CLOTHING EV ALUATIVE CRITERIA:
A CROSS-NATIONAL COMPARISON OF
TAIWANESE AND UNITED STATES CONSUMERS
Hsiu-Ju Hsu,Leslie Davis Burns
Clothing and Textiles Research Journal[J].Zhejiang UNIV，2002，20（2）：
246～252.
Abstract
Taiwanese and United States college women were compared regarding the importance they placed on the evaluative criteria they used when purchasing a specific clothing item for themselves.One hundred nineteen Taiwanese and84United States college women completed self-administered questionnaires.Seven-point scales were used to measure the importance of12clothing evaluative criteria:fabric,comfort,size/fit,quality,location of manufacturer,color,how pleasing it was to others,brand name,appropriateness for campus wear,price,style,and coordination with other clothing.The findings indicated that the importance placed on clothing evaluative criteria was very similar between the two groups. In addition,the size/fit criterion was found to be the most important criterion for both groups.Cross-national comparison studies,such as this one,that focus on the consumer decision-making process may provide important information to marketers in their development of international marketing strategies.
Key Words:consumer behavior；consumer decision-making；evaluative criteria；cross-national
The international marketing of American goods and services is of increasing importance to the United States economy(Husted,Varble,&Lowry,1992).In order to be successful in the global market,an understanding is necessary regarding the extent to which consumers from different nations evaluate goods and services.Based on the results of numerous studies,models have been developed to serve as frameworks for the explanation as well as prediction of the complexities of consumer behavior.One such model is the Engel,Kollat,and Miniard(EKM)model of consumer decision-making(Engel,Blackwell, &Miniard,1995).The EKM model includes four stages of consumer decision-making:
(1)information input
(2)information processing,
(3)the decision process
(4)variables influencing the decision process;the model“is based on learning processes,with emphasis upon the information search process”(Zaltman&Wallendorf, 1979,p.541).
Authors’Addresses:Hsu,Hsiu-Ju,Department of Apparel,National Pingtung University of Science and Technology,1,Hseuh Fu Road,Neipu,Pingtung,91207,Taiwan, R.O.C.,hsu@https://www.doczj.com/doc/bc8246026.html,.tw and Leslie Davis Burns,AIHM,Milam224,Oregon State University,Corvallis,OR97331-5101,Leslie.Burns@https://www.doczj.com/doc/bc8246026.html,.
Prior to the information input stage,the individual recognizes a need that may be met through the purchase process.Once the need is recognized,the individual selects information about the product through either an internal search process including individual memory and/or through an external search process if additional information is required.“Information processing refers to the process by which a stimulus is received,interpreted, stored in memory,and later retrieved”(Engel,et al.,1995,p.472).The information processing stage follows five steps:the consumer’s exposure to,attention to, comprehension of,acceptance of,and,finally,retention of information.The decision process stage follows six steps:need recognition,search for information,pre-purchase alternative evaluation,purchase,consumption,and post-purchase alternative evaluation. The variables influencing the decision process consist of three categories:environmental influences,individual differences,and psychological processes.Environmental influences include culture,social class,personal influences,family,and situation.Individual differences consist of consumer resources,motivation and involvement,knowledge,
attitudes,personality,values,and lifestyle.Psychological processes include information processing,learning,and attitude and behavior change.The present study examined the relation246Clothing and Textiles Research Journal.
Ship between cultural influences and the importance placed on evaluative criteria used in the pre-purchase alternative evaluation step of the decision process stage,thereby testing aspects of the EKM model using a cross-national sample.
From a consumer behavior viewpoint,culture is“a set of values,ideas,artifacts and other meaningful symbols that help individuals communicate,interpret,and evaluate as members of society”(Engel,et al.,1995,p.611).According to Engel,Blackwell,and Miniard(1995),“[c]ulture affects the specific products people buy as well as the structure of consumption,individual decision making,and communication in a society”(p.615). Additionally,“[t]he effects of culture may vary from country to country”(Robertson, Zielinski,&Ward,1984,p.555).Therefore,in the present study,culture was operationally defined as the culture of a specific nation according to Engel,Blackwell,and Miniard’s (1995)definition of https://www.doczj.com/doc/bc8246026.html,parisons were made between consumers from Taiwan and the United States.
The two countries were selected for comparison for several reasons.Most consumer behavior research,including most research testing aspects of the EKM model of consumer decision-making have examined consumers from the United States.Therefore,the examination of United States consumers would allow us to compare the results of this study to these previous studies.Taiwan was selected because it has become an attractive international market due to its rapid economic growth in the last forty years of the20th century.“The Taiwan market may seem small”but“its record of phenomenal economic growth,strong consumer demand,and improvements in market access for United States goods and services make it a particularly attractive market for both experienced and new-to-market exporters”(Droker,Sander,DeVos,&Duvall,1989,p.2).In fact,exports of goods and services from the United States to Taiwan have increased from$4.7billion in 1985to$24.38billion in2000(United States Department of Commerce,2001b).This has resulted in Taiwan being the seventh largest export market for the United States(United States Department of Commerce,2001a).In addition,the agreement between the United States and Taiwan,reached in1998as part of Taiwan’s World Trade Organization accession package,has made access for U.S.goods and services easier primarily through the
reduction of Taiwan import tariffs.Thus,with its strong economy,Taiwan is considered an “excellent market for U.S.firms”(American Institute in Taiwan,2000).
In exploring consumer behavior among the Taiwanese,the culture of Taiwan must be taken into consideration.Taiwan’s culture is infused with Confucian influences;specifically Confucian ideals of moderation in consumption that may influence how Taiwanese consumers evaluate clothing.Such ideals may be manifested in a valuation of price and moderation in Taiwanese consumer expenditures.However,at the turn of the21st century, along with these Confucian ideals is the value of conspicuous consumption that likely influences consumer decision-making in Taiwan.Thus,by comparing consumers in the United States with those in Taiwan,we can better understand cultural influences on consumer decision-making among Taiwanese consumers.
The present study compared Taiwanese and United States college women regarding the importance they placed on clothing evaluative criteria.Evaluative criteria were defined as“the particular dimensions or attributes that are used in judging the choice alternatives”(Engel,et al.,1995,p.208).Many researchers have investigated evaluative criteria related to clothing.However,the terms used and the way in which criteria have been classified have varied among the studies.The most frequently used clothing criteria examined by researchers have been price,style,quality,size/fit,color,fabric,brand name,and country of origin(Cassill&Drake,1987;Davis,1987;Eckman,Damhorst,&Kadolph,1990;Jenkins, 1973;Martin,1971-72;McLean,Roper,&Smothers,1986;Workman,1990).Researchers have found the most important evaluative criteria related to clothing to be price,style or design,suitability or appropriateness for a specific situation,fiber content,cut or fit,how pleasing it was to others,coordination with other clothing,comfort,and color or pattern (Davis,1987;Eckman,et al.,1990;Jenkins,1973;Martin1971-72;McLean,et al.,1986; Workman,1990).Therefore,the importance placed on12evaluative criteria(price,style, quality,size/fit,color,fabric,brand name,location of manufacturer,suitability,how pleasing it was to others,coordination,and comfort)was examined in the present study. These12criteria were selected on the basis of the criteria found in the literature to be most important when clothing is purchased and the most frequently used clothing criteria investigated by previous researchers.
Currently,few studies have focused on cross-national comparisons of consumers’use of clothing evaluative criteria.Lee and Burns(1993)found significant differences in the
importance placed on clothing evaluative criteria between Korean and United States female undergraduate students.In this study,female college students from the United States indicated that criteria associated with fashion and attractiveness were more important than did female college students from Korea.Additionally,Hsiao(1993)examined American and Taiwanese female college students in the United States and found the two groups had similar importance rankings of clothing evaluative criteria.However,in Hsiao’s study,the Taiwanese subjects had lived in the United States between one and four years.
Therefore,in the present study we attempted to understand better the influence of culture on consumer decision-making and to expand research on cross-national comparisons of clothing purchase behavior by comparing consumer decision-making processes of students living in Taiwan and in the United States.More specifically,the purpose of the present study was to investigate the influence of culture on the importance placed on the evaluative criteria used by college women in Taiwan and the United States when purchasing a specific clothing item.Objectives of the study were the following: To investigate and compare the importance of evaluative criteria used by Taiwanese and United States college women when purchasing a specific clothing item.
To determine the most important clothing evaluative criterion used by Taiwanese and United States college women when purchasing a specific clothing item.
The following null hypotheses directed the study:
1.There will be no significant difference in the importance placed on the12clothing evaluative criteria between Taiwanese and United States college women
based on mean importance scores.
2.There will be no difference in the clothing evaluative criterion identified as most important between Taiwanese and the United States college women based on mean importance scores.
1Methods
1.1Questionnaire Development
A self-administered questionnaire was used to collect the data.A cover letter that briefly explained the purpose of the survey accompanied each questionnaire.The questionnaire consisted of two sections:questions measuring the importance of clothing evaluative criteria and questions asking about demographic characteristics of the respondents.The clothing evaluative criteria were selected from those identified as most important by previous researchers.These were price,style,quality,size/fit,color,fabric, brand name,location of manufacturer,suitability,how pleasing it was to others, coordination,and comfort.
In the first section of the questionnaire each respondent was asked to rate the importance of the12clothing criteria.Because type of apparel may affect which criteria are important in a consumer purchase decision,the first section of the questionnaire asked the respondent to recall the last clothing item she purchased for herself that she would wear on campus.Further questions were based on this identified clothing item.Each of the12 criteria was rated on a seven-point scale with end-points“not at all important”and“very important.”The12criteria were listed in random order and the list was the same for all respondents.Each respondent could also choose a“not used”(NU)category if she did not use the criterion in her purchase decision.
To capture a respondent’s rating of the most important criterion used in her decision making process,the respondent was asked to write down the most important criterion from the12clothing criteria listed.In addition to using the scale rating to determine the most important criterion used in the purchase decision,respondents were asked to think specifically about the criteria from the perspective of identifying which one of the12was most important to her.Plus,the reliability of the scale items was checked by comparing the criterion with the highest mean rating with the criterion identified as most important.The questionnaire also included an open-ended question asking respondents to indicate any other criteria they had used but that were not https://www.doczj.com/doc/bc8246026.html,rmation on the respondent’s background(i.e.,age,gender,academic standing,major,marital status,and nationality)was
collected in the second section of the questionnaire.
The questionnaire was first developed in English and then translated into Chinese.The Chinese version then was back-translated into English.The process of translation and back-translation of the questionnaire was conducted by two Taiwanese doctoral students at Oregon State University who were not familiar with the study.The back translation was conducted to check for accuracy and clarity in the two versions.
The questionnaire was pretested by eight United States and six Taiwanese undergraduate students studying at Oregon State University.The purpose of the pretest was to identify any potential problems with the questionnaire.Verbal feedback on the questionnaire was collected in order to make needed modifications before data collection. After the pretest,several modifications were made.For instance,“where the garment was manufactured”was used instead of“country of origin,”“suitability”was changed to “appropriateness for campus wear,”and“coordination”was altered to“coordination with other clothing”in order to make the questionnaire more clear for the respondents. Additionally,because female college students were chosen as subjects for this study,the “freshmen”category of academic standing was changed to“first year in college”in order to avoid any perceptions of sexism.
1.2Sample
A convenience non-probability sample was used for this study.The United States sample consisted of102female undergraduate students enrolled in family and consumer sciences courses at Oregon State University.Taiwanese subjects were131female undergraduate students majoring in Applied Life Science at Fu-Jen Catholic University in Taiwan.Because the sample was a non-probability sample,the results of the study cannot be interpreted as being reflective of any larger population.But for the market segment of female college students,this sample of female students provides information related to the population of college women.In1999,8.24million women attended college in the United States(United States Census Bureau,2001)and in1991(most recent data available) 350,000women attended college in Taiwan(“Education,Science and Technology,”1993). Also,in1999,women residing in the United States who were less than30years of age spent on the average$480dollars per year on women’s apparel,$302per year on footwear,
and$255for other apparel products such as accessories(Bureau of Labor Statistics,2000). Comparable expenditure data for Taiwanese students were not available.Prior to administration of the survey,human subjects approval was secured at both institutions.
1.3Data Collection
The three-page self-administered questionnaires were completed by the sample of United States and Taiwanese college women in university classrooms.The Chinese version of the questionnaire was administered to Taiwanese subjects in Taiwan.In order to ensure that the same process of data collection was used in both countries,instructions were provided to those collecting data in the United States and Taiwan.All questionnaires completed in Taiwan were mailed to the United States for analysis.Data were collected in February1995.
1.4Data Analysis
Dependent variables for the present study were the importance ratings for the12 clothing criteria.Nationality,with two levels(Taiwan and the United Sates),was the independent variable.Null hypothesis1,which indicated that there would be no differences between the two groups in the importance placed on the evaluative criteria,was tested using two-sample analysis t-tests to investigate differences in the248Clothing and Textiles Research Journal.
A p-value of.05was employed to determine statistical significance.Acceptance of null hypothesis2,which indicated there would be no difference between the two groups in the criterion identified as most important,was determined by comparing the ranking of criteria based upon mean importance scores.Frequency distributions of responses to the questions on respondents’demographic characteristics provided descriptive information about the respondents.
1.5Results
A total of233questionnaires were distributed to102United States students and131 Taiwanese students.The response rate for the total sample was100%.Among the102 questionnaires completed by United States students,seven questionnaires were ineligible for analysis purposes because they were completed by males(United States eligible questionnaires=102-7=95).Also,nine questionnaires from Taiwanese students were not included in the analysis because they did not complete the entire questionnaire(Taiwan eligible questionnaires=131-9=122).Eighty-eight percent(n=84)of the respondents who completed the questionnaires in the United States reported their nationality as U.S.A., with the remaining12%possessing citizenship in other countries.Only United States citizens were included in the sample for analysis.Ninety-eight percent of the Taiwanese(n =119)reported their nationality as The Republic of China and were included in the sample for analysis.Both United States and Taiwanese respondents reported being undergraduate students.The junior standing was identified by40%of the United States sample.The first year in college was identified by48%of the Taiwanese sample.The majority of both the United States and Taiwanese samples were majoring in similar fields(family and consumer sciences in the United States and applied life in Taiwan).Regarding students’majors,both samples were considered comparable.Among Taiwan and United States respondents,a high percentage(72%in the United States sample and100%in the Taiwanese)was single.
Distribution of the Use of12Clothing Evaluative Criteria
Before testing the hypotheses,a distribution of the use of12clothing evaluative criteria by the United States and Taiwanese respondents was examined.In the questionnaire, each of the12criteria was rated on a seven-point scale.If the respondent did not use a criterion in her purchase decision,the“not used”category was selected.Thirty-six percent of the United States respondents selected the“not used”category for the“where the garment was manufactured”criterion;34%of the Taiwanese respondents selected the“not used”category for this same criterion.“Brand name”was not used as an evaluative criterion by21%of the Taiwanese sample and by10%of the United States sample.Other criteria were used by at least90%of the United States or Taiwanese samples(see Table1).
https://www.doczj.com/doc/bc8246026.html,e of12Clothing Evaluative Criteria Among the United States and Taiwanese Respondents
Clothing Evaluative Criteria N Used
%
Not Used N%
Fabric United States Taiwanese
79
11694%
97%
536%3%
Comfort United States Taiwanese 84
119
100%
100%
––––
Size/Fit United States Taiwanese 83
119
99%
100%
1–1%–
Quality United States Taiwanesea
83
11899%
99%
1–1%–
Location of Manufacturer United States Taiwanese 54
79
64%
66%
30
40
36%34%
Color United States Taiwanese 83
118
99%
99%
111%1%
Pleasing to Others United States Taiwanese
82
10998%
92%
2102%8%
Brand Name United States Taiwanese 76
94
90%
79%
82510%21%
Appropriateness for Campus Wear United States Taiwanese 77
115
92%
97%
748%3%
Price United States Taiwanese 82
115
98%
97%
242%3%
Style United States Taiwanesea
84
118100%
99%
––––
Coordinating with Other Clothing United States Taiwanese 83
114
99%
96%
151%4%
Note.Total United States respondents=84;total Taiwanese respondents=119.an= 118
2Importance of Clothing Criteria
The12criteria were rated on seven-point scales with the end-points“not at all important”and“very important.”The mean importance scores were calculated for each of the12criteria.A similar pattern of means emerged for the United States and Taiwanese groups in terms of the importance of
Table2.Mean Importance Scores for12Clothing Evaluative Criteria by United States and Taiwanese Respondents.
U.S.Respondents Taiwanese Respondents
Mean SD N Mean SD N t-value Size/Fit 6.690.7883 6.290.98119 3.05** Comfort 6.570.7384 6.18 1.05119 2.98** Style 6.150.9184 6.110.911180.34 Coordination with Other
6.06 1.1183 6.050.991140.05 Clothing
Color 6.120.8283 6.03 1.011180.71 Appropriateness for Campus
5.08 1.6177 5.90 1.05115-4.25** Wear
Quality 6.270.8883 5.79 1.13118 3.21** Fabric 5.66 1.2279 5.70 1.14116-0.23 Price 5.90 1.2682 5.58 1.19115 1.81 Pleasing to Others 4.66 1.7082 4.57 1.651090.37 Brand Name 3.59 2.0476 3.78 1.5994-0.66 Location of Manufacturer 2.37 1.4054 3.04 1.6079-2.48* *p<.05,**p<.001.
12evaluative criteria.For the United States students,the ranking of mean importance scores for the clothing evaluative criteria in order of declining importance were size/fit, comfort,quality,style,color,coordination with other clothing,price,fabric,appropriateness for campus wear,how pleasing it was to others,brand name,and location of manufacturer.
For the Taiwanese students,the ranking of mean importance scores for the clothing evaluative criteria were size/fit,comfort,style,coordination with other clothing,color, appropriateness for campus wear,quality,fabric,price,how pleasing it was to others,brand name,and location of manufacturer(see Table2).
2.1Clothing Evaluative Criterion Selected as Most Important
On an open-end question in the questionnaire,the respondent was asked to select one of the12clothing criteria as the single most important criterion when she was making the clothing purchase decision.Both United States(36%)and Taiwanese respondents(24%) selected comfortable to wear as the most important criterion(see Table3).
As expected,the two most important criteria based on mean importance scores were the same as the two criteria most often identified by respondents as most important,thus supporting the reliability of the mean importance scores.Based upon mean importance scores,size/fit and comfortable to wear were rated as the two most important criteria.In their responses to the open-ended question61%of the United States respondents and40% of the Taiwanese respondents identified these two criteria as the most important criteria in their purchase decisions.Interestingly,17%of the Taiwanese sample indicated that appropriateness for cam250Clothing and Textiles Research Journal.
Table3.Clothing Evaluative Criterion Selected as Most Important in the Clothing Purchase Decision
The Most Important Criterion U.S.
Respondents N%
Taiwanese
Respondents N%
Comfort3036%2824% Size/Fit2125%1916% Style1316%1613% Price810%1210% Quality56%3 2.5% Fabric22%3 2.5% Coordination with Other Clothing22%1311% Appropriateness for Campus Wear22%2117%
Pleasing to Others11%22%
Color––11%
Brand name––11%
Location of Manufacturer––––
Total84100%119100%
Additionally,color,brand name,and location of manufacturer were not selected as the most important criterion by any of the United States respondents.Location of garment manufacturer was not selected as the most important criterion by any of the Taiwanese respondents.
Regarding any other criteria the respondent had used that were not listed,few respondents answered this question.Need,service,fashion,personal taste,and label information were other factors that these respondents considered when they last purchased clothing.
No significant differences were found in the mean importance scores of the two groups(p>.05)for the criteria style,coordination with other clothing,color,fabric,price, how pleasing it was to others,and brand name.In general,the mean importance scores for these criteria were higher than the mid-point(3.5).
3Discussion
The first objective of the present study was to investigate and compare the importance of evaluative criteria used by Taiwanese and United States college women for purchasing clothing.Results indicated that size/fit,comfort,style,coordination with other clothing, color,and quality(for United States respondents)were important criteria used in the alternative evaluation stage of the consumer decision process for clothing.
Of the12clothing evaluative criteria,location of manufacturer received the highest percentage of responses in the“not used”response category for both Taiwanese respondents(34%)and United States respondents(36%).In addition,both Taiwanese and United States respondents who used location of manufacturer as a criterion in their purchase decisions had low group means(M:United States=2.37,Taiwan=3.04).This finding suggests that where the garment was manufactured was not important either to Taiwanese or United States female college students in this study.
According to Engel and his associates(1995),culture is one environmental influence that might affect consumers’decision processes.In this study,culture was operationally defined as the symbols that give meaning to members of a society or nation.As such,the importance of clothing evaluative criteria used by female consumers in two nations,Taiwan and the United States,were compared.Findings suggest that national culture may affect alternative evaluation,a part of the consumer decision process identified in the EKM model, but not to a high degree.Significant differences were found between the two groups in the importance of comfort,size/fit,quality,location of manufacturer,and appropriateness for campus wear as evaluative criteria.For the sample of consumers studied,compared to the Taiwanese consumers,United States consumers placed more importance on size/fit, comfort,and quality as evaluative criteria for the clothing item selected.On the other hand, Taiwanese consumers placed more importance on appropriateness for campus wear and where the garment was manufactured.These differences may,in fact,reflect differences in the cultural orientations of the respondents.Analyses indicated that no significant differences existed between the two groups in terms of the importance of style, coordination with other clothing,color,fabric,price,how pleasing it was to others,and brand name.For Taiwanese consumers we considered the possible influence of the
Confucian value of moderation on the importance placed on evaluative criteria such as price.However,this Confucian value did not appear to affect significantly the importance placed on the evaluative criteria investigated in this study,including the price criterion.
In general,Taiwanese women who participated in this study behaved in a similar way as United States women regarding rating the importance of clothing evaluative criteria.In addition,the order of the mean importance scores of the12clothing criteria was similar between the two groups.These findings are consistent with previous research results reported by Hsiao(1993)who found similar rankings of evaluative criteria between Taiwanese and United States students,all of whom attended a United States university; respondents in Hsiao’s project were asked to consider the purchase of leisurewear.Results suggest that consumer decision-making of Taiwanese respondents may be similar to that of United States respondents for purchasing clothing.It may be that increased global communication and consumer interest have resulted in similar consumer decision-making.
This would explain why these two groups of students rated the importance placed on the clothing evaluative criteria similarly.The second objective of the study was to determine the most important clothing evaluative criterion used by Taiwanese and United States college women.Based upon mean importance scores,the evaluative criterion,size/fit (M:United States=6.69,Taiwan=6.29)was selected as the most important criterion of the12by respondents from both Taiwan and United States.
As international marketing of goods and services increases,cross-national comparison studies related to consumer decision-making(such as the present study)can provide valuable information to marketers in their development of international marketing strategies. Future research might be conducted regarding how consumers in various countries differ in terms of their use of intrinsic evaluative criteria(e.g.,quality of garment)as compared to extrinsic evaluative criteria(e.g.,brand name).In addition,research might address whether or not consumers in different countries differ in terms of internal and external product information search.Indeed,results of the present study suggest that the evaluative criteria used in consumer decision-making is similar between Taiwanese consumers and consumers in the United States.However,additional work is needed to compare consumers from different countries regarding other components of the consumer decision-making process. Collecting data in stores at the time of purchase would provide further evidence for the reliability of data based on consumers’recall.Only then will researchers who study
consumer decision-making be able to understand the degree of generalizability of studies using United States consumers to consumers in other countries.In addition,exploration of consumer decision-making processes among the multiple cultures within countries is also needed.By considering results from such studies,marketers could tailor marketing strategies that are consistent with the decision-making processes of consumers in different countries.
摘要
本文通过对119名台湾女大学生和美国女大学生服装购买意向和心理差异进行问卷调查，得出两国女大学生消费者在购买服装时心理决策过程的异同。在本次服装消费购买的意向和心理调查研究中，采用了12个比较常见的影响消费者服装购买决策的评价标准因素，每个因素按重要性依次有7个可供选择的标度，这12个因素分别是：服装面料、穿着舒适性、服装尺寸是否适合、服装缝制质量、服装制造商在行业内的地位、服装色彩、他人的评价、服装品牌、是否适合在校园穿着、服装价格、服装款式、搭配自己原有的服装。问卷调查表明，在影响自身服装购买意向和评价的标准上，台湾和美国的女大学生两个不同群体的评价标准是非常类似的，可见购买意向的形成标准具有普遍性。此外，在上述十二项影响购买意向或在购买时考虑的因素中，服装的尺寸是否适合被认为是最重要的标准。本文还对这两个不同的群体进行跨境比较从而得出比较研究的结论，着重提供了在消费者的购买决策过程中对消费者的购买意向会产生重要影响的信息，从而有助于服装品牌和制造商在市场营销中运用这些信息从而制定和发展国际营销战略。
关键词:消费者行为,消费者购买决策,评估标准,跨境
美国商品和商品服务在国际市场份额中的不断增长对美国经济的影响越来越大，为了在国际市场上获得进一步的成功，调查评估是非常必要的：即不同国家和地区的消费者对于美国的商品和商品服务到底是如何评价和如何进行衡量的？通过数年来多次广泛采样和调查研究，消费评估的模式模型已经初步制定，用以对消费者的购买意向和心理提供一个框架性的指导，并藉此预测消费心理学和行为学的复杂性。该模型系采用恩格尔、柯莱特、米尼阿德模式的消费决策来构建的（即恩格尔，布莱克威尔及米尼阿德于1995年提出的EKM模型），该EKM模型包括四个阶段的消费决策行为：（1）消费信息的获取；
（2）消费信息的处理；
（3）消费的决策过程；
（4）模型中的变量影响决策过程的模式；
在模型中，给出消费信息的获取阶段之前，个体需要形成消费需求的意向，这一意向导致其认为自身有必要进行相关的此项消费，一旦对于自身需要进行此项消费的意向形成，则个体即开始通过收集和搜索来获取消费的相关信息，“所谓的信息处理，其宏指涵盖的消费进程，包括信息的获取、对所获取信息的评估和判断，对评估判断完成后的相关信息进行储存、以及在进行具体的消费行为时重新从储存的信息中进行提取”（恩格尔等1995年发表的相关论文，第472页）。据此，消费信息的处理阶段有如下五个步骤：消费者对于该信息的首次接触，对于该信息的关注，进一步的理解，接受该信息所包含的内容，并最终保留该消费信息。而决策过程的阶段则有如下六个步骤：对自消费需求进行认可、开始搜索信息、在购买前对信息进行评估、购买行为决定、具体的消费行为和购买后对发生的消费行为的评价。而变量影响决策过程分为三类：一、环境造成的影响；二、个体间的差异造成的影响；三、心理决策过程差异造成的影响。这其中，环境因素包括消费者所处的文化氛围，所在的社会阶层，消费者的个人经历，消费者的家庭境况；而个体间的差异则包括消费者可利用的资源，消费的动机，消费者的知识，对于消费的态度，消费者的人格，价值观念和取向以及生活方式；心理决策过程的因素包括消费者对其获取的消费信息的处理，对信息的学习，以及随之而来的消费行为的变化。本研究旨在探讨这些因素间的互动和相关的关系。
文化对于消费者决策形成的影响和在模型中最终导致购买行为做出之间的联系在评估标准得到了进一步的展示，在购买行为发生前，对消费信息的评价进一步体现了这一点，在本研究中，如前文所述的使用EKM模型进行跨境的数据采集的样本可以说明这一问题和结论。
从消费者行为学的角度看，文化的含义，是指“一整套的价值观念，即包括有思想，实物和其他有意义的表意符号，以帮助人与人间进行沟通，解释和评价其作为社会成员的关系，以及对其他社会成员进行评判”（恩格尔语，见其1995年的论文，第611页）。根据恩格尔，布莱克韦尔和米尼阿德（1995年）的观点，文化对于消费者购买行为的影响，主要体现在影响人们购买产品的种类，及消费结构，个人的决策和消费信息的沟通上（同年论文第615页）。除此之外，“文化的影响差异可能会因国别的不同而不同”（罗伯逊，则林斯基，1984年论文，第555页）。因此，在本研究中，文化被广义的界定为某一个具体的国家根据恩格尔，布莱克韦尔和米尼阿德的论文所定义的文化。在本研究中，文化的种群选择和比较，是在台湾的消费者和美国的消费者间进行的。
这两个地区和国家被选定进行消费者群体比较的样本为主要有以下几个原因。首先，大多数消费者行为学的研究，包括大部分的研究试验方面的EKM消费模式的决策模型中采用的消费者样本来自美国。因此，考察研究的美国消费者，使我们能够比较本研究结果和这些以往的研究的异同。而台湾之所以入选，是因为它已经成为一个有吸引力的国际市场，其在二十世纪过去的四十多年间经济快速的经济增长，使市场经济学家认为：“台湾的市场虽然小”，但是却“以创纪录的惊人速度在进行经济增长，其强劲的消费需求，先进开放的市场准入，使其成为了一个对美国商品和服务而言特别有吸引力的市场”（杜饶克，桑德，狄维斯，杜瓦尔，1989年研究报告，第2页）。事实上，这一点也得到了验证，美国的货物和商业服务的出口，从1985年的47亿美元，到2000年快速飙升至2348亿美元（美国商务部，2001年统计报告）。这使得台湾成为美国的第七大出口市场（美国商务部，2001年）。此外，美台之间签署的贸易协议，例如美国和台湾在1998年达成的一部分协议规定了台湾加入世界贸易组织的“软件”方面所要做到的一系列承诺和权利，包括进入美国的货物和商品服务更加便利，这主要是通过减少对台湾的进口关税来实现的。因此，综合来说，台湾强大的经济实力，较为成熟的市场机制，使经济界认为，台湾是一个“对美国的经济和企业来说是一个极好的市场”（美国在台关系协会，2000年）。
在探讨消费者具体行为之前，对于消费者所处的国家、地域的文化特质是必须加以考量的因素。以台湾而论，台湾文化深深的受到了儒家传统的影响，特别是儒家思想中理想而适度的消费观念，这可能影响到了消费者如何评价台湾的服装消费。这种文化观念可能会体现在对价格与价值的评估上，同时，台湾的消费者具备理性而温和的消费支出观。然而，在开放的二十一世纪，随着这些儒家理想的消逝，炫耀性的消费观念逐渐在台湾萌生，这势必会影响台湾消费者的决策行为和理念。因此，通过比
较美国消费者与台湾消费者，我们可以更好地理解文化在影响消费者购买决策中的作用和体现。
本文是通过对119名台湾女大学生和美国女大学生在进行服装消费时的购买意向和心理差异进行问卷调查和综合评估，得出两国消费者在服装购买时心理决策过程的异同。在本次服装消费购买的意向和心理的调查研究中，采用了12个比较常见的影响消费者服装购买决策的评价标准因素，每个因素按重要性依次有7个可供选择的标度，这12个因素分别是：服装面料、穿着舒适性、服装尺寸是否适合、服装缝制质量、服装制造商在行业内的地位、服装色彩、他人的评价、服装品牌、是否适合在校园穿着、服装价格、服装款式、搭配自己原有的服装。问卷调查得出的结果表明，在影响自身服装购买意向和评价的标准上，台湾和美国的女大学生的两个不同群体的评价标准是非常类似的，可见购买意向的形成标准具有普遍性。此外，在上述十二项影响购买意向或在购买时考虑的因素中，服装的尺寸是否适合被认为是最重要的标准，对这两个不同的群体进行跨境比较从而得出比较研究的结论，着重提供了在消费者的购买决策过程中对消费者的购买意向会产生重要影响的信息，从而有助于服装品牌和制造商在市场营销中运用这些信息从而制定和发展国际营销战略。因此，在本研究中12项评价标准选取的重要性是显而易见的。这12项评估标准是通过查阅先前做过调查的研究者的文献，再从中挑选出消费者在做购衣决策时认为最重要的、使用最频繁的因素进行筛选制定的。
目前，已有一些关于服装购买评价标准的跨国比较的研究，李和伯恩斯1993发现美国和韩国的女性大学本科生在服装购买评价标准上有着显著的区别。在这项研究中，结果表明，美国女大学生对于时装的吸引力比韩国女大学生更为看重。此外，夏（1993）研究了在美国的台湾和美国女大学生，发现两组人有相似的服装购买评价标准。然而，在夏的研究中，他的主要研究对象是居住在美国1到4年的女大学生。
因此，在本次研究中，我们试图更好地了解文化的影响在消费者的决策和更深入的消费信息的评判中所起到的作用，更具体地说，本次研究的目的重在探讨文化的影响在台湾和美国女大学生做服装购买决策过程中的重要性。以下是研究目标：1调查和比较美国和台湾女大学生在购买一件具体的服装时所用的评价标准。
2找出美国和台湾女大学生在购买一件具体的服装时所用的最重要的评价标准。1方法
市场营销策略外文文献及翻译 Marketing Strategy Market Segmentation and Target Strategy A market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.However,within most markets the buyer' needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding which segments will be pursued ads target markets. Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also,it allows a small company to compete effectively by concentrating on one or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,mass-market strategy.However, if the market is correctly segmented,the better fit with customers' needs will actually result in greater efficiency. The three alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single segment,and multiple segment.Market-aggregation strategy involves using one marketing mix to reach a mass,undifferentiated market.With a single-segment strategy, a company still uses only one marketing mix,but it is directed at only one segment of the total market.A multiple-segment strategy entails
Unit 1 A Young Boy’s Ambition 一个小男孩的梦想 马克吐温 1.我小的时候，我们那密西西比河西岸的村镇上，玩伴们都只有一个永恒的志愿。那就是当轮船上的水手。我们也有其他种种暂时的愿望，可是那都只是暂时性的。马戏团来到的时候和走了之后，总是使我们大家都燃起火热的希望，想当小丑；第一次到我们那带地方来的黑人游唱团使我们渴望着想试一试那种生活；我们不时还有一种希望，那就是，如果我们活在世上，品行挺好，上帝就会让我们当海盗。这些愿望，一个一个地都先后幻灭了；可是想当轮船上的水手这种志愿却始终保持下来了。 2. 一艘简陋而外表华丽的定班轮船从圣路易斯开上来，另一艘从奇阿库克往下游开，每天都要来到这里一次。在这些大事出现之前，这一天使人充满了期望，显得光辉灿烂：这些大事过了之后，时光就变得死气沉沉，空空洞洞了。不仅孩子们有这种感觉，整个村镇都是一样。如今事隔多年，我仍旧能在心中描绘往日的情景，完全像当时那样：夏天早晨，白色的村镇在阳光中打盹；街上是空荡荡的，几乎一个人都没有：水街的杂货铺前面坐着一两个店员，他们把那木条椅面的椅子翘起来，靠在墙上，下巴顶在胸前，帽子垂下遮着脸，打着瞌睡一他们身边有许多削木瓦的碎片，这就说明是什么事情把他们累坏了：一只母猪和一窝猪仔在人行道上闲荡着，痛痛快快地啃着西瓜皮和瓜子：两三个孤零零的小货物堆在“码头”上闲置着；石头铺的起卸码头的坡上有一堆“垫木”，镇上的流浪醉汉就在这木堆近旁酣睡着；码头上端有两三只平底木船，可是那拍打着这些船的小浪的柔和声响，却没有人倾听；伟大的密西西比河，壮丽、辉煌的密西西比河，让它那一英里宽的洪流滚滚奔腾下去，在阳光中放出闪光；河对岸的远处是茂密的森林；村镇上游的“地角”和下游的“地角”截断了河上景色的视线，把它变成了一片海面，而且这海面还是风光明媚、沉寂而幽静的。随后有一股黑烟在远处的一个“地角”上空升腾起来；立刻就有一个以眼睛特别快、嗓子特别响出名的黑人运货马车夫高声喊道：“火——轮——船——来了!”于是情况就变了!镇上那个醉汉翻身起来，那几个店员也醒了，随后就是运货马车的一阵狂暴的响声，每户人家和每个铺子里都涌出一股人流，转瞬之间，这个死气沉沉的村镇就热闹起来了、活动起来了。 3.运货马车和大车，男子汉和孩子，都从四面八方连忙赶到一个大家聚集的中心地点——码头上去。大家在那里集合之后，就把眼睛盯住那条开来的船，好像是注视他们第一次看到的一个稀奇东西一般。那条船也的确是相当美观。它又长又尖，收拾得又整洁、又漂亮。船上有两个高高的烟囱，顶上有些别致的花样——两个烟囱之间挂着一个金色的东西：还有一间别致的驾驶室，全是玻璃的，外表挺好看，其实并不值钱，驾凌后面的上层甲板之上；明轮罩也华丽非凡，那上面绘着图画，还在船名之上绘了一些金色的光带：锅炉甲板、顶层甲板和上层甲板周围都配置着干净的白栏杆；船头旗杆上神奇十足地飘着一面旗子：火炉的门是开着的，里面的火放射出熊熊的光来；上面的两层甲板黑压压地挤满了乘客；船长站在大钟旁边，神态镇静，挺有气派，他是大家羡慕的人物；大股大股的极黑的浓烟从烟囱里滚滚升腾起来一这是快到村镇之前，在火炉里添了一点多脂，特意造成的一种所费无几的威严气派；全体水手聚集在船头甲板上；宽阔的踏板在船头的舱门上面伸出船边很艮远，有一个令人羡慕的水手神气十足地站在它的尽头，手里拿着一卷绳子：憋住的蒸汽从活嘴里进出尖叫的声音；船长举起手来，一口钟发出响声，机轮就停住了：然后机轮又向后转动，搅得河水冒出许多泡沫，于是轮船就不动了。接着是乱得一团糟，大家争先恐后，有的抢着上船，有的抢着上岸，有的要上货，有的要卸货，都在这同一时刻里抢着干。大副们为了催大家赶快，拼命地嚷，拼命地骂，那一阵叫骂声真是凶得要命!十分钟之后，轮船又开走了，船头旗杆上再也没有旗子，烟囱里再也不冒黑烟了。再过10分钟，这个小镇上又是死气沉沉，镇上那个醉汉又回到那堆垫木旁边去睡着了。 4.我父亲是个治安法官，我以为他对一切的人都操着生杀之权，无论谁得罪了他，他都可以处以绞刑。一般来说，这么大的威风原是足以使我满意的；然而想到轮船上当水手的愿望却是仍旧不断地闯进我脑子里来。起初我想当一个船舱里的茶房，为的是能够系着白色的腰围出来，在船边上抖一抖餐桌布，好让我所有的老玩伴们看得见；后来我又想到，还不如做那个子里拿着一卷绳子、站在踏板尽头的水手，因为他是特别惹人注目的。但是这些念头都只是白日梦而已——要想把它们当成真有可能的事情来作打算，那却未免太高不可攀了。过了不久，我们那些孩子当中有一个跑掉了。他走了很久还没有；肖息。后来他终于
The smart grid Smart grid is the grid intelligent (electric power), also known as the "grid" 2.0, it is based on the integration, high-speed bidirectional communication network, on the basis of through the use of advanced sensor and measuring technology, advanced equipme nt technology, the advanced control method, and the application of advanced technology of decision support system, realize the power grid reliability, security, economic, efficient, environmental friendly and use the security target, its main features include self-healing, incentives and include user, against attacks, provide meet user requirements of power quality in the 21st century, allow all sorts of different power generation in the form of access, start the electric power market and asset optimizatio n run efficiently. The U.S. department of energy (doe) "the Grid of 2030" : a fully automated power transmission network, able to monitor and control each user and power Grid nodes, guarantee from power plants to end users among all the nodes in the whole process of transmission and distribution of information and energy bi-directional flow. China iot alliance between colleges: smart grid is made up of many parts, can be divided into:intelligent substation, intelligent power distribution network, intelli gent watt-hourmeter,intelligent interactive terminals, intelligent scheduling, smart appliances, intelligent building electricity, smart city power grid, smart power generation system, the new type of energy storage system.Now a part of it to do a simple i ntroduction. European technology BBS: an integration of all users connected to the power grid all the behavior of the power transmission network, to provide sustained and effective economic and security of power. Chinese academy of sciences, institute of electrical: smart grid is including all kinds of power generation equipment, power transmission and distribution network, power equipment and storage equipment, on the basis of the physical power grid will be modern advanced sensor measurement technology, network technology, communication
外文翻译 专业机械设计制造及其自动化学生姓名刘链柱 班级机制111 学号1110101102 指导教师葛友华
外文资料名称： Design and performance evaluation of vacuum cleaners using cyclone technology 外文资料出处：Korean J. Chem. Eng., 23(6), (用外文写) 925-930 (2006) 附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文 2.外文原文
应用旋风技术真空吸尘器的设计和性能介绍 吉尔泰金，洪城铱昌，宰瑾李， 刘链柱译 摘要：旋风型分离器技术用于真空吸尘器 - 轴向进流旋风和切向进气道流旋风有效地收集粉尘和降低压力降已被实验研究。优化设计等因素作为集尘效率，压降，并切成尺寸被粒度对应于分级收集的50％的效率进行了研究。颗粒切成大小降低入口面积，体直径，减小涡取景器直径的旋风。切向入口的双流量气旋具有良好的性能考虑的350毫米汞柱的低压降和为1.5μm的质量中位直径在1米3的流量的截止尺寸。一使用切向入口的双流量旋风吸尘器示出了势是一种有效的方法，用于收集在家庭中产生的粉尘。 摘要及关键词：吸尘器; 粉尘; 旋风分离器 引言 我们这个时代的很大一部分都花在了房子，工作场所，或其他建筑，因此，室内空间应该是既舒适情绪和卫生。但室内空气中含有超过室外空气因气密性的二次污染物，毒物，食品气味。这是通过使用产生在建筑中的新材料和设备。真空吸尘器为代表的家电去除有害物质从地板到地毯所用的商用真空吸尘器房子由纸过滤，预过滤器和排气过滤器通过洁净的空气排放到大气中。虽然真空吸尘器是方便在使用中，吸入压力下降说唱空转成比例地清洗的时间，以及纸过滤器也应定期更换，由于压力下降，气味和细菌通过纸过滤器内的残留粉尘。 图1示出了大气气溶胶的粒度分布通常是双峰形，在粗颗粒（>2.0微米）模式为主要的外部来源，如风吹尘，海盐喷雾，火山，从工厂直接排放和车辆废气排放，以及那些在细颗粒模式包括燃烧或光化学反应。表1显示模式，典型的大气航空的直径和质量浓度溶胶被许多研究者测量。精细模式在0.18?0.36 在5.7到25微米尺寸范围微米尺寸范围。质量浓度为2?205微克，可直接在大气气溶胶和 3.85至36.3μg/m3柴油气溶胶。
Computer Program 1 Introduction Computer Program, set of instructions that directs a computer to perform someprocessing function or combination of functions. For the instructions to be carried out, a computer must execute a program, that is, the computer reads the program, and then follow the steps encoded in the program in a precise order until completion. A program can be executed many different times, with each execution yielding a potentially different result depending upon the options and data that the user gives the computer. Programs fall into two major classes: application programs and operating systems. An application program is one that carries out somefunction directly for a user, such as word processing or game-playing. An operating system is a program that manages the computer and the various resources and devices connected to it, such as RAM,hard drives, monitors, keyboards, printers, and modems,so that they maybe used by other programs. Examples of operating systems are DOS, Windows 95, OS\2, and UNIX. 2 Program Development Software designers create new programs by using special applications programs, often called utility programs or development programs. A programmer uses another type of program called a text editor to write the new program in a special notation called a programming language. With the text editor, the programmer creates a text file, which is an ordered list of instructions, also called the program source file. The individual instructions that make up the program source file are called source code. At this point, a special applications program translates the source code into machine language, or object code— a format that the operating system
原文来源：李海宏《Marketing Customer Satisfaction》[A].2012中国旅游分销高峰论坛.[C].上海 Marketing Customer Satisfaction 顾客满意策略与顾客满意营销 Since the 20th century, since the late eighties, the customer satisfaction strategy is increasingly becoming business has more customers share the overall business competitive advantage means. 自20世纪八十年代末以来,顾客满意战略已日益成为各国企业占有更多的顾客份额,获得竞争优势的整体经营手段。 First, customer satisfaction strategy is to get a modern enterprise customers, "money votes" magic weapon 一、顾客满意策略是现代企业获得顾客“货币选票”的法宝 With the changing times, the great abundance of material wealth of society, customers in the main --- consumer demand across the material has a lack of time, the number of times the pursuit, the pursuit of quality time to the eighties of the 20th century entered the era of the end consumer sentiment. In China, with rapid economic development, we have rapidly beyond the physical absence of the times, the pursuit of the number of times and even the pursuit of quality and age of emotions today gradually into the consumer era. Spending time in the emotion, the company's similar products have already reached the same time, homogeneous, with the energy, the same price, consumers are no longer pursue the quality, functionality and price, but the comfort, convenience, safety, comfort, speed, jump action, environmental protection, clean, happy,
南京理工大学 毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译 教学点：南京信息职业技术学院 专业：电子信息工程 姓名：陈洁 学号： 014910253034 外文出处：《 Pci System Architecture 》 (用外文写) 附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。 指导教师评语： 该生外文翻译没有基本的语法错误，用词准确，没 有重要误译，忠实原文；译文通顺，条理清楚，数量与 质量上达到了本科水平。 签名： 年月日 注：请将该封面与附件装订成册。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文 64位PCI扩展 1.64位数据传送和64位寻址：独立的能力 PCI规范给出了允许64位总线主设备与64位目标实现64位数据传送的机理。在传送的开始，如果回应目标是一个64位或32位设备，64位总线设备会自动识别。如果它是64位设备，达到8个字节（一个4字）可以在每个数据段中传送。假定是一串0等待状态数据段。在33MHz总线速率上可以每秒264兆字节获取（8字节／传送＊33百万传送字／秒），在66MHz总线上可以528M字节／秒获取。如果回应目标是32位设备，总线主设备会自动识别并且在下部4位数据通道上（AD[31::00]）引导，所以数据指向或来自目标。 规范也定义了64位存储器寻址功能。此功能只用于寻址驻留在4GB地址边界以上的存储器目标。32位和64位总线主设备都可以实现64位寻址。此外，对64位寻址反映的存储器目标（驻留在4GB地址边界上）可以看作32位或64位目标来实现。 注意64位寻址和64位数据传送功能是两种特性，各自独立并且严格区分开来是非常重要的。一个设备可以支持一种、另一种、都支持或都不支持。 2.64位扩展信号 为了支持64位数据传送功能，PCI总线另有39个引脚。 ●REQ64#被64位总线主设备有效表明它想执行64位数据传送操作。REQ64#与FRAME#信号具有相同的时序和间隔。REQ64#信号必须由系统主板上的上拉电阻来支持。当32位总线主设备进行传送时，REQ64#不能又漂移。 ●ACK64#被目标有效以回应被主设备有效的REQ64#（如果目标支持64位数据传送），ACK64#与DEVSEL#具有相同的时序和间隔（但是直到REQ64#被主设备有效，ACK64#才可被有效）。像REQ64#一样，ACK64#信号线也必须由系统主板上的上拉电阻来支持。当32位设备是传送目标时，ACK64#不能漂移。 ●AD[64::32]包含上部4位地址／数据通道。 ●C/BE#[7::4]包含高4位命令/字节使能信号。 ●PAR64是为上部4个AD通道和上部4位C/BE信号线提供偶校验的奇偶校验位。 以下是几小结详细讨论64位数据传送和寻址功能。 3.在32位插入式连接器上的64位卡
西安工业大学北方信息工程学院毕业设计（论文）中期报告 题目：扬浦大桥毕业设计 系别：建筑工程系 专业：土木工程 班级：B100703 姓名：邵续辉 学号：B10070325 导师：王璐 外文出处：《PAUL QUIGLEY, FGS Irish Geotechnical Services Ltd》 附件：1、原文2、译文 2014年01月03日
Xecution Of Ground Investigation For Earthdesigh And Eworks PAUL QUIGLEY, FGS Irish Geotechnical Services Ltd ABSTRACT The design and execution of ground investigation works for earthwork projects has become increasingly important as the availability of suitable disposal areas becomes limited and costs of importing engineering fill increase. An outline of ground investigation methods which can augment ‘traditional investigation methods’ particularly for glacial till / boulder clay soils is presented. The issue of ‘geotechnical certification’ is raised and recommendations outlined on its merits for incorporation with ground investigations and earthworks. KAYWARDS：earthwork investgation geotechnical certification 1. INTRODUCTION The investigation and re-use evaluation of many Irish boulder clay soils presents difficulties for both the geotechnical engineer and the road design engineer. These glacial till or boulder clay soils are mainly of low plasticity and have particle sizes ranging from clay to boulders. Most of our boulder clay soils contain varying proportions of sand, gravel, cobbles and boulders in a clay or silt matrix. The amount of fines governs their behaviour and the silt content makes it very weather susceptible. Moisture contents can be highly variable ranging from as low as 7% for the hard grey black Dublin boulder clay up to 20-25% for Midland, South-West and North-West light grey boulder clay deposits. The ability of boulder clay soils to take-in free water is well established and poor planning of earthworks often amplifies this. The fine soil constituents are generally sensitive to small increases in moisture content which often lead to loss in strength and render the soils unsuitable for re-use as engineering fill. Many of our boulder clay soils (especially those with intermediate type silts and fine sand matrix) have been rejected at the selection stage, but good planning shows that they can in fact fulfil specification requirements in terms of compaction and strength. The selection process should aim to maximise the use of locally available soils and with careful evaluation it is possible to use or incorporate ‘poor or marginal soils’ within fill
中等分辨率制备分离的 快速色谱技术 W. Clark Still,* Michael K a h n , and Abhijit Mitra Departm(7nt o/ Chemistry, Columbia Uniuersity,1Veu York, Neu; York 10027 ReceiLied January 26, 1978 我们希望找到一种简单的吸附色谱技术用于有机化合物的常规净化。这种技术是适于传统的有机物大规模制备分离，该技术需使用长柱色谱法。尽管这种技术得到的效果非常好，但是其需要消耗大量的时间，并且由于频带拖尾经常出现低复原率。当分离的样本剂量大于1或者2g时，这些问题显得更加突出。近年来，几种制备系统已经进行了改进，能将分离时间减少到1-3h，并允许各成分的分辨率ΔR f≥（使用薄层色谱分析进行分析）。在这些方法中，在我们的实验室中，媒介压力色谱法1和短柱色谱法2是最成功的。最近，我们发现一种可以将分离速度大幅度提升的技术，可用于反应产物的常规提纯，我们将这种技术称为急骤色谱法。虽然这种技术的分辨率只是中等（ΔR f≥），而且构建这个系统花费非常低，并且能在10-15min内分离重量在的样本。4 急骤色谱法是以空气压力驱动的混合介质压力以及短柱色谱法为基础，专门针对快速分离，介质压力以及短柱色谱已经进行了优化。优化实验是在一组标准条件5下进行的，优化实验使用苯甲醇作为样本，放在一个20mm*5in.的硅胶柱60内，使用Tracor 970紫外检测器监测圆柱的输出。分辨率通过持续时间（r）和峰宽（w,w/2）的比率进行测定的（Figure 1），结果如图2-4所示，图2-4分别放映分辨率随着硅胶颗粒大小、洗脱液流速和样本大小的变化。
本科毕业设计（论文） ( 2012届) （外文翻译） 题目： 学院:__________ ____________ 专业:_________ 市场营销_____________ 班级:_________ ___________ 姓名:___________ ______________ 学号:________ __________ 指导老师:___________ ___________
原文题目：《市场定位策略》 作者：Powpaka Samart 原文出处:1999,Sasin Journal of Management,5,79-97 市场定位策略 定位的战略性角色 营销策略由两部分组成：目标市场战略和营销组合战略。目标市场战略三个过程组成：市场细分，目标（或目标市场选择），市场定位等。营销组合战略指的是创造一个独特的产品，分销，促销和定价策略（4PS）的过程，旨在满足客户的需求和希望。目标市场战略和营销组合策略有密切的联系，有很强的相互依存关系。目标市场战略是用来制订营销组合策略方针。 市场细分是把一个市场当中具有相似需求和特点、可能会对特定产品和特定的营销程序产生相似回应的人们，分成不同的客户的子集的过程。目标或目标市场的选择是一个或多个，通过评估每个细分市场，寻求利益的相对吸引力，而且该公司业务的相对优势。最后，定位是设计产品和发展战略营销计划，共同在目标市场建立一个持久的竞争优势的过程。 目标市场定位战略的概念是众所周知的，尤其是被大多数消费品营销从业者在制定市场营销组合策略有用作为非理论概念的方式。然而在实践中，营销人员往往绕过正式的定位，直接制定营销组合策略。这可能是由于这样的事实，这些经理们不知道如何获取感知图---表明这是一个客户原始需求的产品的位置。 本文的目的是展示营销从业者能够获得定位和营销组合策略制定的感知图的现实途径。具体来说，感知映射及其关系的定位总是被第一时间注意到。这是通过统计技术的讨论，可以遵循用于创建感知图。最后，通过因子分析定位过程的例子是证明。 目标市场战略 目标市场战略是确定一个（或多个目标市场）的过程和它的（或他们）独特的定位。目标市场策略包括：（1）市场细分，（2）市场选择，（3）市场定位。 市场细分。市场细分是一个分割成几部分或几个同质异构的潜在市场的进程。换句话说，在一个潜在的市场客户可能有不同的偏好。因此，使用产品和产品计划并不是一个有效和高效的办法。为了有效和有效率，管理者需要根据顾客的喜好对潜在顾客进行整合，根据该公司的实力，用独特的服务来满足其中一个或多个组别细分市场。另一种看待市场细分的方式是测试市场是否存在同质偏好或者需求差异性。良好的市场细分结果应具有以下特征的部分：（1）实体性（即：每个细分市场的容量足够大），（2）可盈利/可辨识/可测性（即每个段可在人口或消费心理特征方面的描述）（3）无障碍性（即媒体消费和
预测高速公路建设项目最终的预算和时间 摘要 目的——本文的目的是开发模型来预测公路建设项目施工阶段最后的预算和持续的时间。 设计——测算收集告诉公路建设项目，在发展预测模型之前找出影响项目最终的预算和时间，研究内容是基于人工神经网络(ANN)的原理。与预测结果提出的方法进行比较,其精度从当前方法基于挣值。 结果——根据影响因素最后提出了预算和时间，基于人工神经网络的应用原理方法获得的预测结果比当前基于挣值法得到的结果更准确和稳定。 研究局限性/意义——因素影响最终的预算和时间可能不同,如果应用于其他国家,由于该项目数据收集的都是泰国的预测模型,因此,必须重新考虑更好的结果。 实际意义——这项研究为用于高速公路建设项目经理来预测项目最终的预算和时间提供了一个有用的工具，可为结果提供早期预算和进度延误的警告。 创意/价值——用ANN模型来预测最后的预算和时间的高速公路建设项目,开发利用项目数据反映出持续的和季节性周期数据, 在施工阶段可以提供更好的预测结果。 关键词：神经网、建筑业、预测、道路、泰国 文章类型：案例研究 前言 一个建设工程项普遍的目的是为了在时间和在预算内满足既定的质量要求和其他规格。为了实现这个目标,大量的工作在施工过程的管理必须提供且不能没有计划地做成本控制系统。一个控制系统定期收集实际成本和进度数据,然后对比与计划的时间表来衡量工作进展是否提前或落后时间表和强调潜在的问题(泰克兹,1993)。成本和时间是两个关键参数，在建设项目管理和相关参数的研究中扮演着重要的角色，不断提供适当的方法和
工具，使施工经理有效处理一个项目，以实现其在前期建设和在施工阶段的目标。在施工阶段,一个常见的问题要求各方参与一个项目，尤其是一个所有者,最终项目的预算到底是多少?或什么时候该项目能被完成？ 在跟踪和控制一个建设项目时，预测项目的性能是非常必要的。目前已经提出了几种方法,如基于挣值技术、模糊逻辑、社会判断理论和神经网络。将挣值法视为一个确定的方法，其一般假设，无论是性能效率可达至报告日期保持不变，或整个项目其余部分将计划超出申报日期（克里斯坦森，1992；弗莱明和坎普曼，2000 ；阿萨班尼，1999；维卡尔等人，2000）。然而，挣值法的基本概念在研究确定潜在的进度延误、成本和进度的差异成本超支的地区。吉布利（1985）利用平均每个成本帐户执行工作的实际成本，也称作单位收入的成本，其标准差来预测项目完工成本。各成本帐户每月的进度是一个平均平稳过程标准偏差，显示预测模型的可靠性，然而，接受的单位成本收益在每个报告期在变化。埃尔丁和休斯（1992）和阿萨班尼（1999）利用分解组成成本的结构来提高预测精度。迪克曼和Al-Tabtabai（1992）基于社会判断理论提出了一个方法，该方法在预测未来的基础上的一组线索，源于人的判断而不是从纯粹的数学算法。有经验的项目经理要求基于社会判断理论方法的使用得到满意的结果。Moselhi等人（2006）应用“模糊逻辑”来预测潜在的成本超支和对建设工程项目的进度延迟。该方法的结果在评估特定时间状态的项目和评价该项目的利润效率有作用。这有助于工程人员所完成的项目时间限制和监控项目预算。Kaastra和博伊德（1996）开发的“人工神经网络”,此网络作为一种有效的预测工具，可以利用过去“模式识别”工作和显示各种影响因素的关系，然后预测未来的发展趋势。罗威等人（2006）开发的成本回归模型能在项目的早期阶段估计建筑成本。总共有41个潜在的独立变量被确定，但只有四个变量：总建筑面积，持续时间，机械设备，和打桩，是线性成本的关键驱动因素，因为它们出现在所有的模型中。模型提出了进一步的洞察了施工成本和预测变量的各种关系。从模型得到的估计结果可以提供早期阶段的造价咨询（威廉姆斯（2003））——最终竞标利用回归模型预测的建设项目成本。 人工神经网络已被广泛用在不同的施工功能中，如估价、计划和产能预测。神经网络建设是Moselhi等人（1991）指出，由Hegazy（1998）开发了一个模型，该模型考虑了项目的外在特征，估计加拿大的公路建设成本： ·项目类型 ·项目范围
盛年不重来，一日难再晨。及时宜自勉，岁月不待人。 机械设计理论 机械设计是一门通过设计新产品或者改进老产品来满足人类需求的应用技术科学。它涉及工程技术的各个领域，主要研究产品的尺寸、形状和详细结构的基本构思，还要研究产品在制造、销售和使用等方面的问题。 进行各种机械设计工作的人员通常被称为设计人员或者机械设计工程师。机械设计是一项创造性的工作。设计工程师不仅在工作上要有创造性，还必须在机械制图、运动学、工程材料、材料力学和机械制造工艺学等方面具有深厚的基础知识。如前所诉，机械设计的目的是生产能够满足人类需求的产品。发明、发现和科技知识本身并不一定能给人类带来好处，只有当它们被应用在产品上才能产生效益。因而，应该认识到在一个特定的产品进行设计之前，必须先确定人们是否需要这种产品。 应当把机械设计看成是机械设计人员运用创造性的才能进行产品设计、系统分析和制定产品的制造工艺学的一个良机。掌握工程基础知识要比熟记一些数据和公式更为重要。仅仅使用数据和公式是不足以在一个好的设计中做出所需的全部决定的。另一方面，应该认真精确的进行所有运算。例如，即使将一个小数点的位置放错，也会使正确的设计变成错误的。 一个好的设计人员应该勇于提出新的想法，而且愿意承担一定的风险，当新的方法不适用时，就使用原来的方法。因此，设计人员必须要有耐心，因为所花费的时间和努力并不能保证带来成功。一个全新的设计，要求屏弃许多陈旧的，为人们所熟知的方法。由于许多人墨守成规，这样做并不是一件容易的事。一位机械设计师应该不断地探索改进现有的产品的方法，在此过程中应该认真选择原有的、经过验证的设计原理，将其与未经过验证的新观念结合起来。 新设计本身会有许多缺陷和未能预料的问题发生，只有当这些缺陷和问题被解决之后，才能体现出新产品的优越性。因此，一个性能优越的产品诞生的同时，也伴随着较高的风险。应该强调的是，如果设计本身不要求采用全新的方法，就没有必要仅仅为了变革的目的而采用新方法。 在设计的初始阶段，应该允许设计人员充分发挥创造性，不受各种约束。即使产生了许多不切实际的想法，也会在设计的早期，即绘制图纸之前被改正掉。只有这样，才不致于堵塞创新的思路。通常，要提出几套设计方案，然后加以比较。很有可能在最后选定的方案中，采用了某些未被接受的方案中的一些想法。
中英文翻译 中文翻译： 顾客满意策略与顾客满意营销 自20世纪八十年代末以来,顾客满意战略已日益成为各国企业占有更多的顾客份额,获得竞争优势的整体经营手段。 一、顾客满意策略是现代企业获得顾客“货币选票”的法宝 随着时代的变迁,社会物质财富的极大充裕,顾客中的主体———消费者的需求也先后跨越了物质缺乏的时代、追求数量的时代、追求品质的时代,到了20世纪八十年代末进入了情感消费时代。在我国,随着经济的高速发展,我们也已迅速跨越了物质缺乏时代、追求数量的时代乃至追求品质的时
代,到今天也逐步迈进情感消费时代。在情感消费时代,各企业的同类产品早已达到同时、同质、同能、同价,消费者追求的已不再是质量、功能和价格,而是舒适、便利、安全、安心、速度、跃动、环保、清洁、愉快、有趣等,消费者日益关注的是产品能否为自己的生活带来活力、充实、舒适、美感和精神文化品位,以及超越消费者期望值的售前、售中、售后服务和咨询。也就是说,今天人们所追求的是具有“心的满足感和充实感”的商品,是高附加值的商品和服务,追求价值观和意识多元化、个性化和无形的满足感的时代已经来临。 与消费者价值追求变化相适应的企业间的竞争,也由产品竞争、价格竞争、技术竞争、广告竞争、品牌竞争发展到现今的形象竞争、信誉竞争、文化竞争和服务竞争,即顾客满意竞争。这种竞争是企业在广角度、宽领域的时空范围内展开的高层次、体现综合实力的竞争。它包括组织创新力、技术创新力、管理创新力、产业预见力、产品研发力、员工向心力、服务顾客力、顾客亲和力、同行认同力、社会贡献力、公关传播沟通力、企业文化推动力、环境适应力等等。这些综合形象力和如何合成综合持久的竞争力,这就是CS策略所要解决的问题。CS时代,企业不再以“自己为中心”,而是以“顾客为中心”；“顾客为尊”、“顾客满意”不再是流于形式的口号,而是以实实在在的行动为基础的企业经营的一门新哲学。企业不再以质量达标,自己满意为经营理念,而是以顾客满意,赢得顾客高忠诚度为经营理念。企业经营策略的焦点不再以争取或保持市场占有率为主,而是以争取顾客满意为经营理念。因此,营销策略的重心不再放在竞争对手身上而是放在顾客身上,放在顾客现实的、潜在的需求上。当企业提供的产品和服务达