现代语言学学习笔记
第一章、绪论Introduction
1、语言学的主要分支是什么。每个分支的研究对象是什么？
Linguistics mainly involves the following branches:
General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study
Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication Phonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used in communication Morphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words
Syntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences Semantics, which is the study of meaning in language.
Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of use Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to society Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.
Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.
Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.
2、现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？
Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language . It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.
3、什么叫共时研究？什么叫历时研究？
The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in rime, while a diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.
4、人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？
1) Arbitrariness 。It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word dog and the animal it refers to. The fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages and that the same sound may be used to refer to different objects is another good example. Although language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. Some words, such as the words created in the imitation of sounds by sounds are motivated in a certain degree. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.
2) Productivity 。Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of an infinitely large number of sentences, including those that they have never said or heard before.
3) Duality 。It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of individual and meaningless sounds, which can be grouped into meaningful units at the higher level. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.
4) Displacement 。It means that language can be used to talk about what happened in the past, what is happening now, or what will happen in the future. Language can also be used to talk about our real word experiences or the experiences in our imaginary world. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.
5) Cultural transmission 。While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.
5、Chomsky的语言能力和语言使用各指什么？
American linguist N. Chomsky in t he late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard. 6、Saussure 是如何区分语言和言语的？
The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are French words. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract;
It is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.
7、什么是语言学？
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.
8、口头语与书面语
Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following
reasons:
1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution
2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing
3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language
9、语言与言语
Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community
Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use
10、能力与运用
Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users’ knowledge of the rules of his language
Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication 11、几个术语
Prescriptive:aims to lay down rules for "correct" behaviour.
Descriptive:describe and analyzes the language people actually use.
Synchronic:the description of a language at some point in time.
Diachronic:the description of a language as it changes through time .
Synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.
langue: the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.
Parole: the realization of langue in actual use.
Competence: the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
12、Design features
American linguist Charles Hockett spedified 12 design features, five of which will be discussed here.
1) Arbitratiness。Difference sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. The language that imitate natural sounds and compound words are non-arbitrary words.It make up only a small ercentage of the total number of words used in a language.
2) Productivity.It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.
3) https://www.doczj.com/doc/b63385191.html,nguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. The lower or the basic level is a structure of meaningless sounds. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphimes and words.
4) https://www.doczj.com/doc/b63385191.html,nguages can be used to refer to context removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.
5) Cultural https://www.doczj.com/doc/b63385191.html,nguage is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.
13、名词解释
1 Linguisitics :Linguistics is generally defined as the scientic study of language
2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants
3 Phonology” : The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone.
4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher.
5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.”
6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things.
7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context.
8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language.
9、Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.
14.How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?
Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language . It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mainly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in an objective and scientific way.
15.How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?
The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.
16.Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?
First, the spoken form is prior to the written form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language.Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposes Finally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue.
17. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?
The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events.
Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.
18. How do you understand competence and performance ?
American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Cho msky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ugrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky,performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard. 19. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?
Although Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.
69.Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements
“photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.
第二章、语音学Phonetics
1、语言交际的两大媒介是什么？哪一个是基本的交际媒介？为什么？
Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form, because the spoken form is prior to the written form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language.
2、语音学的三个分支是什么。它们研究的对象各是什么？
Articulatory phonetics: It studies the human speech organs and the way in which thee speech sounds are produced.
Acoustic phonetics: It studies the physical properties of the speech sounds; it deals with the sound waves through the use of such machines as a spectrograph. Auditory phonetics is the study of the perception of sounds by the human ear.
3、什么叫浊音化？它是如何形成的？
V oicing is the result of the vibration of the vocal cords. When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a way are voiceless. When vocal cords are held together tautly so
that the air stream vibrates them, the sounds produced in this way are voiced.
4、宽式标音和严式标音有什么区别？
The broad transcription is the transcription of sounds by using one letter to represent one sound. The narrow transcription is the transcription with diacritics to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.
5、英语的辅音是如何分类的？
1) by place of articulation :
a. bilabial such as [p],[b],[m],[w]
b. labiodental such as [f],[v]
c. dental such as [θ],[T ]
d. alveolar such as [t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r]
e. palatal such as [∫], [V ],[ t∫], [dV ], [j]
f. velar such as [k], [g], [ N ]
g. glottal such as [h]
2) by manner of articulation.
a. Stops such as [p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g]
b. Fricatives such as [f],[v],[s],[z],[ θ],[ T ], [∫], [ V], [h]
c. Afficates such as [t∫], [dV ]
d. Liquids such as [l], [r]
e. Nasals such as [n],[m],[N]
f. Glides such as [w], [j]
6、英语的元音是如何分类的？
1) V owels may be distinguished as front vowels such as [i:] [i] [e] [A] [a], central vowels such as [\:], [[],[Q]and back vowels such as[u:] [J] [ C:] and [B:] in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.
2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels such as [i:],[ i],[u:],[J], semi-close vowels such as[e], [з: ] , semi-open vowels such as [ [ ], [ C: ] , and open vowels such as [?], [a], [Λ] and [ɑ:].
3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.
4) The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound. The long vowels include [i:] [\:] [ C: ] [u:] [ɑ:]，while the rest are short vowels.
7、语音学和音系学有什么区别？
They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
8、音素、音位和音位变体有什么区别？
Phones are the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.; some do, some don’t. A phoneme is a basic unit in phonology; it is a unit that is of dist inctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not a sound, but a collection of distinctive phonetic features. In actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.
9、什么是超音位特征？它是如何影响语义的？
1) The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and im`port. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compund noun a a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.
2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives , adverbs,etc are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence “He is driving my car.” for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.
3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.
10、什么叫音位对立？什么叫互补分布？什么是最小对立对？
If two phonetically similar sounds can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast. If two phonetically similar sounds are two allophones of the same phoneme and they occur in different environments, they are said to be in complementary distribution.
11、复合词有什么特点？
Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.
12、What is Phonitics
the study of the phonic medium of language. It is concernt with all the sounds that occur in the world's language.The three branchs of phonetics: articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, and acoustic phonetics. Articulatory phonetics is the longest established, and until recently the most highly developed. Acoustic phoneticians discovered that the repetitions of what might be heard as the same utterance are
physically identically only by coincidence, and they also confirmed that the speech is made up of continuous bursts of sounds.
Three important cavities: pharyngeal cavity - throat, the oral cavity - the mouth, the nasal cavity - the nose.
13、Phonology and phonetics
The difference between phonology and phonetics: phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human language. phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language.
14、Phone, phoneme, and allophone
Definition of phone[音素]: can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.
Phoneme[音位]: it is the basic unit in phonology and is of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit.To be exact, a phoneme is not a sount, it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.
Allophone[音位变体]: in actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic enviorments are called the allophone of that phoneme.
15、Phonemic contrast, complemently distribution, and minimal pair 音位对立，互补分布和最小对立对
Phonemic contrast: two phonemes can occur in the same enviorments and they distinguish meaning.
Complemently distribution:two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.
Minimal pairs: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.
16、Some rules in phonology
1、Sequential rules[序列规则]。Definition: the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.
2、Assimilation rules[同化规则].The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by "copying" a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.
3、Deletion rule[省略规则]。
17、uprasegmental features - stress, tone, intonation 超切分特征-重音，声调，语调
Definition of suprasegment featrues: distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features.
1、Stress.Word stress: the syllable is pronounced with greated force that the other or others.
sentence stress: refers to the relative foce which is given to the words in a sentence. 2、Tone.Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.
3、Intonation.It plays a important role in the conveyance of meaning in amlost every
language. English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone.
Different ways to divide the same sentence into intonation units give rise to different meanings.
18、Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.
19、Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.
20、Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking
a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t.
21、Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value.
22、allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.
23、Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in compkenebtary distribution.
24、Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.
25、Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others.
26、tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature.
27、intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English
第三章、形态学Morphology
1、词素可以划分成哪些类别？
Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”.
Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes ca n be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word
such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Deriv ational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless”.
2、Definition.
Morphology[词态学]: study the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
It has two sub-branches: Inflectional morphology[曲折词态学]：study the inflection；
Lexical[词汇] or derivational[派生] morphology: study of word-formation Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language
Roots: is seen as part of word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must be combine with another root or an affix to form a word.
Affixes are of two types: inflectional[曲折词缀] and derivational[派生词缀].Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. Derivational affixes: are added to an existing form to creat a word. such a way of word-formation is called derivation[派生法] and the new word formd by derivation is called a derivative[派生词]. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem[词干].
Affixes are divied into two kinds: prefixes[前缀] and suffixes[后缀]. Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, except the prefixes "be-",and "en-". Suffixes modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.
3、Features of compounds
1) Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words.
2) Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element.
3) Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meaning of its components.
4) phonetically, the stess of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.
4、morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
5、inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.
6、derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.
7、morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.
8、free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselces or in combination with other morphemes.
9、bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used
independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.
10、root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.
11、affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.
12、prefix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.
13、suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.
14、derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to creat a word.Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form nes words. 15、compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to creat new words.
16、Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes:
They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound,to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itsel f although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless”.
第四章、句法学Syntax
1、linguistic competence: Comsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
2、sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.
3、transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of
a sentence.
4、D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.
5、Move а: Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i,e. the X-bar
schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move а
6、什么是X-标杆理论?
X-bar theory is a general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrasal structure rules into a single format: X″→(Spec) X (Compl). In this format, Spec stands for specifier while Compl stands for complement. This theory is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories, i.e. NP, VP, AP, PP, across the languages of the world.
7、英语的句子中的三种基本类型是什么？
Traditionally, three major types of sentences are distinguished. They are simple sentence, coordinate or compound sentence and complex sentence. (1) A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. For example, ①John reads extensively. ②Mary decided to take a linguistic class the next semester. Each of the two sentences contains a single clause and can stand structurally independent. (2) A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”. The two clauses in a coordinate sentence are structurally equal parts of the sentence; neither is subordinate to the other. For example, ③John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. ④John likes linguistics, but Mary is interested in history. (3) A complex sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence have unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinate, clause is normally called an embedded clause, and the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix sentence. For example, ⑤Mary told Jane [that John liked linguistics]. ⑥[That John likes linguistics] puzzles everyone. ⑦Mary showed interest in linguistics [after John gave her a lecture]. In the above three examples, the clauses in the square brackets are embedded clauses. They are subordinate to the clauses outside the brackets which are called matrix clauses.
8、Sentence structure
The basic components of a sentence.Nomarly a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or verb phrase.
The referring expression is grammatically called subject.The part of a sentence which comprise a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate.
Types of sentences：simple sentence, coordinate(compound) sentence[复合句]，complex sentence
1、The simple sentence。A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone is known as a finite clause[定式从句].
2、The coordinate sentence.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction[并列连词]. The two clauses in a coordinate sentence are structurally equal parts of the sentence.
3、The complex sentence.The incorporated, or subordinate, clause is normally called an embedded clause[从句], and the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix
clause[主句].
1）An embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause.
2）Most embedded clauses require an introductory word called a subordinator[从属连词].
3）An embedded clause may not function as a grammatically well-formed sentence if it stands imdependently as a simple sentence unless its form changes.
9、The hierarchical structure of a sentence.Sentences are organized with words of the same syntacitc catigory, such as noun phrase(NP) or verb phrase(VP), grouped together.
10、Syntactic categories
Words and phrases are organized according to the syntactic categories they belong to.
Lexical category[词类]and phrasal category[词组类]. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntatic category.[可以相互替换而又不改变语法属性的成分属于同一句法类型。] Lexical categories.Major lexical categories are open categories in the sense that new words are constantly added. Minor lexical categories are closed categories because the number of the lexical items in these categories is fixed and no new members are allowed for.English has four major lexical categories and six minor lexical categories. Major: noun, verb, adjective, adverb Minor: determiner[限定词], auxiliary[助动词]，preposition, pronoun, conjunction, and interjection[感叹词]
Phrasal categories.In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase(NP), verb phrase(VB), prepositional phrase(PP), and adjecive phrase(AP).
Grammatical relations.Grammatical relations: Awareness of a distinction between the structural and logical functional relations of constituents. We usually refer to the grammatical relations as subject of and direct object of. structural subject[结构主语] and structural object[结构宾语] Only in terms of structural concepts,the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.logical subject[逻辑主语] means the doer of the action.logical object[逻辑宾语] means the rcipient of the action.
11、Combinational rules
Phrase structure rules
The combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule[重写规则].
1) S -> NP VP .The arrow is read as "consist of ", or "is rewritter as". The rule in 1) is read as "A sentence consist of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase."
2) NP -> (Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S) "A noun phrase consist of, or is rewritten as an optional determiner, an optional adjective, an obligatory[必用的] noun, an optional prepositional phrase, and /or optional sentence.
3) VP -> V(NP)(PP)(S)
4) AP -> A(PP)(S)
5) PP -> P NP
The recursiveness of phrase structure rules [短语结构规则的循环性] .Recursive
properties: An S contains a VP that may contain another S; a VP may inclued an S that contains another VP; a PP consists of an NP that may be followed by another PP; and an NP may take a PP that includes an NP and/or a S!
12、X-bar theory
XP -> (Spec[指示词]) X (Compl[补语]) A format using the symbol" (read as double bar) and '(read as single bar) can then be abstracted, given both in a tree diagram (见课本81页) and in a formula (7)
7) X" -> Spec X'
X' -> X Compl
13、Synatactic movement and movement rules[句法位移和移位规则]
Synatactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new positon. Synatactic movement is dictated by rules traditonall called transformational rules[转换规则].
NP-movement and WH-movement
NP-movement occur when a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice.
WH-movement is obligatory[强制性的] in English which changes a sentencd from affirmative to interrogative.
14、D-structure and S-structure
A sentencd may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement takes place, named D-structure (or the deep structure[深层结构])，the other occurs after movement takes place named S-structure (roughly meaning the surface sturcture[表层结构])
Transformational-generative line of analysis: it is believed that phrase structure rules with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure, while the application of synatctic movement rules transforms a sentence from the level of D-structure to that of S-sturcture.
phrase structure rules + the lexicon ----> D-structure ----> movement rules ----> S-structure
15、Move α-- a general movement rule 。Move α(or move Alpha) is move certain constituent to certain place.
16、Toward a theory of universal grammar[普遍语法理论]
Since early 1980s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar(UG)[普遍语法] known as the Principles-and-parameters theory.[原则及参数理论]
General principles of Universal Grammar。One such principle, or conditon, is the case condition[格条件]. As is required by the case conditon principle, a noun phrase must have case and case is assigned by V(verb) or P(preposition) to the object position, or by AUX(auxiliary) to the subject position.
Another condition is what is known as the Adjacency condition[毗邻条件] on case assignment, which states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.
The parameters of Universal Grammar。Adjacency parameter[毗邻参数]: UG is
believed to contain a parameter with the values [+strict adjacency] and [- strict adjacency] set on the Adjacency Condition.
Another parameter, the one that involves word order, concerns the directionality of Case assignment, known as the Directionality parameter.[方位参数] Two directionality values [rightward directionality]左向位and [leftward directionality] 右向位。
17、linguistic competence: Comsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
18、sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.
19、transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of
a sentence.
20、D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.
21、Move а: Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i,e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move а
22、syntax studies the sentence structure of language.
23、Types of sentences
simple sentence, coordinate(compound) sentence[复合句]，complex sentence
第五章、语义学Semantics
1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.
2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.
3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
4 synonymy : Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.
5 polysemy : Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.
6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.
7 homonymy : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.
9 componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.
10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality,i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of asentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.
11 semantic meaning : The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.
12 predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.
13、语义研究的主要流派有哪些？
1) The naming theory: It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.
2) The conceptualist view: It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.
3) Contextualism: It is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized:the situational context and the linguistic context .For example, the meaning of the word "seal" in the sentence "The seal could not be found" can only be determined according to the context in which the sentence occurs: The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried.
(seal meaning an aquatic mammal) The seal could not be found. The king became worried.
(seal meaning the king's stamp)
4) Behaviorism The contextualist view was further strengthened by Bloomfield . He drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of linguistic forms. Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as " the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer". (Bloomfield, This behaviorist theory is somewhat close to contextualism. It is linked with psychological interest.
14、所指与意义有什么关系？
Sense and reference are two terms in the study of meaning. (1) Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning that dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. (2) Obviously, linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. On the other hand, there are less frequent occasions when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense, e.g. “morning star” and “evening star”.
15、同义词可以分为哪些类别？
Dialectal synonyms : Dialectal synonyms are words which have more or less the
same meaning and are used in different regional dialects such as petroleum in British English and gasoline in American English. Dialectal synonyms can also be found within British, or American English itself. For example, "girl" is called "lass" or "lassie" in Scottish dialect.
Stylistic synonyms: Stylistic synonyms are words which have the same meaning but differ in style, or degree of formality. Some of the stylistic synonyms tend to be more formal , others tend to be casual , and still others are neutral in style. For example:old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent.
Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning :They are words that have the same meaning but express different emotions of the user. The emotions of the user indicate the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about, such as thrifty and miser.
Collocational synonyms : Some synonyms differ in their collocation. That is, they go together with different words, for example: accuse. . . of, charge. . . with, rebuke. .-for.
Semantically different synonyms: They refer to the synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean. For example, "amaze" and "astound" are very close in meaning to the word "surprise," but they have very subtle differences in meaning. While amaze suggests confusion and bewilderment, " astound" imples difficulty in believing. " 16、在语义上，反义关系可以分为哪几个类别？各有什么特征？
1) gradable antonys: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair such as old/young, hot/cold. 2) Complementary antonyms: a pair of complementary antonyms is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.
3) Relational opposites: pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.
17、什么是述谓结构？它有那些类型？
The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. This applies to all forms of sentence, including statements, imperative and interrogative forms. A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence. A predicate is something that is said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.
According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, the predications may be classified into two-place predication (containing two arguments), one-place argument (containing one argument), and no-place predication ( containing no argument). For example:
His car is next to my car. (Two-place predication)
He is singing. (One-place predication)
It is raining. (No-place predication)
18、句子的意义是构成句子的每个单词意义的总和吗？
The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components. It cannot be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent
words. Eg; The dog bit the man. The man bit the dog.
The two sentences consist of exactly the same words, but they arc widely different in their meanings.
19、语义变化的主要类型有哪些？
Semantic change refers to the change of meaning of a word. The major types of semantic change are as follows: (1) Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier denota tion. For example, the word “holiday” was originally used to mean a day of religious significance because it was a “holy day”. Today everyone enjoys a holiday, whether he or she is religious or not. (2) Semantic narrowing is the reverse process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning. For example, the word “liquor” in contemporary English is an alcoholic drink, but it was once synonymous with “liquid”, be it alcoholic or not.
(3) Semantic shift refers to the process in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related meaning, e.g. the word “silly”. Quite surprisingly, a “silly” person was a happy person in Old English, and a naive person in Middle English, but a foolish person in Modern English.
第六章语用学Pragmatics
1 pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
2 context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.
3 utterance meaning: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
4 locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.
5 illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act expr essing the speaker’s intention; It is the act performed in saying something.
6 perlocutionary act: A illocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.
7、语用学和传统语义学有什么区别？
Pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context of use, while traditional semantics treats meaning as something intrinsic, abstract and de-contextualized.
8、句子和话语有什么区别？
A sentence is a grammatical unit. Its meaning is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. Utterance is what people actually utter in the course of communication. It should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered or used. Most utterances take the form of sentences, i.e. most utterances are complete sentences in terms of syntax; however,
some utterances are not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.
9、句子的语义与话语语义有什么区别？
The meaning of a sentence is abstract and de-contextualized, while the meaning of an utterance is concrete and context-dependent. Utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
10、言内行为、言外行为和言后行为有什么区别，举例说明。
A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. For example: You have left the door wide open.
The locutionary act performed by the speaker is that he has uttered all the words " you,' " have," " door," " left," " open," etc. and expressed what the word literally mean. The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance, he has expressed his intention of asking the hearer to close the door. The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer understands that the speaker intends him to close the door and closes the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutiohary act is successfully performed .
11、Searle是如何对言外行为进行分类的？它们各自的言外之的是什么？
1) Representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.
2) Directives: trying to get the hearer to do something.
3) Commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action.
4) Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.
5) Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something.
12、合作原则的四个准则是什么？违反合作原则的四个准则是如何产生会话含义的？
1)The maxim of quantity
(1) Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange) .
(2) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
2) The maxim of quality
(1) Do not say what you believe to be false.
(2) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
3)The maxim of relation
Be relevant.
4)The maxim of manner
(1) Avoid obscurity of expression.
(2) Avoid ambiguity.
(3) Be brief ( avoid unnecessary prolixity) .
(4) Be orderly.
13、What is context?
It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various components of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before; knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker's use of language and also the hearer's interpretation of what is said to him.
14、Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning句子意义和话语意义
If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation from context, then we are treating it as a sentence.
If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.
The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualizd, that of an utterance is concrete, and context dependent.
15、Searle's classification of speech acts Searle's的言语行为分类
1. representatives（阐述类）: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true
2. directives（指令类）: trying to get the hearer to do something
3. commissives（承诺类）: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action
4. expressives（表述类）: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state
5. declarations（声明类）: bringing about immediate changes by saying something
第九章、心理语言学psycholinguistics
1、psycholinguistics:Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the suggests, psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend.
2、cerebral cortex: The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral cortex.
3、brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive of cognitive and percpetual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.
4、linguistic lateralization: In their research of brain lateralization, psycholinguistics are particulary interested in linguistic lateralization, which is the brain’s neurological specialization for language.
5、dichotic listening: Evidence in support of lateralization for language in the left hemisphere comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks
6、right ear advantage: Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than
全国 2018 年 1 月自学考试现代语言学试题 课程代码： 00830 I . Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C, or D in the brackets. ( 2%×10=20% ) 1. The language behavior of particular persons on particular occasions is determined by many other factors over and above their linguistic ______. () A. system B. structure C. competence D. performance 2. When we pronounce the long vowels [i:] or [u:], our ______, which is a bony structure at the end of the windpipe, is in a state of tension. () A. larynx B. hard palate C. glottis D. vocal cords 3. The word “ manuscript ” is a two-morpheme cluster which contains ______. () A. two roots B. a root and a prefix C. a root and a suffix D. a root and a free morpheme 4. The grammatical knowledge is represented through Phrase Structure Rules,which state explicitly all and only the possible combinations of the ______ of a language, for example, in English, NP→ ( Det ) (Adj) N (PP) (S).) A. phrases B. clauses C. sentences D. constituents 5. The view that the meaning of a linguistic form is defined as the“ situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer ” was proposed by ______. () A. Plato B. Ogden and Richards C. John Firth D. Bloomfield 6. According to John Austin's theory of speech act, a(n) ______ act is the change brought about by the utterance. () 1
读书笔记是开始进行学术研究的第一步，好的读书笔记会为今后的研究不仅积累了资料，更重要的是理性地归纳、认识了所读之书的主要内容和主要观点。 读书笔记的内容之一：作者、典籍的自然情况。 读书笔记的内容应该包括关于所读之书的作者、成书背景等自然资料。鉴于我国古代典籍，特别是秦汉典籍的特殊情况，对于那个时代的典籍的作者、成书经过等都成为学术研究的重要课题。对这方面的了解有助于更好地理解原著。 读书笔记的内容之二：主要内容 对所读之书的主要内容进行归纳和总结是读书笔记的核心内容。这部分不应该是原著的简单摘录，而是按照一定的理性逻辑对原著的内容进行分类、归纳、总结。这显示了读者对原著理解的程度。 读书笔记的内容之三：心得体会 这是在对主要内容归纳整理之后，在自己平时知识积累的基础之上，对原著的升华性认识，往往带有读者的主观认识、评价等。如果平时知识积累单薄，则这部分很难有创见。 下面贴了一篇我自己针对这课作业而写的读书笔记，写作时间匆忙，难免有错误，希望给我指正，不胜感激。 很高兴同学们能够对一门选修课这样认真，按照老师的要求去准备作业。但是，随着同学们作业的进展，我又发现了一个问题——怎样读书？ 选择什么样的书？ 对于这个读书笔记，同学们首先面临的就是读什么书的问题。这个作业要求读中国古代的原典著作，主要是关于思想、历史的著作，不包括文学著作。如秦汉诸子、二十四史、文人笔记等。有的同学读了有关中国文化史的现代人的专著，如中国园林文化史、中国服饰文化史、中国建筑文化史等。这一类的书的读书笔记作为我们这门课的结课作业不被接受。其原因请参看有关中国文化史作业说明（二）。
选择什么样的版本？ 有的同学看书很快，尽然在几天之内把《论语》《孟子》看完了！我很诧异，原来他们看的是现代人的译注。其实我们读古书的目的就是要知道古人的想法、古人的生活方式，现代人的译注一方面离古人生活的时代过于遥远，另一方面这些都经过了现代人对原著的解码和编码的过程，已经不是原典了。所以好的版本很重要。这里向同学们推荐中华书局、上海古籍出版社出版的书。另外对于秦汉诸子推荐《十三经注疏》、《新诸子集成》，历史著作推荐中华书局出的绿皮的那套二十四史。 如何阅读？ 选定了书之后，应该完整地阅读。由于时间的关系，有些书不可能在短时间内读完，那么可以选择其中完整的篇目或完整的一部分，不能根据自己的主观臆断有选择地、挑着读。如，有个同学读《论语》，想写关于《论语》中“仁”的思想，就将《论语》用电脑检索的方法，把带“仁”字的句子挑出来读。这是不行的，尽管《论语》难成篇章，但其篇目还是有一定的完整性，不能割裂来读。 认真读书的最终受益者是同学们自己，希望同学们能过认真读书。为了作业而读书，这不是我的初衷。 第一个问题：这次作业要求同学们阅读中国古代的原典，就你所阅读的文章写篇读书笔记。 阅读原典是开始学术研究的第一步。也许，同学们都已经习惯于阅读一些现代人的著作，并从中得到学习和启发，这固然不错，但是于研究而言，是要有一定的方法的，从阅读原典开始是我们进行专业训练的第一步。就如同打乒乓球，也许你自己打得可以了，但在行家看来，你没有专业训练，你的打法是野路子，业余时间玩玩可以，但是要想参加正式比赛，这种打法是没有前途的。同样的，看别人的著作，固然可以写出不错的文章，但于真正的学术研究是没有前途的。现在，要求同学们阅读原典，写读书笔记，就是在学习专业打法，从头来，把你的野路子扔掉，从基本功练起。把从别人那里得来的条条框框扔掉，就你所读的文章本身而言，你到底看到什么，就写什么，没有读过的就别写，尤其是那些道听途说的、转引自他人著作中的东西。 别再谈什么，从某某中看中国古代的什么什么文化之类的东西。
不用买参考书了！大学课本答案网址大全！留着绝对有用，赶紧转吧！ ?分享 ?复制地址 转载自郑静 2010年10月13日 00:13 阅读(1) 评论(0) 分类：为人处世权限: 公开 ?字体：大▼ o小 o中 o大 ?更多▼ o设置置顶 o权限设置 o推荐日志 o转为私密日志?删除 ?编辑 不用买参考书了！大学课本答案大全！--爱死你了！（为什么大四才发现啊）2008-12-18 16:50 |(分类:默认分类)注册可用 公共课程 https://www.doczj.com/doc/b63385191.html,/forum-6-1.html 新视野大学英语读写教程第四册答案 https://www.doczj.com/doc/b63385191.html,/thread-7-1-1.html 新视野大学英语读写教程第三册答案 https://www.doczj.com/doc/b63385191.html,/thread-6-1-1.html 新视野大学英语读写教程第二册答案 https://www.doczj.com/doc/b63385191.html,/thread-5-1-1.html 新视野大学英语读写教程第一册答案 https://www.doczj.com/doc/b63385191.html,/thread-4-1-1.html 新视野大学英语视听说答案3-2 https://www.doczj.com/doc/b63385191.html,/thread-175-1-1.html 新视野大学英语视听说答案3-1 https://www.doczj.com/doc/b63385191.html,/thread-174-1-1.html 《马克思主义基本原理概论》习题答案参考 https://www.doczj.com/doc/b63385191.html,/thread-13-1-1.html 全新版大学英语听说教程mp3下载 https://www.doczj.com/doc/b63385191.html,/thread-11-1-1.html 《马克思主义基本原理概论》复习思考题参考答案
2010年1月现代语言学自考试题 全国2010年1月自考 现代语言学试题 课程代码：00830 I . Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C, or D in the brackets. （2% 10=20% ） 1. The language behavior of particular persons on particular occasions is determined by many other factors over and above their linguistic ______. （）A. system B. structure C. competence D. performance 2. When we pronounce the long vowels [i:] or [u:], our ______, which is a bony structure at the end of the windpipe, is in a state of tension. （） A. larynx B. hard palate C. glottis D. vocal cords 3. The word “manuscript” is a two-morpheme cluster which contains ______. （） A. two roots B. a root and a prefix
教师读书计划 教师读书计划 第一篇： 教师读书计划 教师个人读书计划 丁保中 霍姆林斯基说过： “无限相信书籍的力量，是我的教育信仰的真谛之一。”巴丹说： “阅读不能改变人生的长度，但可以改变人生的宽度。阅读不能改变人生的起点，但可以改变人的终点。”营造书香校园，教师这种特殊的职业就决定了每一位教师都要成为“读书人”，成为学生读书的楷模。为了加强“书香校园”的建设，增强教师的读书意识，促进教师的快速成长，特制定教师读书计划： 一、读书活动主题： 成就自己影响他人 二、读书活动目标： 1、通过读书活动，在教师中形成积极进取、努力学习的氛围。 2、通过读书活动，使教师提高理论和实践水平，推进课程改革进程，全面提高教育教学质量，构建一支师德高尚、素质优良、结构合理的学习型教师队伍。 3、以读书构建教师专业成长的平台，成为教师成长的主要途径。 三、读书口号：
让阅读成为一种习惯。 四、读书活动安排及要求： （一）读书集中读书时间为双周周三下午 （二）读书内容： 1、文章： 由学校教导处每天一篇文章，发布在校园网，教师利用5- 10分钟的时间阅读。 2、必读书籍： 每学年从学校规定的必读书目中选择一本阅读。 3、书籍： 学校不定期向教师优秀书籍，开展网上阅读，或由学校购买。 4、自选书籍： 每人选择一本自己感兴趣的书，由个人借阅或购买。 （三）读书要求： 1、结合自己的工作实际，撰写教育随笔，及时发布在博客上，每月不少于一篇。 2、及时做好读书笔记。学校统一发放读书笔记本，包括摘记和感悟两部分，每周不少于一次。要求字迹工整，提倡用楷书或行楷，杜绝草书。学期摘 记不少于5000字，感悟不少于201X字。学期末读书笔记展评，评出优秀的读书笔记供大家学习参考。 3、读书心得交流。每人撰写一篇读书心得，要求字数不少于1000字。学期末由学校组织教师召开读书汇报会，交流读书心得。 【附】读书篇目：
对外汉语教学考试复习点
对外汉语教学考试复习点： 教学计划：教学计划是根据教育目的和培养目标所制定的全面指导某专业教与学活动的规范性文件。教学大纲：是根据教学计划、以纲要形式制定的、对具体课程的教学目的、教学内容、教学进度和教学方法进行规范的指导性文件。 对外汉语教学：是指对外国人的汉语教学，也包括
第一语言不是汉语的海外华人进行的汉语教学。 中介语：是指在第二语言习得的过程中，学习者通过一定的学习策略，在目的语输入的基础上所形成的以中既不同于其第一语言也不同于目的语、随着学习的进展向目的语逐渐过渡的动态的语言系统。信度：又称可靠性，指测试结果的可靠程度或稳定性，也就是考试成绩是否反映了受试者的实际水
平。 区分度（性）：指测试区分受试者知识和能力差别的性能，是试题的质量标准。泛化：当某一反应与某种刺激形成条件联系后，这一反应也会与其它类似的刺激形成某种程度的条件联系，这一过程称为泛化。对比分析:是将两种语言的系统进行共时比较，以揭示其相同点和不同点的一种语言分析法。 偏误分析：是对学习者在
第二语言习得过程中所产生的偏误进行系统的分析，研究其来源，揭示学习者的中介语体系，从而了解第二语言习得的过程和规律。 语法翻译法的知识要点：概念：又称传统法，是使用学生的母语来教授第二语言/外语，并以系统地教授语法知识为教学基础的一种第二语言/外语教学法。语法——翻译法主张在L2教学过程中学生的
母语语目的语并用，通过翻译和系统那个的语法知识的讲授学习L2。 语法——翻译法是最古老的教学法，最初用来学习古希腊文和拉丁文这类死的语言。盛行于18世纪末。代表人物：德国语言学家奥伦多夫语言学理论基础：机械语言或历史比较语言学心理学理论基础：联想心理学 基本原则和特点：语法是教授L2、外语的基础。
绝密★考试结束前 全国2014年4月高等教育自学考试 现代语言学试题 课程代码：00830 请考生按规定用笔将所有试题的答案涂、写在答题纸上。 选择题部分 注意事项： 1．答题前，考生务必将自己的考试课程名称、姓名、准考证号用黑色字迹的签字笔或钢笔填写在答题纸规定的位置上。 2．每小题选出答案后，用2 B铅笔把答题纸上对应题目的答案标号涂黑。如需改动，用橡皮擦干净后，再选涂其他答案标号。不能答在试题卷上。 Ⅰ. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and blacken the corresponding letter A, B, C or D on the ANSWER SHEET. (2% × 10=20%) 1. The fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages well illustrates the ________ nature of language. A. cultural B. dual C. productive D. arbitrary 2. In English the two sounds [p] and [p h] are ________. A. a minimal pair B. allophones C. two phonemes D. in phonemic contrast 3. The word “decentralize” contains ________ morphemes. A. 3 B. 4 C. 5 D. 6 4. A ________ sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word, such as “and,”“but,”“or.” A. simple B. complicated C. coordinate D. complex 5. The sentence “Colorless green ideas sleep furiously” is a typical example of violation of ________. A. speech act theory B. principles of conversation C. selectional restrictions D. grammatical rules 6. The illocutionary point of the ________ is to commit the speaker to something’s being the case, to the truth of what has been said. A. expressives B. commissives C. declaratives D. representatives 7. ________ separated the period of Middle English from that of Modern English. A. The revival of Latin as a literary language
论语别裁读后感800字三篇 近日偶读书，南华瑾先生一字一句一行一书尽入眼目，咀嚼回味，口齿留香…… 人生在世几百年间，能看尽沧海桑田，月缺月圆，参悟其中道理玄机者又有几分？ 谈学问，简言“学”，一字好写，秉承几难？孔夫子曾经说过“学而不厌，诲人不倦”以及“发愤忘食，乐以忘忧，不知老之将至”诸如此类的名言，并且还说过“吾十有五而志于学”。五十七年的经历使他仁德兼备，学问渊博，成为冠绝一时的大学问家，大思想家，可谓是震古烁今。以如此身份，当他的高足问他时，他的回答竟然是“朝闻道夕死可矣”，多么令人不可思议！ 孔子的特点不是探求天地万物的具体性理，而是探求社会与人生的具体性情。因为世间万物的客观规律也许是有限的，但是人的具体感情是无限的。作为有限的“人”，探究的是无限的“人”，这也正是让孔子感到学无止境的原因。人的性情举止，是处于不断的变化过程中的，每探究出新的内容，就打破了原来的旧的规律。“不患人之不己知，患不知人也。”孔子把话已经说得很明白，去了解人性，才是最困难的。而孔子最精辟的论述，也自然而然体现他对人性的入木三分的见解。 陶行知说过，千教万教教人求真，千学万学学做真人。在这一点上，和孔夫子几千年前提出的主张“仁与德”的观点不谋而合，两人都是伟大的教育家，两人都是把“仁与德”当作自己去不断努力实
现的目标，不断的学习，从而提高自身的修养与品德，这是有必然性的。 为了学习，可以三月不知肉味，这足以见孔子的勤奋，可如果仅仅是勤奋，恐怕孔子就不会如此得到世人的尊敬了。他的好学表现在方方面面：三人行必有我师焉，这是谦虚；我不如老农，我不如老圃，这是实事求是；学而时习之，不亦乐乎，这是一种乐观。他的学习精神，不仅仅限我们常人的思维。孔子会以最博大的胸怀，去接容包纳世间万物，这就是我们所不及的。 两千年前的孔子，就是一位具备着各种谋生技能、又具备着对于生命意义有深隧洞见的哲学家及教育家，又对教育的目标有着明确的方向指引，因着他的众多的知能，成为了中国文明史中最重要的教育家，他的许多谋生技能的知能细节固然没有保存下来，但是他的人生智能的谈话却成了绵延两千年的中国知识分子立身处世的智能宝典，当我们阅读吟咏他的话语之时，每一句话都可以从他的智能中找到自己生命的目标。 这就是孔子的学习！这就是圣人的学习！ 也许我们这些凡人是永远无法领会万世师表的学习的内涵，但每一个人也许都可以从中找到一个新的自我。 《论语别裁》是南怀谨先生对《论语》的解释。整本书都在教我们做人做事的道理。 我不是一个善于总结反思的人，对于《论与别裁》可能理解的不深，只能记下自己一些零星的感受。对于《论语》里经常提到的“君
2018南京师范大学外国语言学及应用语言学（外应）考研初试经验 本科国际政治专业，跨考南师大外国语学院外国语学院外国语言学及应用语言学专业，初试总分410，复习那么久有了收获，感谢一直帮助我的那位上一届学姐，这里我也分享一些复习准备的经验，希望对19级考外应或者英语语言文学的学弟学妹们一点帮助。 这个专业对我来说相当于一张白纸，尤其是语言学，所以我开始得比较早，大三寒假确定了考研的学校和专业，上学期开学的时候买好了参考书以及一些复习资料，然后就着手慢慢复习了。前期的进度比较慢，基本上是以看书和做笔记为主，下半学期才进入完全的背记阶段。这里我分科说一下。 1/政治 政治考了68，比我预期的高。虽然我是学政治的，但是真的一点优势也没有（因为我对自己的专业真的一点兴趣也没有，学得也不好），政治可以说是复习得比较不上心的一门。我全程是跟着肖秀荣走的，但是我开始得比较晚，舍友七月份就开始看了，我九月份才开始看精讲精练，中途也断断续续的，最后可以说是赶进度才看完。所以学弟学妹们一定要把握好进度，不要过快也不要过慢。所有的资料都是肖秀荣教授的，从七八月份到十二月份，每个阶段都有每个阶段要看的内容。前期精讲精练一定要看仔细，但不需要完全背诵下来，主要练的是选择题，大题前面不用担心，到十一二月直接背肖四肖八就好。 精讲精练配套的1000题是要做好几遍的，我是看完大概两三章做一次题的，第一遍可以用铅笔写，然后把错题勾出来，再做一遍，最后一个月再把那些错题拿出来反复看。错题的价值是很高的，有些多选题我看了两三遍都还是会错。 大题最后直接背肖四肖八就好啦，肖四是必须要背的，不背写不出来，然后大题的平均分都差不多，所以选择题的正确率决定了最后的分。 2/二外 我的二外是日语，考了92分。日语可以说是救了我，考完专业课的时候真的崩溃，所以总分其实也就是日语捞了我一把。 我本科是外国语大学，然后专业课也没什么兴趣，大一下学期就修了日语双学位并且坚持上完了，三年级上学期准备了N2考试，所以这一门基本上没怎么操心，也没花太多时间。
语义研究历史分期中的语文学时期 专业：英美文学学号：20140601012 姓名：任雪娇 自1897年法国学者Michael Breal(布雷尔，1832-1915)发表的《语义学探索》以来，语义学作为语言学的一门独立学科宣告成立。此后，哲学家、逻辑学家、社会学家、语言学家们就开始注意语义研究。那么，首先，什么是语义学呢？语义学又叫词义学，它是以词的内容为研究对象的学科，它的任务是研究词义的性质，词义的发展、演变以及词语词义之间的种种关系，并揭示词义的一般规律。 而我今天将要对语言学时期中的一个时期——传统语言学时期，也就是语文学时期的发展与演变做一个简要的梳理。 （一）语文学时期的四个阶段 在欧洲大陆，语文学时期指的是整个18世纪以前的语言研究。同时，在这一时期，语言学家及哲学家们对文学作品尤其是古希腊--罗马时代的文学作品也进行学术研究，这包括以文学文献为基础的文化研究。从历史上看，“语文学时期”是一个生机勃勃的历史时期，它包括一下几个阶段：古希腊罗马时期、中世纪、文艺复兴时期、现代时期的前夕。 古希腊罗马时期 首先，我们都知道欧洲语言学始于希腊。而古希腊罗马时期的语文学主要是在哲学框架内进行的，因此对语言的本质问题、词源问题、修辞问题以及语音、语法等问题都进行了认真的探讨和研究。在这一时期出现了多种语言学流派，例如：斯多葛学派、亚历山大学派等等。中世纪时期 语法是中世纪学术语言的基础，也是七艺（语法、雄辩术、修辞学、音乐、几何、算术、天文）之一。对于语言学历史来说，中世纪的后半期，也就是我们称为“经院哲学时期”具有很重要的意义。经院哲学非常重视语言学研究，进行了大量的研究工作。在它兴盛时期的研究成果很多，比如说思辨语法（思辨语法是语言学理论发展的一个明确而特殊的阶段，它受到当时基督信仰的加强，同时又反过来加强了基督信仰，它把人类知识所有的分支和学科都统一在它的体系里，是理性的主张与宗教的信仰可以在这一体系内和谐一致。） 文艺复兴时期 文艺复兴运动可以看作是一场发源于14世纪的意大利，然后向外扩展，特别是在欧洲向北扩展的运动。文艺复兴时期学术方面最重要的部分--从意大利开始的对古拉丁语和古希腊语的研究得到了恢复。文艺复兴时期的语法家中，最著名的是彼得罗·拉穆斯，他被称为现代结构主义的先驱。他积极提倡用人文主义方法教授古典语言，主张通过文学作品，而不是通过经院哲学的亚里士多德学说进行教学。 现代时期前夕 到18世纪，欧洲语言学发生了巨大的变化，语言起源问题在那时已不是“哪种语言最古老”或者“上帝用什么语言跟亚当说话”而是对语言最终发展为现代如此有力和灵活的交际系统所处的条件，以及所经过的发展阶段，进行带有更多人类学性质探讨。这一时期出现的威廉·冯·洪堡特就是至今也很著名的语言学家，他认为语言能力具有普遍性，还认为没种语言都是历史的产物，但作为思维和工具的模式，有些语言则比别的语言发达的多。 经验主义 语言学研究方法的不同源自哲学领域的思想纷争。理性主义和经验主义是哲学领域的量大思潮，多个世纪以来一直深深地影响着语言学研究方法。经验主义认为经验来自感官对外间事物的感觉，其带有唯物主义倾向，同时，经验主义也包含着神学唯心主义的因素。著名语言学家曾说过“面对语言的多样性和复杂性，经验主义学派强调各种语言的特殊变化，根据日
陕西师范大学大学生必读书目成绩考核办法 一、总则 第一条为积极贯彻落实学校“2+2”本科人才培养模式改革，加强大学生文化素质教育，将通识教育与专业教育、学科专业教育与教师教育、科学教育与人文教育有机结合，促进学生德、智、体、美等全面发展，培养厚基础、宽口径、高素质、强能力的、适应现代化建设需要的富有创新精神的复合型人才，我校决定颁布《陕西师范大学大学生必读书目考核办法》(以下简称《办法》)。 第二条《办法》提供了143种学生应该阅读的经典名著目录，分为文学、哲学、历史学、艺术类和教师教育类五部分，其中文学部分38种，哲学部分34种，历史学部分31种，艺术类部分10种，教师教育类部分30种。 第三条我校本科生应在学好所修课程的同时，有选择地认真阅读《办法》所规定的书籍，努力提高科学文化素质，完善知识结构，提高能力和素质。 二、成绩考核 第四条学生必读书目成绩考核采用平时考查和毕业前考查 两种方式，具体由本科生导师负责。平时考查由学生所在院(部)组织实施，一般应安排在每学期期末进行；毕业前考查由院(部)统一组织实施，一般安排在第八学期期中进行。同时，学校将组织校督导委员会和教学委员会于平时和毕业前进行随机考查。
第五条学生应在《办法》中认真选择所学专业以外的书籍进行阅读。每读完一种书，要认真撰写不少于5000字的读书笔记或小论文。 第六条学生在校期间必须至少从《办法》所规定的书籍中选读10种书籍，其中从文学、哲学、历史学和艺术类、教师教育类各部分中选读的书籍均不得少于2种。汉语言文学、历史学、音乐学和美术学专业的学生须在所学专业以外的书目中选读，完成读书任务，经考查合格，可取得2学分。 第七条学生每学期选读的书籍不得少于2本，其中一本为精读书目。学生在学期初应向本科生导师提交个人学期读书计划，并定期向本科生导师汇报读书进度。 第八条本科生导师应做好学生读书的指导工作，根据学生的不同特点，有针对性的提出阅读建议，定期检查学生读书进展情况，督促学生按时完成读书计划，在学期末审阅学生读书笔记或小论文并组织学生开展一次读书讨论会。 第九条各院(部)应组织本科生导师做好学生阅读必读书目的年度考核工作。考核内容为学生撰写的读书笔记或小论文，考核成绩分为优秀、合格和不合格三等。 第十条学生在校学习期间，如果能读完20种《办法》所规定的书籍并通过有关学院指定教师的检查，学校发给“文化名著阅读证明书”；如果能读完50种《办法》所规定的书籍，参加文学院、
当代语言学的特点和发展趋势 纵观语言学百年历程，索绪尔的理论对现代语言学有着不可磨灭的影响，可以说现代语言学是一个索绪尔时代。伴随着新时期社会的不断发展，新技术的频频出现，思维认知的不断进步，近几十年内正在进行的语言研究与先前现代语言学的在索绪尔语言学的基础上延伸、发展不同，当代语言学开始走上一个极端而与之相矛盾，并在这种矛盾中酝酿出自己独特的理论，不同理论的碰撞使当代语言学呈现一番新特征并向更深广的方向发展。 总的来说，当代语言学大致有如下特征： 一、在研究对象上，当代语言学不再局限于对语法的单调研究和语言的结构分析，而是注重意义，语篇，实例。索绪尔认为语言是形式而不是实体，注重形式有三种方法，其一是完全用语法分析。20世纪50、60年代，语法被认为才是语言学研究的科学所在。随着国际交流的扩大，在语言的互相学习中，研究发现不同语言仅仅在形式上的对应并不能解决问题，因此，语义问题不得不考虑。到了跨世纪的前后十年，语义学开始进入语法学，并对语法学产生了很大的冲击。乔姆斯基的转换生成语法开始不考虑语义，后来逐渐加进语义。配价语法、功能语法等语言学理论逐渐升温。这些语言学理论和方法都是重视语义的。其二是完全用逻辑；其三是用语料库。这三种都没有成功。在此情况下，语义学的兴起，在语言学中有着重要的意义。可以说，在这点上，当代语言学既是对现代语言学的反动，又是对它的继承和发展。 二、在研究方向上，重视应用性的研究，注重对其功能的探讨，功能语法的兴起形成一股学术思潮。当代语言学研究从理论研究转向应用研究，更加注重对语言价值的分析和语言功能的研究，并形成了众多的功能语法流派；新技术的出现扩大了语言学的应用范围，把语言学的研究成果同有关学科的某些实用研究结合起来，着重解决有关学科及语言学本身所涉及的应用方面的问题，不局限于语言系统，而是扩展到语言实用性上。有的着重在语言交际上的运用，有的着重其在话语中的运用。随着语言研究的深入，人们愈来愈感到语言是一个多方面、多层次的系统。除语言本身的结构以外，语言与社会、语言与文化、语言与语言的使用者等都有着密切的关系。因此，只有结合这些因素对语言进行多方位的研究，才能真正揭示出语言的本质和规律。对语言研究的这一新的认识使得语言学从语言自身结构的研究扩大到了语言使用诸问题的研究，语用学、篇章语言学等一类的新兴学科的建立和发展便是这种研究重心转移的直接结果。 三、在学科门类上，当代语言学与其它学科的结合产生了一些边缘学科，新兴学科开始兴起。一方面，从其本身来说，当代语言学更加注重对语言进行动态的、整体的研究，超越了以往结构主义静态的、系统的研究，并由此生成了众多的语言学流派，呈现百家争鸣的态势。当代语言学的另一个特点是注重对语言学
《论语》读书笔记1500字 《论语》中华文化传承隗宝。下面是小编整理分享给大家的《论语》读书笔记1500字，感兴趣的朋友欢迎阅读。希望大家喜欢！ 从前，我之所以读一本书是因为它来到了我的手边，而书的主人又有耐心等待我一口气或分几天读完它。后来，知道了有公共图书馆这等读书的好地方，我也懒得去翻书目卡片，只是在开放阅览室书架上随手抓一本我能读得进去的书。再后来，通过网络，也约略知道近来新出的哪几本书是值得一读的，可我也往往只关注自己感兴趣的，偶尔在浏览的网页上碰到一两本好书也都是大概的翻翻,很少有时间和心情静下心来看，相逢或相违全凭运气。所以，我读也只是因为选了《中西经典选读》这门课,于是从图书馆借了这本书。 由于《论语》主要记载的是孔子的思想，我倒对孔子的朋友产生了兴趣。我想孔子应该有很多朋友。单就《论语》来看，我却只找到两处。一处是“原壤夷俟。子曰：‘幼而不孙弟，长而无述焉，老而不死，是为贼。’以杖叩其胫。阙党童子将命。或问之曰：‘益者与?’子曰：‘吾见其居于位也，见其与先生并行也，非求益者也，欲速成者也。’”另一处就是上面提到过的“朋友死，无所归，曰：‘于我殡’。”后者不知从何考证，前者看来只是孔子所“和”之人，并非所“同”之人。孔子有没有纯乎价值认同的“知己”呢?仅
看《论语》，似乎没有。子曰：“莫我知也夫!”子贡曰：“何为其莫如知子也?”子曰：“不怨天，不尤人，下学而上达。知我者其天乎!”(宪问)退而求其次，孔子的学生中有没有人能充当这一角色呢?有时，师生关系也可到达一种朋友关系。我不由自主地注意到了颜回和曾参。 人们常挂在嘴边的话，我竟然不知出于《论语》。像“父母在，不远游。君子坦荡荡，小人常戚戚，不在其位，不谋其政。道不同，不相为谋，任重而道远，死而后已，朽木不可雕也。三十而立……” 我读《论语》这部书，当然不是想从中觅得修身、齐家的孔门秘传。我只是在这部书中认识了一个迂阔率性、明知其不可而为之的孔子，一个多才多艺、诲人不倦的孔子，一个食不厌精、懂得生活乐趣的孔子。学贯中西的学者们常把孔子和古希腊哲人苏格拉底相提并论。苏格拉底是被雅典民-主政权处死的，据说是自由精神阻止他逃亡。但我更喜欢孔子的直言不讳：“道不行，乖桴浮于海”，这同样是一种自由精神。打开《论语》去读，像是穿越几千年的时光隧道，看到群雄逐鹿，争霸天下的春秋时期，产生了孔子一个伟大的思想家、教育家。他的言行论述了孝道、治学、治国、为政，为历代君王所推崇，汉武帝罢黜百家，独尊儒术。儒家思想
一、名词解释 1．音位：具体语言或方言里具有区别词的语音形式作用的最小语音单位。 2．音位变体：（处于互补关系中的各个音素无区别形式和辨义作用，可以被看成一个音位。）这种处于互补关系中的各个音素就被看成同一个音位在不同位置上的代表，是同一个音位的不同变异形式，叫音位变体。 3．语法规则的递归性：语法的组合结构一层套一层，所以同样的结构规则尽可以重复使用而不致造成结构上的混乱。同样的结构规则可以层层嵌套，借用数学的术语来说，这就是结构规则有递归性。 4．词义：由人们对现实现象的反映以及由此带来的人们对现实现象的主观评价，叫作词的词汇意义，简称词义。 5．语法范畴：就是语法意义的类，同一性质的语法意义进一步概括成类，因而称为“语法范畴”。 6．亲属语言：从同一种语言分化出来的几种独立的语言，彼此有同源关系，我们称它们为亲属语言。 7．双语现象：指被融合民族的成员一般会讲两种语言：本族语和在融合中占优势的那种语言。 8．词义转移：如果原来的词义表示某类现实现象，后来改变为表示另一类现实现象，这种演变就是词义的转移。 6．互补关系：音素之间的互补关系是指几个不同的音素各有自己的出现环境，它们从不在相同的语音环境中出现和互相替换。 7．语流音变：在连续的语流中（音位和音位组合的时候），某个音由于受邻近音的影响，或者由于说话时快慢、高低、强弱的不同，可能发生不同的变化。这种变化叫做语流音变。 8．语法意义：指词进入语法组合之后由语法结构所赋予的词义之外的意义。（指词在组合与聚合中所产生的关系意义。） 9．语言融合：指一种语言排挤和替代其他语言而成为不同民族的共同交际工具。 10．组合关系:语言符号与符号之间按照一定规律相互结合的关系就是语言的组合关系。这是语言符号的一种配排连贯的横向关系。 11．内部曲折：也叫语音交替，指通过词内部词根中的语音的变化构成语法形式，表示某种语法意义，这种手段就是内部曲折。 12．社会方言：各语言社团在全民语言的基础上产生各有自己特点的语言分支或语言变体，这就是社会方言。 13．聚合关系：在语言链条的某一环节上能够互相替换的符号具有某种相同的作用，他们自然地聚合成群。它们彼此的关系叫做聚合关系。 14．对立关系：音素之间的对立关系是指不同的音素可以出现在相同的语音环境里，它们的差别能区别词的语音形式和意义。 15．层次分析：在分析语言结构时，将语言结构的层次性考虑进来，并按其构造层次逐层进行分析，在分析时，指出每一层面的直接组成成分，这种分析叫“结构的层次分析”。 16．借词：也叫外来词，它指的是音与义都借自外语的词。 17．语法意义：指词进入语法组合之后由语法结构所赋予的词义之外的意义。（指词在组合与聚合中所产生的关系意义。） 18．书面语：是用文字记载下来的供看的语言，它在口语的基础上形成，使听说的语言符号系统变成“看”语言符号系统。
《论语》是儒家学派的著作之一，它是儒家思想所依据的经典。两千五百多年前，孔子教学和生活中的点点滴滴，被学生记录下来。这些语录由他的学生汇集编纂成了《论语》。 论，理论，理论人生，理论人生沧桑百态，理论孔子儒家思想。有人会觉得，《论语》好像没有很严密的逻辑性，很多是就事论事，里面也很少有长篇大论的文字，几乎每一则语录都很简短。但就是这样一本言行录，篇幅也不大，不过二十篇，一万一千余字，却在中国历史上产生了极为深远的影响。 学而篇主要讲“务农”的道理，遇到初学者入“道德之门”；为政篇主要讲治理国家的道理和方法；八佾篇主要记孔子论礼乐之事；里仁篇主要讲仁德的道理；公冶长篇主要讲古今人物的贤否得失；雍也篇主要讲孔子与弟子们的言行；述而篇主要讲孔子谦己诲人之辞及容貌行事之实；泰伯篇只要讲孔子、曾子的言论，以及对古人的评赞；子罕篇主要讲孔子提倡礼制，鼓励人们好学不倦，以及记述孔子不肯说什么，不肯做什么；乡党篇主要讲孔子平素的言谈举止，衣食住行，生活习惯；先进篇主要讲孔子对弟子贤否的评论；颜渊篇主要讲孔子教育弟子如何为仁、为政、处世；子路篇主要讲孔子教育弟子怎样做人，怎样为政；宪问篇主要记孔子及其弟子论修身做人之道，兼有对历史人物的评述；卫灵公篇主要记孔子及其弟子在周游列国时所论的以德治国的道理；季氏篇主要记孔子论君子怎样修身、如何以礼法治国；阳货篇主要记孔子教育弟子讲究仁德，阐发以礼乐治国的道理；微子篇主要记历史上圣贤的事迹，孔子及其弟子周游列国时的行为，以及世人对于处乱世的不同态度；子张篇主要记孔子的弟子们探讨求学求道的言论，以及对孔子的敬仰与赞颂；尧曰篇主要记古代贤王尧、舜、禹、汤的言论以及孔子对为政的论述。 《论语》很全面的阐明了孔子的思想，不管是为人还是处世，不管是修身齐家还是治国平天下。孔子的核心思想就是“仁”，在政治上，他主张“节用而爱人”，反对苛政、苛捐杂税，“苛政猛于虎也！”，也主张“克己复礼”；在自身修养上，他主张“己所不欲，勿施于人”，主张“吾日三省吾身”；在教育上，他主张“有教无类”，第一个在中国创办私学，打破学在官府的格局，他也主张“因材施教”、“言传身教”，所以针对不同性格的两个弟子的同一个问题，他给出不同的建议，所以在周游列国时，即使如何困窘，他为弟子们始终树立榜样，并时刻不忘对他们的教诲。 我觉得，《论语》传递的是一种态度，一种朴素的、温和的生活态度。这样一种从容不迫的态度，这样一种谦抑的态度，其实正是中国人的人格理想。与西方不同，中国哲学崇尚的是一种庄严、理性和温柔敦厚之美。《论语》的思想精髓就在于它把天之大、地之厚的精华融入人的内心，使天、地、人成为一个完美的整体，人的力量也因而无比强大，人对自然万物,有一种敬畏，有一种顺应，有一种默契。 孔子是生活在春秋战国时代的人，那是一个尚未进入封建时代的奴隶社会，他的思想，不可避免地带有时代的局限性。他的最终理想，是要恢复周礼，维护奴隶阶级的统治的，无疑，甚至对于那个时代而言，他都不是一个进步者。虽然，封建统治者在孔子死后，突然将孔子的儒家思想捧至独尊地位，出现了“罢黜百家，独尊儒术”的做法，但那时的孔子的思想，早已被一个叫董仲舒的人狠狠加以改造，后来又被朱熹越解释越离谱。所以，在孔子自身那个时代，孔子的思想，其实并不是很进步的。而且，他其中的一些思想，也确实不是完全能让人认同的。比如他说如果父亲坐了错事甚至犯了罪，儿子不仅不应该揭发，而且还要帮助努力隐瞒。这在今天，不就成了同谋、共犯了吗？他还轻视妇女，说什么“唯女子与小人难养也”，把我们女子与小人相提并论，摆明了是侮辱嘛！他也轻视劳动和农事，樊迟问稼桑之事，就被他称作是没什么大出息的人。 孔子因材施教的教学思想，在中国教育史上有较大的影响。他认为一个教师，必须掌握学生在学习上常犯的四种心理表现，即广泛而不精、知识面过窄、把学习看得太容易和有畏难情绪。只有了解学生的心理特点，才能给予帮助、补救。就是说，学生心理的差异性，决
自学考试《现代语言学》模拟试题及答案2017 2017 年自学备考正在开展中，考生们要扎扎实实地复习，一步一步地前进，以下是搜索整理的一份《现代语言学》模拟试题及答案，供参考练习，希望对大家有所帮助!想 了解更多相关信息请持续关注我们! I .Multiple Choice Directions:Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A,B,C or D in the brackets.(2% x 10=20%) 1. The pair of words “lend”and “borrow”are ___.( ) A. gradable opposites B.relational opposites C.co-hyponyms D.synonyms 2. The discovery of Indo-European language family began with the work of the British scholar .( ) A. Jacob Grimm B.Rasmus Rask C.Franz Bopp D.Sir William Jones 3. A linguist regards the changes in language and language use as __.( ) A.unusual B.something to be feared C.abnormal D.natural 4. __produce fast and fluent speech with good intonation and pronunciation but the content of their speech ranges from mildly inappropriate to complete nonsense,often as unintelligible.( ) A.Broca's aphasic B.The linguistic deprivation C.The damage on the angular gyrus D.Wernicke's aphasic 5.Some Southern learners of English in China tend to say “night ” as “light ”.This shows: .( ) A. They cannot pronounce/n/ B. Interlangue interference because there is notthe sound /n/in their mother tongue C. The teachers do not have a good teaching method D. They do not like to pronounce nasal sounds 6. A word with several meanings is called __word.( ) A.a polysemous B.a synonymous C.an abnormal D.a multiple 7. The function of the sentence “A nice day, isn't it? ” is __.( ) https://www.doczj.com/doc/b63385191.html,rmative B.phatic C.directive D.performative