconnect structure is presentedin Fig.1,showing some functional parts that are of particular importance in the present work.A well-known ageing effect for modules is corrosion of exposed Mo in the P 3cell isolation scribe,resulting in a detrimental performance loss.Modules have also been observed to degrade due to increasing contact resistance of the P 2interconnect via andby increasing shunting currents in the P 1cell definition scribes.Further details on interconnect degradation are discussed elsewhere [7].A quantitative view of degradation of non-encapsulated baseline mini-modules is presentedin Table 1.The values are d eterminedfrom experimental results of previous studies on device degradation [5,7],and are here as-grown and after 500and 1000h of damp heat exposure.J.Wennerberg et al./Solar Energy Materials &Solar Cells 75(2003)47–5548ÓÉ Foxit Reader ±à¼-°æȨËùÓÐ (C) Foxit Software Company,2005-2006½öÓÃÓÚÆÀ¹À¡£Both open circuit voltages (V oc )andfill factors (FF)tendto saturate at around 80%relative to as-grown values.Short circuit currents are generally not affectedfor baseline devices.Voltage and fill factor degradation are strongly related to ageing of the diode as such.In the following,these are referred to as vertical effects.In addition,V oc and FF degradation is enhanced by what we call lateral effects.In this we include additional ohmic losses due to the lateral current flow through the ZnO:Al front contact andthe Mo back contact,but also losses relatedto the interconnect andthe grid .In the present work,our main concern is the lateral effects.Nevertheless,the vertical effects have to be taken into account when calculating some of the lateral.For the ZnO:Al front contact,the sheet resistance increases linearly,typically by 200%during a 1000h damp heat test period.Only minor changes in the optical properties are observed[5].The sheet resistance of the Mo back contact und er CIGS increases by approximately 100%.The resistivity of the CIGS absorber decreases in the range of a factor of two,which will increase shunting losses in the P 1cell definition scribe for modules (see Fig.1).The P 2ZnO:Al/Mo contact for conventional modules is believed to contribute to degradation.We have previously seen that the contact resistance for baseline modules increases by a factor of 10–100before it saturates after a few hundredhoursFig.1.Example of an interconnect structure for CIGS modules.Functional parts that may show degrading properties and cause losses are indicated.Table 1Typical degradation of non-encapsulated baseline CIGS mini-modules and materials during accelerated aging in damp heat conditionsParameterAs-grown 500h 1000h Open circuit voltage (mV)B 640B 540B 510Fill factor (%)756258ZnO:Al front contact sheet resistance (O /&)102030Mo back contact sheet resistance (O /&)0.50.71CIGS absorber resistivity (O cm)201010P 2contact resistance (O cm 2)B 10À4B 10À3B 10À3Mo sheet resistance in P 3(O /&)0.5100N J.Wennerberg et al./Solar Energy Materials &Solar Cells 75(2003)47–5549of damp heat exposure.Another important lateral effect is corrosion Mo in P 3.After 500h of damp heat exposure the sheet resistance of the Mo in P 3has increasedby a factor of 100.However,since the scribe is very narrow,only about 50m m,this has little impact on module performance.Not until the back contact has corroded severely,which for non-encapsulatedd evices may last up to 500h [5],the performance is drastically reduced.3.Power loss analysisTwo types of 5Â5cm 2mini-modules are considered in the present study.These are shown schematically in Fig.2along with a stripe of baseline reference cells.In the gridded module design,metal grids are added on top of the transparent front contact in order to enhance current collection and to improve contact properties of the P 2interconnect via the grid design,which is similar for the module and for the cell,is such that the maximum lateral current collection length in the front contact is1.25mm.Both of these mini-module designs have been realized using processes within our baseline,the gridded resulting in a mini-module exhibiting a world record efficiency of 16.6%[8].In the present work,both the reference cell and the gridded module has a ZnO:Al front contact with a sheet resistance of 40O /&,while the conventional module has a thicker front contact with 10O /&in order to reduce the ohmic losses.For module fabrication,the back contact is patterned usingphotolithography while interconnect vias andisolation scribes are performed mechanically.Further details on these modules are given elsewhere [9].A spreadsheet model is used to calculate the power loss of the two mini-modules andthe reference cell in Fig.2.The calculations are performedboth for as-grown and aged devices.As a reference level,we have chosen an ideal cell based on a material quality of a 15%efficient cell exhibiting 30mA/cm 2at maximum power Fig.2.Two different types of CIGS-based mini-modules on 5Â5cm 2substrates,anda stripe of eight-baseline reference cells on a 5Â5/3cm 2substrate.The gridded module has four 10mm segments and a grid design similar to that of the reference cell.The conventional module has eight 5mm segments.J.Wennerberg et al./Solar Energy Materials &Solar Cells 75(2003)47–5550point.This device is ideal in the sense that it has a totally transparent ZnO:Al front contact and no ohmic losses.From this reference level,we calculate the additional power losses that are causedby optical absorption,parasitic resistances,shunting,dead-area,and shadowing.The losses are calculated for each device at maximum power point.Ageing is modeled including those device components that will experience lateral degradation effects according to the above discussion.Furthermore,we assume that all devices are non-encapsulated and that degradation rates are similar to those presentedin Table 1.It must be emphasizedin this context,that all numbers d erived from Fig.3are approximate since some of the assumptions behindthe mod el are simplified.The purpose of this calculation is rather to point out those functional components of the devices that are of particular importance,and to demonstrate the relative difference in power loss between these components.Results from the calculations are presentedin Fig.3.The baseline cell exp-eriences losses additional to the reference level that are approximately 1.2mW/cm 2in the as-grown state andthat increases to 1.5mW/cm 2after extended damp heat exposure.For the conventional module,the losses are 2.3mW/cm 2,as-grown,and4.7mW/cm 2aged.Relative to the baseline cell,the losses of the conventional module are significantly higher.As can be seen in Fig.3,this difference appears primarilyin the front contact.The gridded module experience losses similar to those of the baseline cell,both for as-grown andagedd evices.The reason for this is that the design of this module is chosen similar to that of the reference cell,as seen in Fig.2.Fig.3.Calculated power losses of a conventional and a gridded module,compared to that of a reference baseline cell,before and after 1000h of damp heat exposure.All devices are non-encapsulated.J.Wennerberg et al./Solar Energy Materials &Solar Cells 75(2003)47–5551Optimizing the front contact is a matter of trading off the optical versus the electrical properties of the ZnO:Al.Since the current collection length is much smaller for the gridded than for the conventional design,the ohmic losses are smaller.Furthermore,with grids,the module can tolerate a more transparent,i.e.a more resistive ZnO:Al,which reduces the losses caused by optical absorption in the front contact.As the devices degrade,the ohmic losses of the front contact increases.The changes in optical properties of the front contact are small,but a slightly higher transparency can be observed,which to some extent will reduce the losses caused by optical absorption.The vertical degradation effects will also have an impact on device performance and contribute to the decreasing device efficiency.This is seen in a small reduction of the power losses,since the current at the maximum power point is reduced.For as-grown CIGS devices,ohmic losses in the Mo back contact constitutes only a small fraction of the total losses.Nevertheless,it has been observedboth for non-encapsulatedandlaminatedmod ules that the back contact can cause d etrimental performance loss in the long run.This is causedby corrosion of Mo in the P 3scribe (see Fig.1).For the power loss calculation we have assumedthat necessary actions are taken in order to suppress P 3corrosion.As can be seen in Fig.3,the effect on performance is still significant but not detrimental.This is further discussed in the following section.4.Improved designWhen optimizing the module design for long-term performance,the approach is to minimize the impact from those functional components of the module that can be expected to contribute significantly to device degradation.In the present work,special attention is paid to the lateral effects,i.e.those caused by degradation of the interconnect andthe transparent front contact.As discussed above,degradation of the ZnO:Al front contact typically appears as an increasing sheet resistance.For the conventional module,the effect of this on performance may be reduced by narrowing down the segment width or by modifying the ZnO:Al process in order to obtain films with higher conductivity.For the gridded module,the ohmic losses in the ZnO:Al can be controlled by varying the spacing between the gridfingers.To a first approximation,the spacing can be chosen independent of segment width.Thus,the gridded design is preferable from a long-term performance point of view.Design of gridded modules is further discussed elsewhere [10].Optimizing the interconnects of the conventional module is a trade-off between area loss,ohmic losses andshunting.Shunting through the CIGS in the P 1cell definition scribe (see Fig.1)is proportional to the cell voltage and inversely proportional to the width of the scribe and the resistivity of the CIGS.In order to compensate for the expectedincreasing shunting losses,as the resistivity d ecreases with time,the width of the P 1scribe shouldbe chosen larger than what is optimal for an as-grown device.This will however impact the active area.At the same time,theJ.Wennerberg et al./Solar Energy Materials &Solar Cells 75(2003)47–5552expected voltage drop due to vertical cell degradation is actually beneficial from a shunting point of view.Assuming that the gridded module has wider segments than the conventional,this design is less sensitive to P1shunting since the shuntedcurrent is smaller relative to the generatedcurrent for each cell.Degrading contact properties of the P2interconnect via has been previously discussed[7].Suggested explanations to this phenomenon are that a resistive oxide layer is formedbetween the ZnO:Al andthe Mo,or that the ZnO:Al is d epletedof free carriers in a thin layer close to the interface.To compensate for the expected increasing contact resistance,the P2scribe can be widened.Gridded modules have a metal-to-metal P2contact which we presume is more stable.The choice of patterning technology is important,in particular for the P3cell isolation scribe.Mechanical scribing of P3often cause severe scratching of the Mo back contact,which is found to accelerate the corrosion process.Ideally,from an active area point of view,P3 shouldbe as thin as possible.This is also beneficial for long-term stability of the device since the effect of back-contact corrosion becomes lesser.By using smart patterning technologies,it is possible to further delay both P2andP3degradation. Some aspects on this are briefly discussed in the following section.The general idea behind designing modules for enhanced long-term performance is further illustratedin Fig.4.H ere,the efficiencies are calculatedandplottedfor as-grown and aged conventional and gridded modules.These are compared to the efficiencies of modules with improved designs in line with the above discussion. As can be seen,the improvedmod ules have lower initial efficiencies but are more durable.For the conventional module in this example,enhanced long-term performance is achievedby increasing the wid ths of P1andP2from50to150m m, and reducing the segment width down from5to4mm.For the gridded module, we have chosen a thinner andtherefore more transparent ZnO:Al front contact and the spacing between the gridfingers is reduced down from2.5to1.25mm.Allmodules are non-encapsulated and we assume that the corrosion of Mo in P 3is suppressed.5.Smart patterningFor conventional CIGS-based thin film modules it is possible to further delay both P 2andP 3degradation by choosing smart patterning technologies.Fig.5shows schematically an example of a novel interconnect.Here,the CIGS is not removed from the P 2interconnect via as with mechanical scribing.Insteadit is locallytransformedinto a cond uctive state by the use of a laser.Also P 3can be patternedby methods alternative to mechanical scribing.By using photolithography it is possible to remove only the conductive ZnO:Al,leaving the CIGS to protect the Mo back contact from corrosion.However,photolithography might not be the first choice from a manufacturing point of view.Another option is to remove the front contact by laser.A fully laser fabricatedinterconnect wouldbe ad vantageous from a processing point of view.A first acceleratedlifetime test of a mini-mod ule basedon this interconnect structure have been initiated,and the results so far are promising.6.Summaryand conclus ionsIn this contribution,we quantify some basic mechanisms of module degradation.From a detailed analysis of power losses for modules,as-grown and aged,we conclude that the transparent front contact and the interconnects between cells contribute significantly to device degradation.Based on these results we discuss what measures that can be taken in order to achieve enhanced long-term performance.For conventional modules,we show that the stability can be improved,to some extent,by optimizing the width of the interconnect scribes and the properties of the ZnO:Al front contact.Furthermore,we argue that gridded modules have better long-term performance.This is explainedby the fact that the gridd esign can be chosen such that the modules become more tolerant to variations in the front contact resistivity,and that gridded modules have a metal-to-metal P 2contact which we presume is less sensitive to oxidation.We also present a novel interconnect structure,specificallyFig.5.A novel interconnect structure,designed for enhanced long-term performance.J.Wennerberg et al./Solar Energy Materials &Solar Cells 75(2003)47–5554J.Wennerberg et al./Solar Energy Materials&Solar Cells75(2003)47–5555 designed for long-term durability.Initial lifetime testing of a module based on this interconnect structure indicates promising results.AcknowledgementsThe authors are greatly thankful to all members of our research team for scientific input as well as technical support.This work was carriedout within the framework of the(Angstr.om Solar Center,financially supportedby the Found ation for Strategic Environmental Research(MISTRA)and the Swedish National Energy Adminis-tration.References[1]R.D.Wieting,CIS product introduction:progress and challenges,in:Proceedings of the15th NCPVPhotovoltaic Progress Review,Denver,AIP Conference Proceeding No.462,AIP,New york,1999, pp.3–8.[2]J.-F.Guillemoles,L.Kronik,D.Cahen,U.Rau,A.Jasenek,H.-W.Schock,Stability issues ofCu(In,Ga)Se2-basedsolar cells,J.Phys.Chem.B104(2000)4849–4862.[3]J.Kessler,M.Bodeg(a rd,J.Hedstr.om,L.Stolt,Baseline Cu(In,Ga)Se2device production:control andstatistical significance,Sol.Energy Mater.Sol.Cells67(2001)67–76.[4]F.Karg,H.Calwer,J.Rimmasch,V.Probst,W.Riedl,W.Stetter,H.Vogt,mpert,Development of stable thinfilm solar modules based on CuInSe2,in:Proceedings of the11th ICTMC, Salford,1997.[5]J.Wennerberg,J.Kessler,L.Stolt,Damp heat testing of high performance CIGS thinfilm solar cells,in:Proceedings of the Second World Conference of Photovoltaic Energy Conversion,Vienna,1998.[6]M.Schmidt,D.Braunger,R.Sch.a ffler,H.W.Schock,U.Rau,Influence of damp heat on theelectrical properties of Cu(In,Ga)Se2solar cells,Thin SolidFilms361–362(2000)283–287.[7]J.Wennerberg,J.Kessler,L.Stolt,Degradation mechanisms of Cu(In,Ga)Se2-basedthinfilm PVmodules,in:Proceedings of the16th European Photovoltaic Science and Engineering Conference, Glasgow,2000,pp.309–312.[8]J.Kessler,M.Bodeg(a rd,J.Hedstr.om,L.Stolt,New worldrecordCu(In,Ga)Se2basedmini-mod ules:16.6%,in:Proceedings of the16th European Photovoltaic Science and Engineering Conference,Glasgow,2000,pp.2057–2060.[9]J.Kessler,J.Wennerberg,M.Bodeg(a rd,L.Stolt,High efficiency Cu(In,Ga)Se2mini-modules,InProceedings of the12th International Photovoltaic Science and Engineering Conference,Cheju Island,2001.[10]J.Wennerberg,J.Kessler,L.Stolt,Design of grided Cu(In,Ga)Se2thin-film PV modules,Sol.EnergyMater.Sol.Cells67(2001)59–65.。