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化学专业英语翻译(修订版)33化学反应速度

化学专业英语翻译(修订版)33化学反应速度
化学专业英语翻译(修订版)33化学反应速度

化学专业英语翻译(校准版)

33 化学反应速度

Introduction

介绍

In this chapter we look into how chemical reactions occur. The principal aspect we examine is the rate of a reaction, and we shall see how it. depends on the temperature and the concentrations of the species that are present.

在本章中,我们来看看化学反应是如何发生的。我们研究的主要的方面是反应速率,我们将看到温度和存在的物质的浓度是如何影响化学反应速率的。

There are two main reasons for studying the rates of reactions. The first is the practical importance of being able to predict how quickly a reaction mixture will move its equilibrium state: the rate might depend on a number of factors under our control, such as the temperature, the pressure, and the presence of a catalyst, and, depending on our aims, we may be able to make the reaction proceed at an optimum rate. For instance, in an industrial process it might be economical for the reactions to proceed very rapidly; but not so rapidly as to produce an explosion. By contrast, in a biological process it may be appropriate for a reaction to proceed only slowly, and to be switched on and off at the demand of some activity.

研究反应速率的主要原因有两个。首先是具有实际重要性的一点,也就是能够预测反应混合物何时到达它的平衡状态:化学反应速率可能取决于一些我们控制之下的因素,如温度,压力,和催化剂的存在,而且,根据我们的目的,我们也许能够使化学反应以一个最佳的速度进行。比如,在工业流程中,可能由于化学反应进行得非常迅速从而带来经济效益,但是也不能太过迅速以至于产生爆炸。相反,在一个生物进程中,化学反应可能只有进行得缓慢才是合适的,并且反应根据一些生物活动的需求进行和停止。

The second reason for studying reaction rates (which, as we shall see, is closely bound up with the first) is that the study of rates can reveal the mechanisms of reactions. The term ‘mechanism’ has two connotations in this context. The first is the analysis of a chemical reaction into a sequence of elementary steps. For example, we might discover that the reaction of hydrogen and bromine proceeds by a sequence of steps involving the fission of Br2 into two bromine atoms, the attack of one of these atoms on H2, and so on. The statement of all the elementary steps constitutes the statement of the mechanism of the reaction. The other meaning of mechanism relates to the individual steps themselves, and concerns their detailed nature. In this sense 'mechanism' concerns what happens as a bromine atom approaches and attacks a rotating, vibrating, hydrogen molecule.

研究反应速率的第二的原因(我们将在下文看到的,并与第一个原因息息相关)是研究可以揭示化学反应机制。在本文中“机制”这个词有两个涵义。首先是以基元反应的步骤去分析一个化学反应。例如,我们可能会发现氢和溴的反应是通过一连串的步骤组成的,这些步骤是

Br2分裂成两个溴原子,然后再攻击H2的其中一个原子,等等。这个就是所有的化学反应都是由基元反应步骤构成的观点。“机制”的另一个涵义是关系到一个单独步骤的本身,以及,关注他们的具体性质。在这个涵义上的“机制”是关注当一个溴原子接近和攻击一个旋转、振动的氢分子时发生了什么。

The first type of analysis of mechanism is the central feature of classical chemical kinetics, and we concentrate on it in this chapter. The second type of analysis, called chemical dynamics, had to await the technological advances that made available molecular beams for the study of individual molecular collisions, and is discussed in the next chapter. The dividing line between chemical kinetics and chemical dynamics is not clear cut; crude models of individual reaction steps were built on the basis of kinetic analyses, and we see something of this in the present chapter.

第一种机制分析是经典化学动力学的核心特点,并且我们集中在这一章中讨论。分析的第二类型称为化学动力学,必须等待技术进步以提供研究单个分子的碰撞的分子束,并将在下一章加以讨论。经典化学动力学和化学动力学之间界限是不明显的,各个反应步骤大概的模型是建立在经典化学动力学分析的基础上,我们可以在本章看到。

Empirical chemical kinetics

经验化学动力学

The basic data of chemical kinetics are the concentrations of the reactants and products as functions of time. The method selected for monitoring the concentrations depends on the nature of the species involved in the reaction, and on its rapidity.

基本资料中的化学动力学是反应物和产物的浓度作为时间的函数。浓度的检测的方法的选择取决于自然物种参与的反应和他们的反应速度。

Many reactions go to completion (that is, attain thermodynamic equilibrium) over a period of minutes of hours, and may be monitored by classical techniques. One of the following methods is often chosen.

很多反应的完成(即热力学平衡)经过一段时间的分钟数或小时数,可以用经典方法来检测。下面的方法是常被选择的方法之一。

(1) Pressure changes. A reaction in the gas phase might result in a change of pressure, and so its progress may be monitored by recording the pressure as a function of time. An instance of this is the decomposition of nitrogen (V) oxide , N2O5, according to For every mole of N2O5 destroyed, 5/2 moles of gaseous products are formed. and so the pressure of the system increases during the course of the reaction. This method is inappropriate for reactions that leave the overall pressure unchanged, and for reactions in solution.

(1)压力的变化。在气相中的反应也许会导致压力的变化,它的反应进度的检测可以

通过记录压力作为时间的函数来进行。这是一个实例:五氧化二氮的分解,根据:

(五氧化二氮的分解方程式)每反应1摩尔五氧化二氮,便有2.5摩尔气体生成,

所以在反应过程中系统的压力会增加。这个方法不适合总体压力不变和在溶液中

的反应。

(2) Spectroscopy. A technique that is available even when no pressure change occurs is the spectroscopic analysis of the mixture. For instance, the reaction can be followed by monitoring the intensity of absorption of visible light by the bromine.

(2)光谱研究。光谱研究是一个即使没有压力的变化发生也依然有效的对混合物进行光谱分析的方法。例如:反应可以通过检测溴在可见光中强度的吸收被追踪。

(3)Polarimetrv. When the optical activity of a mixture changes in the course of reaction, it can be monitored by measuring the angle of optical rotation. This is a historically important method because its application to the hydrolysis of sucrose was the first significant study of the rate of a reaction (by Wilhelmy in 1850).

(3)旋光计。当混合物的光学活动在反应过程中变化时,它可以通过测量光学的旋转角度的方法被检测。从历史上看这是一个重要的方法因为它对蔗糖水解的应用程序是对反应速率的第一个显著的研究。(威廉米,1850年)

(4) Electrochemical methods. When a reaction changes the number or nature of ions present in a solution, its course may be followed by monitoring the conductivity of the solution. One very important class of reactions consists of those occurring at electrodes, and we examine them in Chapter 3D.

(4)电化学方法。当离子的数量和性质在溶液中呈现反应变化时,它的进程可以通过检测溶液的电导率从而被跟踪。那些由发生在电极上的一类非常重要的反应我们将在30章在学习。

(5) Miscellaneous methods. Other methods of determining composition include mass spectrometry and chromatography. In order to employ these techniques, a small amount of the reaction mixture is bled from the reacting system at a series of times after the initiation of the reaction, and then analyzed. There are three main ways of applying these analytical techniques.

(5)其他方法。其他的可以确定组成的方法包括质量光谱法和色谱法。为了采用这些技术,少量的反应混合物在一系列反应体系的时间减少后开始反应,然后分析。

应用这些分析方法有三种主要的方法。

(1)Real time analysis. In this method the composition of the system is analyzed while the reaction is in progress.

(1)实时分析。在该方法中系统的构成,分析了反应的进程。

(2) Quenching. In this method the reaction is frozen after it has been allowed to proceed for a certain time, and then the composition is analysed by any suitable technique. The quenching can normally be achieved by lowering the temperature suddenly . but this is suitable only for reactions that are slow enough for there to be little reaction during the time it takes to cool the mixture.

(2)淬火法。在这种方法中反应是被冷却一段时间后才被允许继续进行的,然后可以通过任何合适的方法分析混合物的组成。淬火法通常可以通过突然降低温度来实现,但是这仅仅适用于那些反应慢得足以让在冷却混合物所花费的时间期间只有一点点的反应的反应。

(3) Flow method. In this method, solutions of the reagents are mixed as they flow together into a chamber, Fig 4. The reaction continues as the thoroughly mixed solutions flow through the outlet tube, and observation of the composition at different positions along the tube (for example, by spectroscopy) is equivalent to observing the reaction mixture at different times after mixing. Reactions that are complete within a few milliseconds can he observed with this technique, but its principal disadvantage is that large volumes of solutions are necessary. The method has been improved, and a modification . the stopped-flow method, is in wide use.

(3)流动法。在这种方法中,将试剂溶液流动到一个腔中的方法将其混合起来,如图4。反应持续进行直到彻底混合溶液流出排水管。然后沿着管道观察不同位置的成分(例如,通过光谱)就相当于观察反应物在混合后的不同时期。在几毫秒内完成的反应也可以通过这个技术观察。但它的主要缺点是必须进行大批量的检测。但该方法已得到改善,停流的方法已被广泛使用。

The rates of chemical reactions have been found to depend very strongly on the temperature, and many follow the Arrhenius rate law, that the rate is proportional to exp (-Ea/RT), where Ea is the activation energy of the reaction. The implication of this observation for experimental studies is that the temperature of the reaction mixture must be held as constant as possible throughout the course of the reaction; otherwise the observed reaction rate will be a meaningless average of rates at different temperatures. This requirement puts severe demands on the design of the experiment. Gas phase reactions, for instance, are often carried out in a vessel held in contact with a substantial block of metal, and liquid phase reactions, including flow reactions . must be carried out in an efficient thermostat.

人们发现化学反应速率受温度很大影响,并且大多数都遵循阿伦尼乌斯定律、即速率正比于(-Ea / RT),式中Ea是反应活化能。这就意味着这个实验研究的观测要尽可能的在整个过程中保持反应混合物的温度恒定。否则,观察到的反应速率将会是一个毫无意义的在不同温度下的平均速率。这样就对实验设计提出了严格的要求。例如,气相反应中,通常是在一个容器中用大量的金属块安装触媒;在液相反应中,包括流动的反应,必须安装有效的温控器。

The general result of these experiments is that the rates of chemical reactions depend on the composition of the reaction mixture, and most depend exponentially on the temperature. The next

few sections look at these observations in more detail.

通常这些实验结果是化学反应速率取决于反应混合物的组成,并且与温度有很大关系。接下来的几节中可以观察到更多的细节。

The rates of reactions

反应的速率

Suppose the reaction of interest is of the form

假设反应底形式是

A +

B ——→products, P

A+ B——→产品、P

and that the concentrations of the species A, B, and P are [A[, [B], and [P] respectively. The rate of the reaction can be expressed as the rate of change of the concentration of any of the species. Thus the rate of formation of product is d[P]/dt and the rate of destruction of A. is d[A]/dt. In the present case

物质A,B,和P的浓度分别是[A],[B]和[P]。任何物种的浓度的变化率可以表示为反应速率。所以产物生成的速率是d[P] / dt以及A的反应速率是d [A] / dt。在目前情况下

d[P]/dt = -d[A]/dt = -d[B]/dt

because a B molecule must be destroyed for every A molecule destroyed, and in the process a P molecule is formed. Any of these derivatives can serve as the definition of the rate of reaction, the only care needed is to keep the signs correct.

由于反应一个B分子就必须反应一个A分子,并且在此过程中生成一个P分子。任何这些衍生物都可以作为定义的反应速率的物质。值得注意的事,需要的是保证其标志是正确的。

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化学专业英语(修订版)翻译

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《化学工程与工艺专业英语》课文翻译 完整版

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化学专业英语翻译1

01.THE ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE 01元素和元素周期 表。 The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is referred to as the atomic number, or proton number, Z. The number of electrons in an electrically neutral atom is also equal to the atomic number, Z. The total mass of an atom is determined very nearly by the total number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. This total is called the mass number, A. The number of neutrons in an atom, the neutron number, is given by the quantity A-Z. 原子核中的质子数的原子称为原子序数,或质子数,卓电子数的电中性的原子也等于原子序数Z,总质量的原子是非常接近的总数量的质子和中子在原子核。这被称为质量数,这个数的原子中的中子,中子数,给出了所有的数量 The term element refers to, a pure substance with atoms all of a single kind. To the chemist the "kind" of atom is specified by its atomic number, since this is the property that determines its chemical behavior. At present all the atoms from Z = 1 to Z = 107 are known; there are 107 chemical elements. Each chemical element has been given a name and a distinctive symbol. For most elements the symbol is simply the abbreviated form of

化学工程与工艺专业英语Unit 2

Unit 2 Research and Development 研究和开发 Research and development, or R&D as it is commonly referred to, is an activity which is carried out by all sectors of manufacturing industry but its extent varies considerably, as we will see shortly. Let us first understand, or at least get a feel for, what the terms mean. Although the distinction between research and development is not always clear-cut, and there is often considerable overlap, we will attempt to separate them. In simple terms research can be thought of as the activity which produces new ideas and knowledge whereas development is putting those ideas into practice as new process and products. To illustrate this with an example, predicting the structure of a new molecule which would have a specific biological activity and synthesizing it could be seen as research whereas testing it and developing it to the point where it could be marketed as a new drug could be described as the development part. 研究和开发,或通常所称R&D是制造业各个部门都要进行的一项活动。我们马上可以看到,它的内容变化很大。我们首先了解或先感觉一下这个词的含义。尽管研究和开发的定义总是分得不很清楚,而且有许多重叠的部分,我们还是要试着把它们区分开来。简单说来,研究是产生新思想和新知识的活动,而开发则是把这些思想贯彻到实践中得到新工艺和新产品的行为。可以用一个例子来描述这一点,预测一个有特殊生物活性的分子结构并合成它可以看成是研究而测试它并把它发展到可以作为一种新药推向市场这一阶段则看作开发部分。 1.Fundamental Research and Applied Research In industry the primary reason for carting out R&D is economic and is to strengthen and improve the company?s position and profitability. The purpose of R&D is to generate and provide information and knowledge to reduce uncertainty, solve problems and to provide better data on which management can base decisions. Specific projects cover a wide range of activities and time scales, from a few months to 20 years. 1.基础研究和应用研究 在工业上进行研究和开发最主要的原因是经济利益方面,是为了加强公司的地位,提高公司的利润。R&D的目的是做出并提供信息和知识以减低不确定性,解决问题,以及向管理层提供更好的数据以便他们能据此做出决定。特别的项目涵盖很大的活动范围和时间范围,从几个月到20年。 We can pick out a number of areas of R&D activity in the following paragraphs but if we were to start with those which were to spring to the mind of the academic, rather than the industrial, chemist then these would be basic, fundamental (background) or exploratory research and the synthesis of new compounds. This is also labeled “blue skies” research. 我们可以在后面的段落里举出大量的R&D活动。但是如果我们举出的点子来源于研究院而不是工业化学家的头脑,这就是基础的或探索性的研究 Fundamental research is typically associated with university research. It may be carried out for its own intrinsic interest and it will add to the total knowledge base but no immediate applications of it in the “real world” well be apparent. Note that it will provide a valuable

专业知识与翻译

PPT: 第二页: When you have already acquired a good ability in translation, it’s important for you to storage professional knowledge in mind as more as possible. 1.In financial field: when it comes to 供给and 需求,we say supply and demand in stead of provision and need。 第三页 2.After this week’s disappointing economic figures, China’s central bank said Saturday that it would reduce the share of deposits banks must set aside as reserves. If you have some specific professional knowledge, you know what does“the share of deposits banks must set aside as reserves”mean the moment you see the expression. It means“存款准备金”which is given to the central bank by commercial bank. 3.. The financial futures and options markets which now encircle the globe have risk as their keynote. How to translate “financial futures”and “options markets”? It means “期货”and “期权”。So it can be translated into“金融期货与期权是目前全球范围内最具冒险性的金融衍生产品”。 第四页:with the development of science and technology , more and more materials concerning science and technology are required to be translated, which puts a high demand on us translators. 1. For example, in scientific and technological area: bedplate has a lot of meanings,such as“底座”、“机座”、“座板”、“底板” 在Cylinder block and bedplate are made of cast-iron.(气缸体和底座均由铸铁制成)句中,we translate “bedplate”to“底座”,it is because in diesel engine,“bedplate”means“底座”或“机座”,not“底板”。However,this sentence: The frame may or may not be provided with a bedplate.(机座可连同底板供应,也可不带底板),“bedplate”should be translated into “底板”,because底板is a part of electrical machine. 2. In scientific English, different words may have the same meaning. In radio technology, vacuum tube,electron tube名称不同,实际上是同一件东西,如果不知道这一点,而是分别译为“真空管”和“电子管”,译文势必引起混乱。又如比较常见的“AC generator”和“ahemator”都指交流发电机。

翻译基础知识

翻译基础知识 一、翻译的分类 1.按所涉及的两种代码的性质,可分为语内翻译(intralingual translation)、语际翻译(interlingual translation)、语符翻译(inersemiotic translation)。 2.按翻译主体的性质,可分为人工翻译、机器翻译(Machine Translation)两类。 3.按翻译的工具和成品形式,可分为口译和笔译。 4.按翻译的客体,亦即所译资料的性质,可分为文学翻译(literal translation)和实用翻译(pragmatic translation)。 二、译家译论 1.支谦:在三国时期,支谦的《法句经序》中提出了“因循本旨,不加文饰”的译经原则。 2.道安:晋、前秦时道安在《革卑婆沙序》中提出,“案本而传,不令有损言游字;时改倒句, 余尽实录。”道安涉及译论的佛经序文较多,最有名的是提出“五失本”、“三不易”之说。其意思是,翻译佛经在五种情况下会失去本来面目,有三件事决定了译事是很不容易的,因此必须慎之又慎。 3.彦琮:北朝末年及隋初,彦琮著《辨证论》,它可以看作是我国第一篇翻译专论,他主张译经 “宁贵朴而近理,不用巧而背源”。可见他是坚持忠实第一并倾向于直译的。 4.玄奘:唐代僧人玄奘的指导原则是:“既须求真,又须喻俗”。“求真”即追求准确,要力求“忠 实原作”,这是一切认真负责的翻译工作者的共同理想。同时必须“喻俗”,亦即使群众理解,这就是说要“通顺”。玄奘在译经中成功地运用了补充法、省略法、变位法、分合法、译名假借法、代词还原法等等翻译技巧。 5.马建忠:清末,马建忠在其《马氏文通》中提出“善译”之说:“必先将所译者与所以译者两国之 文字,深嗜笃好,字栉句比,以考彼此文字孳生之源,同异之故。所有当相之实义,委曲推究,务审其声音之高下,析其字句之繁简,尽其文体之变态,及其义理精深奥折之所由然。” 6.林纾:林纾强调在翻译时译者应该投入自己的主观感情,译者须与原作者或作品中人物的心灵 相交流。 7.鲁迅:鲁迅在《且介亭杂文二集》里说:“凡是翻译,必须兼顾着两面,一当然力求其易解,一 则保存着原作得丰姿”。也就是说既要通顺,又要忠实。所谓忠实,是指内容上的“信”;所谓通顺,是指表达上的“顺”。 8.茅盾:文学翻译的目标是“艺术创造性翻译”——用一种语言把原作的艺术意境传达出来,使 读者读译文时能够像读原作时一样得到启发、感动和美的感受。 9.钱钟书:“文学翻译的最高标准是‘化’,把作品从一国文字转变成另一国文字,既不能因语文 习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹,又能完全保存原作的风味,那就算得入于‘化境’。十七世纪有人赞美这种造诣的翻译,比为原作的‘投胎转世’,躯壳换了一个,而精神姿致依然故我。换句话说,译本对原作应该忠实得以至于读起来不像译本,因为作品在原文里决不会读起来像经过翻译似的。” 10.傅雷:“以效果而论,翻译应当像临画一样,所求的不在形似而在神似。”“两国文字词类的不 同,句法构造的不同,文法与习惯的不同,修辞格律的不同,俗语的不同,即反映民族思想方式的不同,感觉深浅的不同,观点角度的不同,风俗传统信仰的不同,社会背景的不同,表现方法的不同。以甲国文字传达乙国文字所包含的那些特点,必须像伯乐相马,要“得其精而忘其粗,在其内而忘其外”。而即使最优秀的译文,其韵味较之原文仍不免过或不及。翻译时只能尽量缩短这个距离,过则求其勿太过,不及则求其勿过于不及。”

冶金专业英语大全

coking plant 炼焦厂electrometallurgy 电冶金学powder metallurgy 粉末冶金学 blast furnace 鼓风炉mouth, throat 炉口hopper, chute 料斗stack 炉身belly 炉腰bosh 炉腹crucible 炉缸slag tap 放渣口taphole 出铁口,出渣口pig bed 铸床 mould 铸模(美作:mold) tuyere, nozzle 风口ingot mould 锭模(美作:ingot mold) floor 平台hearth 炉底charger 装料机ladle 铁水包,钢水包dust catcher 除尘器washer 洗涤塔converter 转炉hoist 卷扬机compressor 压缩机tilting mixer 可倾式混铁炉regenerator 蓄热室heat exchanger 热交换器gas purifier 煤气净化器turbocompressor 涡轮压缩机burner 烧嘴cupola 化铁炉,冲天炉emptier 排空装置trough 铁水沟,排渣沟skip 料车rolling mill 轧机,轧钢机blooming mill 初轧机 roller 辊bed 底座rolling-mill housing 轧机机架drawbench 拔管机,拉丝机 drawplate 拉模板shaft furnace 竖炉refining furnace 精炼炉 reverberatory furnace 反射炉hearth furnace 床式反射炉firebrick lining 耐火砖衬retort 反应罐muffle 马弗炉roof, arch 炉顶forge 锻造press 压锻pile hammer 打桩锤drop hammer 落锤die 拉模blowlamp 吹炬(美作:blowtorch)crusher 破碎机 iron ore 铁矿石coke 焦炭bauxite 铁钒土alumina 铝cryolite 冰晶石flux 熔剂limestone flux 石灰石溶剂haematite 赤铁矿(美作:hematite)gangue 脉石 cast iron 铸铁cast iron ingot 铸铁锭slag 炉渣soft iron 软铁pig iron 生铁 wrought iron 熟铁iron ingot 铁锭puddled iron 搅炼熟铁round iron 圆铁 scrap iron 废铁steel 钢crude steel 粗钢mild steel, soft steel 软钢,低碳钢 hard steel 硬钢cast steel 坩埚钢,铸钢stainless steel 不锈钢electric steel 电工钢,电炉钢high-speed steel 高速钢moulded steel 铸钢refractory steel 热强钢,耐热钢 alloy steel 合金钢plate, sheet 薄板corrugated iron 瓦垅薄钢板tinplate, tin 马口铁finished product 成品,产品semifinished product 半成品,中间产品ferrous products 铁制品coiled sheet 带状薄板bloom 初轧方坯metal strip, metal band 铁带,钢带 billet 坯锭,钢坯shavings 剃边profiled bar 异型钢材shape, section 型钢angle iron 角钢frit 烧结wire 线材ferronickel 镍铁elinvar 镍铬恒弹性钢ferrite 铁氧体,铁醇盐cementite 渗碳体,碳化铁pearlite 珠光体charging, loading 装料,炉料fusion, melting, s melting 熔炼remelting 再熔化,重熔refining 精炼casting 出铁to cast 出铁 tapping 出渣,出钢,出铁to insufflate, to inject 注入heating 加热preheating 预热tempering 回火temper 回火hardening 淬水annealing 退火reduction 还原 cooling 冷却decarbonization, decarburization 脱碳coking 炼焦slagging, scorification 造渣carburization 渗碳case hardening 表面硬化cementation 渗碳fritting, sintering 烧结puddling 搅炼pulverization 粉化,雾化nitriding 渗氮alloy 合金floatation, flotation 浮选patternmaking 制模moulding 成型(美作:molding)calcination 煅烧amalgamation 汞齐化rolling 轧制drawing 拉拔extrusion 挤压wiredrawing 拉丝stamping, pressing 冲压die casting 拉模铸造forging 锻造turning 车削milling 铣削machining, tooling 加工autogenous welding, fusion welding 氧炔焊arc welding 电弧焊electrolysis 电解trimming 清理焊缝blowhole 气孔采矿mining地下采矿underground mining 露天采矿open cut mining, open pit mining, surface mining 采矿工程mining engineering 选矿(学)mineral dressing, ore beneficiation, mineral pr ocessing 矿物工程mineral engineering冶金(学)metallurgy 过程冶金(学)process metallurgy 提取冶金(学)extractive metallurgy 化学冶金(学)chemical metallurgy 物理冶金(学)physical metallurgy 金属学Metallkunde 冶金过程物理化学physical chemistry of process metallurgy

化工专业英语lesson4翻译汇编

仅供参考 Introduction to Organic Chemistry 1. Sources of Organic Compounds The major sources of organic chemicals are coal, petroleum, and agricultural products. Both coal and petroleum were formed through the geologic processes of changing animal and plant remains into carbon-containing residues. About one-third of all organic chemicals are derived from coal and about one-half from the petroleum industry 有机化合物的来源 有机化学药品的主要来源是煤、石油和农产品。动植物的遗体通过地质作用变成含碳残基然后形成煤和石油。三分之一的所有有机化合物品是从煤中得到的,一般来自于石油工业。 2. The Methods and Objectives of Organic Chemistry Because of the tremendous number of organic compounds known, and of the many more being synthesized daily, the study of organic chemistry is not the study of individual compounds, it is the study of groups or families of compounds all closely related to each other. Obviously, the former approach would be prohibitive[prE5hibitiv]. Once the structural relationships of certain typical members of a particular group or family of compounds are understood, these structural features are understood for any one of the many members of the family, even though some may not be known compounds. 因为已知的有机化合物的数目庞大,而且还在逐日合成更多的品种,所以有机化学不是研究单个的化合物,而是把彼此密切相关的化合物按类或族来研究。显然,以前的方法是不可取的,一旦典型的一类特殊化合物被认识,这些结构特征将适用于这类化合物,甚至是一些未知的化合物, For each group or family of compounds often called homologous series of compounds, structural features are important. In studying organic chemistry, it is not enough to know the identities of the elements and how many atoms of each element are present in a given molecule. More importantly, the order in which these atoms are linked together to form

《化学工程与工艺专业英语》课文翻译

Unit1化学工业的研究和开发 One of the main发达国家化学工业飞速发展的一个重要原因就是它在研究和开发方面的投入commitmen t和投资investmen t。通常是销售收入的5%,而研究密集型分支如制药,投入则加倍。要强调这里我们所提出的百分数不是指利润而是指销售收入,也就是说全部回收的钱,其中包括要付出原材料费,企业管理费,员工工资等等。过去这笔巨大的投资支付得很好,使得许多有用的和有价值的产品被投放市场,包括一些合成高聚物如尼龙和聚脂,药品和杀虫剂。尽管近年来进入市场的新产品大为减少,而且在衰退时期研究部门通常是最先被裁减的部门,在研究和开发方面的投资仍然保持在较高的水平。 化学工业technology industry是高技术工业,它需要利用电子学和工程学的最新成果。计算机被广泛应用,从化工厂的自动控制a utomatic control,到新化合物结构的分子模拟,再到实验室分析仪器的控制。 Individual manufacturing一个制造厂的生产量很不一样,精细化工领域每年只有几吨,而巨型企业如化肥厂和石油化工厂有可能高达500,000吨。后者需要巨大的资金投入,因为一个这样规模的工厂要花费2亿5千万美元,再加上自动控制设备的普遍应用,就不难解释为什么化工厂是资金密集型企业而不是劳动力密集型企业。 The major大部分化学公司是真正的跨国公司multinational,他们在世界上的许多国家进行销售和开发市场,他们在许多国家都有制造厂。这种国际间的合作理念,或全球一体化,是化学工业中发展的趋势。大公司通过在别的国家建造制造厂或者是收购已有的工厂进行扩张。 Unit 2工业研究和开发的类型 The applied通常在生产中完成的实用型的或有目的性的研究和开发可以分为好几类,我们对此加以简述。它们是:(1)产品开发;(2)工艺开发;(3)工艺改进;(4)应用开发;每一类下还有许多分支。我们对每一类举一个典型的例子来加以说明。在化学工业的不同部门内每类的工作重点有很大的不同。 (1)产品开发。product development产品开发不仅包括一种新药的发明和生产,还包括,比如说,给一种汽车发动机提供更长时效的抗氧化添加剂。这种开发的产品已经使(发动机)的服务期限在最近的十年中从3000英里提高到6000、9000现在已提高到12000英里。请注意,大部分的买家所需要的是化工产品能创造出来的效果,亦即某种特殊的用途。,或称聚四氟乙烯()被购买是因为它能使炒菜锅、盆表面不粘,易于清洗。(2)工艺开发process development。工艺开发不仅包括为一种全新的产品设计一套制造工艺,还包括为现有的产品设计新的工艺或方案。而要进行后者时可能源于下面的一个或几个原因:新技术的利用、原材料的获得或价格发生了变化。氯乙烯单聚物的制造就是这样的一个例子。它的制造方法随着经济、技术和原材料的变化改变了好几次。另一个刺激因素是需求的显著增加。因而销售量对生产流程的经济效益有很大影响。早期的制造就为此提供了一个很好的例子。 The ability of能预防战争中因伤口感染引发的败血症,因而在第二次世界大战(1939-1945)中,pencillin的需求量非常大,需要大量生产。而在那时,只能用在瓶装牛奶表面发酵的方法小量的生产。英国和美国投入了巨大的人力物力联合进行研制和开发,对生产流程做出了两个重大的改进。首先用一个不同的菌株—黄霉菌代替普通的青霉,它的产量要比后者高得多。第二个重大的流程开发是引进了深层发酵过程。只要在培养液中持续通入大量纯化空气,发酵就能在所有部位进行。这使生产能力大大地增加,达到现代容量超过5000升的不锈钢发酵器。而在第一次世界大战中,死于伤口感染的士兵比直接死于战场上的人还要多。注意到这一点不能不让我们心存感激。 Process development for a new product对一个新产品进行开发要考虑产品生产的规模、产生的副产品以及分离/回收,产品所要求的纯度。在开发阶段利用中试车间(最大容量可达100升)获得的数据设计实际的制造厂是非常宝贵的,例如石油化工或氨的生产。要先建立一个中试车间,运转并测试流程以获得更多的数据。他们需要测试产品的性质,如杀虫剂,或进行消费评估,如一种新的聚合物。 Note that by-products注意,副产品对于化学过程的经济效益也有很大的影响。酚的生产就是一个有代表性的例子。早期的方法,苯磺酸方法,由于它的副产品亚硫酸钠需求枯竭而变的过时。亚硫酸钠需回收和废置成为生产过程附加的费用,增加了生产酚的成本。相反,异丙基苯方法,在经济效益方面优于所有其他方法就在于市场对于它的副产品丙酮的迫切需求。丙酮的销售所得降低了酚的生产成本。 A major part对一个新产品进行工艺开发的一个重要部分是通过设计把废品减到最低,或尽可能地防止可能的污染,这样做带来的经济利益和对环境的益处是显而易见的。 Finally it should be noted that最后要注意,工业开发需要包括化学家、化学工程师、电子和机械工程师这样一支庞大队伍的协同合作才能取得成功。 (3)process improvement工艺改进。工艺改进与正在进行的工艺有关。它可能出现了某个问题使生产停止。在这种情形下,就面临着很大的压力要尽快地解决问题以便生产重新开始,因为故障期耗费资财。 然而,更为常见的commonly,工艺改进是为了提高生产过程的利润。这可以通过很多途径实现。例如通过优化流程提高产量,引进新的催化剂提高效能,或降低生产过程所需要的能量。可说明后者的一个例子是在生产氨的过程中涡轮压缩机的引进。这使生产氨的成本(主要是电)从每吨6.66美元下降到0.56美元。通过工艺的改善提高产品质量也会为产品打开新的市场。 然而,近年来in rencent years,最重要的工艺改进行为主要是减少生产过程对环境的影响,亦即防止生产过程所引起的污染。很明显,有两个相关连的因素推动这样做。第一,公众对化学产品的安全性及其对环境所产生影响的关注以及由此而制订出来的法律;第二,生产者必须花钱对废物进行处理以便它能安全地清除,比如说,排放到河水中。显然这是生产过程的又一笔费用,它将增加所生产化学产品的成本。通过减少废物数量提高效益其潜能是不言而喻的。 然而,请注意note,with a plant对于一个已经建好并正在运行的工厂来说,只能做一些有限的改变来达到上述目的。因此,上面所提到的减少废品的重要性应在新公厂的设计阶段加以考虑。近年来另一个当务之急是保护能源及降低能源消耗。 (4)application development应用开发。显然发掘一个产品新的用处或新的用途能拓宽它的获利渠道。这不仅能创造更多的收入,而且由于产量的增加使单元生产成本降低,从而使利润提高。举例来说,早期是用来制造唱片和塑料雨衣的,后来的用途扩展到塑料薄膜,特别是工程上所使用的管子和排水槽。 我们已经强调emphasis了化学产品是由于它们的效果,或特殊的用途、用处而得以售出这个事实。这就意味着化工产品公司的技术销售代表与顾客之间应有密切的联系。对顾客的技术支持水平往往是赢得销售的一个重要的因素。进行研究和开发的化学家们为这些应用开发提供了帮助。33的制造就是一个例子。它最开始是用来做含氟氯烃的替代物作冷冻剂的。然而近来发现它还可以用作从植物中萃取出来的天然物质的溶解剂。当它作为制冷剂被制造时,固然没有预计到这一点,但它显然也是应用开发的一个例子 。 Unit3设计 Based on the experience and data根据在实验室和中试车间获得的经验和数据,一组工程师集中起来设计工业化的车间。化学工程师的职责就是详细说明所有过程中的流速和条件,设备类型和尺寸,制造材料,流程构造,控制系统,环境保护系统以及其它相关技术参数。这是一个责任重大的工作。 The design stage设计阶段是大把金钱花进去的时候。一个常规的化工流程可能需要五千万到一亿美元的资金投入,有许多的事情要做。化学工程师是做出很多决定的人之一。当你身处其位时,你会对自己曾经努力学习而能运用自己的方法和智慧处理这些问题感到欣慰。 设计阶段design stage的产物是很多图纸: (1)工艺流程图flow sheets。是显示所有设备的图纸。要标出所有的流线和规定的条件(流速、温度、压力、构造、粘度、密度等)。 (2)管道及设备图piping and instrumentation。标明drawings所有设备(包括尺寸、喷嘴位置和材料)、所有管道(包括大小、控制阀、控制器)以及所有安全系统(包括安全阀、安全膜位置和大小、火舌管、安全操作规则)。 (3)仪器设备说明书equipmen specification sheet s。详细说明所有设备准确的空间尺度、操作参数、构造材料、耐腐蚀性、操作温度和压力、最大和最小流速以及诸如此类等等。这些规格说明书应交给中标的设备制造厂以进行设备生产。 3.建造construction After the equipment manufactures当设备制造把设备的所有部分都做好了以后,这些东西要运到工厂所在地(有时这是后勤部门颇具挑战性的任务,尤其对象运输分馏塔这样大型的船只来说)。建造阶段要把所有的部件装配成完整的工厂,首先要做的就是在地面打洞并倾入混凝土,为大型设备及建筑物打下基础(比如控制室、流程分析实验室、维修车间)。 完成了第一步initial activities,就开始安装设备的主要部分以及钢铁上层建筑。要装配热交换器、泵、压缩机、管道、测量元件、自动控制阀。控制系统的线路和管道连接在控制室和操作间之间。电线、开关、变换器需装备在马达上以驱动泵和压缩机。生产设备安装完毕后,化学工程师的职责就是检查它们是否连接完好,每部分是否正常工作。

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