Requirements of the Course:
1. A final exam concerning what has been learnt take up 70% of the total.
2.The other 30 % includes 10% of active class participation, and 20% of presentation performances
3. The rewards will be evaluated on the quality of each part.
4. Scores on each part
5% will be reduced on one absence without any reason. 2.5% will be reduced on a failure of one assignment. Scores will be rewarded on the organization, the fluency and the logical persuasion of the presentation.
Introduction
1. The Status Quo of LEFL
1.1 Non-native Language Learning
1) The Chinese culture
2) Few Opportunities to Use the Language
3) The Primary Task—―Enable the learners to command the four basic skills of language for use in the widest possible
range of different situations” ( Halliday
2003:257 Language as Social Semiotic:
the Social Interpretation of Language and Meaning)
4) In most cases, the general English instruction provided in secondary schools is proven to be an inadequate preparation for further language use in high education.
5) “Much more work with less benefit ”(费时低效）
As a result, English learning is quite different in universities and difficult while English teaching is found exactly inefficient.
Reason: Not as much from a defective knowledge of the system of English as from an unfamiliarity with appropriate use of English
( Exam-oriented or driven, English taught in China)
1. 2 The Reasons Found
1) The philosophical theory advocated by Confucius ― Learning as accumulation of knowledge and readin g of many books‖ (积累知识，博览群书)
(Example: a. rote learning as a basic acquisition technique;
b. Teacher’s authority in class;
2) Result: “ The importance of linguistic knowledge such as vocabulary and grammatical rules is overemphasized by neglecting the significance of how to apply the knowledge in communication.”(Dai Wei-dong 2001:323)
That is, “knowing a lot more about what, with insufficient procedure knowledge, knowing how.”
3) Conclusion:
A. Both knowledges (declarative knowledge and procedure knowledge, “ knowing how”) are required to succeed in real-life communication, with more emphasis on the use of acquired knowledge.
B. The situation in China: Chinese learners often “neither understand the language they have been learning as spoken by a native speaker in a ‘real life’ condition, nor make themselves understood in it, nor talk acceptably on subjects relevant to life outside the classroom.”
(Richards 2002: 86)
2. Main Problems of TEFL in China
1)The Influence of Age or Maturational Constraints
A. The learning begins at 10 with the children at 12 or 13 in the countryside
B. Mother tongue influence
( First in Chinese, then in English)
Example: a. I think I don’t like your book.
b. Aren’t you a student? Yes, I am not.
C. Krashen, Long, and Scarcella (1982) argue that acquirers who begin learning a foreign language in early childhood through natural exposure achieve higher proficiency than those beginning as adults. This shows that children are superior to adults in their innate lan -guage-specific endowment or propensity (tendency) for acquiring fluency and naturalness in language learning.
2) Ignorance of central role of the oral and aural medium
A. In language learning, listening plays a decisive role in the development of speaking abilities.
B. In communication, every interlocutor plays a double role—both as a listener and a speaker. Speaking feeds on listening, which proceeds it.
C. But in real situations, learners pay too much attention on reading and writing. (exam-oriented)
目前在具体的教学中教师还很难实施《课程标准》的教学要求，学校的教学仍然是以应试为主（82.9%），教师也只能从某种方面实施新的教师要求，关注学生的综合素质发展（17.1%）。(周流溪、王笃勤“中国中学英语教学现状调查”（摘要）
3) Ignorance of social-cultural aspect
A. Pragmatically language is a form of social action because linguistic communication occurs in the context of structured interpersonal exchange, and meaning is thus regulated.
B. It is hard for a foreigner to choose the forms appropriate to certain situations where it is appropriate for a native speaker.
Example 1: a. The teacher suggested (propose)that the boy go to the concert.
b. The teacher suggested (imply) that the boy went to the concert.
2. a. You aren’t so good in English, are you?
b. Yes, I am not. (a Chinese learner)
―文化教学不只是文化知识的教学，要使文化从知识转化为能力，同样需要学生在交际中去体验，在完成任务时去习得。而教师目前在这些方面做的还比较少，对学生在文化学习中的主体性调动不够，只有23.1％的教师能够组织学习参与文化知识的收集和陈述。” (周流溪、王笃勤“中国中学英语教学现状调查”（摘要））
4) The Influence of the Affective Factors
“The affective side of the learner is probably one of the most important influences on language learning success or failure”
( Oxford 1990: 140)
A. The affective factors related to foreign language learning are emotions, self-esteem, empathy ( ability to imagine and share others’ feelings ) and , anxiety, attitude and motivation.
B. Clearly, the sensitivity of adult learners to making mistakes, or fear of ―losing face‖ has been the explanation for their inability to be competent in communication.
5) The Qualifications of Foreign Language
Teachers in China
A.An investigation, carried out by Dai Wei-dong, the President of SISU, shows that the most difficult problem to be solved concerning English teach -ing is teacher qualification. The situa -tion in China: A great shortage of qualified teachers at all levels.
(1)In 2003 there were 19 million students in universities, but there were only 50,000 teachers.
(2) Unreasonable ranks and educational structures of the teachers: of all the university teachers profe -ssors and associate professors took only 27.1% of all the teachers, assis -tant teachers 33.1%; 72% had bache -lor’s degrees while only 22% had mas -ter’s degrees. Most of the new teach -ers begin teaching without any necessary in-service training such that levels of teaching vary tremendously. For high school teachers, the situation is that 80.4% of the junior high teach -ers are educationally (two-year college degree )qualified ,but only 43.8% of the senior high school teachers are educationally qualified (bachelor’s degree).
Most of the teachers are hardly qualified in terms of their backward teaching concepts, great shortage of teaching techniques and skills, and poor capacities in class management and teaching researches.
B. Solution:
--Train more teachers;
a. In-service teachers have to improve them –selves by theoretical knowledge as guiding principles to facilitate their teaching practice.
b. To systematize the entry qualification of new teachers like some advanced countries.
c. To have in-service teachers trained regularly to refresh their academic knowledge and theo -retical knowledge concerning the teaching areas.
3. The Outline of the Course
Introduction finishes with the status quo and main problems of TEFL in China.
Unit 1 describes a transferring focus from how to teach to how to learn ( the learner’s centered English teaching) which includes the studies on individual differences of learners and learning process.
Unit 2 discusses about researches on the use of language and the cultivation of language communicative abilities of learners concerning the application of social linguistics, cognitive linguistics, pragmatics and discourse analysis.
Unit 3 studies the reflections and suggestions of the traditional teaching and learning and their methods of foreign languages.
Unit 4 focuses on the cultivation of the learners’ autonomous learning abilities regarding the nature, the situations, theories, methods and future development.
Unit 5, the conclusion, talks about the changes and innovations of foreign language teaching and learning and their methods about computer -assisted language learning (CALL) in the teaching of a foreign language.
Topics for Presentation
1. What is the optimal age of the Chinese to begin learning English?
2. Is bilingual education necessary in kinder –gartens in China? Why?
3. What motivation types do most Chinese learners have in FLL? Why?
4. How are Chinese learners efficiently motivated in FLL ?
5. How can a teacher of English improve learn -ing styles of learners to learn English efficiently in the Chinese classrooms?
6. What is the greatest negative transfer of Chinese in the English learning?
How can it be efficiently improved?
7. How can one ( grammar/phonetics/syntax ) positive transfer of Chinese be efficiently employed to enhance the English learning?
8. What is the difference between the criterion of language proficiency of native speakers and that of foreigners in English Learning? Why?
9. How can a teacher of English improve Eng- lish learning of a poor learner by the improve- ment of their learning strategies?
10. On the improvement of English vocabulary learning of the Chinese learners from a cognitive linguistics perspective?
Questions for the Final Thesis
1. On the positive transfer of Chinese（）in the English （learning）, focusing on one aspect of Chinese positive transfer
2. On the improvement in English learning of a poor learner by the improvement of his learning strategies?
3. On the improvement of the content of language input of learners in one aspect of English Learning based on inter-language theory?
4. On the differences between the criteria of language proficiency of native speakers and that of foreigners in English learning
5. On the differences between global errors (整体错误) and local errors(局部错误）in the influence of communication?
Note:
A global error means an error (e.g. conjunctions) which affects the whole structure of a sentence while a local error (e.g. misuse of an article) refers to an error of elements in a small part of a sentence.
6. On the greatest negative transfer of Chinese in the English learning
7. On the proper age of Chinese in the English language learning
8. On the Negative Transfers of Chinese Phonetics/Grammar/ Cultural Awareness / Thinking Patterns in TEFL in Senior High Schools
9. On the improvement of English vocabulary learning of the Chinese learners from a cognitive linguistics perspective?
10. On the Improvement of the English Learning through the Positive Transfers of Chinese Phonetics/ Grammar/Thinking Mode
11. On the Different Proficiency Criteria be- tween Inter-languages and native languages in second language learning
8. On the Negative Transfers of Chinese Thinking Patterns in English Writing Teaching in Senior High Schools
Abstract
Key Words: 2-3
1. Introduction
1.1 The general situation of English writing teaching in senior high schools
1.2 The significance and purpose of the paper
Literature Reviews
2.1.The late st development of the research abroad with an analysis of 2 to 3 most influential researchers’ achievements and ideas
2.2 The latest development of the research at home with an analysis of 2 to 3 most influential researchers’ achievements and ideas
2.3 The new perspective /angle of your research with some illustration
3. The Theoretical Framework
3.1 Second Language Acquisition Theory
(the main theory )
3.2 Inter-language Theory
(The most relevant theory)
4. The Negative Transfer of Chinese Thinking Pattern in English Writing Teaching
4.1 The General Problems in English Writing
4.1.1 The Problems (two-three examples)
4.1.2 The Cause of the Negative Transfer of Chinese Thinking
(An analysis of the cause from an angle of Chinese thinking patterns)
4.3 The Solutions to the Problems
4.3.1—4.3.3,4
5. Conclusion
5.1 Summary
5.2 The suggestions for future research
References:
Over 10
(More English and some Chinese references)
Unit 1
A Transferring Focus from how to teach to how to learn
1. Studies on individual differences of learners
1.1. A Learner’s Focus
In the learning of a foreign language, learners are an essential part and a center of all the factors because we will be able to design and create a more adaptive learning environment, foreign language curriculum and activity in accordance with the objective laws of a foreign language learning if we focus our attention on learners.
However, in most cases, language teaching is carried out in classes. In fact language is not learnt by groups or classes, but by individuals because features of the learners’ personality or mind facilitate or inhibit language learning.
Ellis (2005:4 73) proposes a triangle frame- work for investigating individual learner
Note
These three sets of factors are believed” to be related in complex ways. (Ellis 2005:437) Learning processes and mechanism are positioned in the inner part of the triangle here, for they are unobservable, which accounts for how language input becomes comprehensible.
The focus of research up to date is the influe -nce of individual differences on language proficiency, achievement and
rate of success, measured by learners’ perfor- mance in certain kinds of test.
1.2. Age
It is widely believed that children are effortless language learners and far superior to adults in their eventual success in the target language learning, which is strongly supported by the critical period hypothesis.
A. The Critical Period
According to the critical period hypothesis, there is a fixed span of years during which language learning can take place naturally and effortlessly, and after which it is not possible to be completely successful. Thus it has often been concluded that teachers should teach the child a second language at as early an age as possible.
B. Evidences
a.However, although much research shows that age in language learning is a positive advantage, a test of English-speaking adults and children who have gone to live in Holland shows that at the end of three months, the older learners are better at all aspects of Dutch except pronun- ciation.
b. And some other tests show the same results. Therefore, if children and adults are compared who are learning a second language in exactly the same way, adults are better in more aspects. Thus, age itself is not so important as the different interactions that learners of different ages have with the situation and with other people. (不同年龄的学习者与学习环境和其他学习者进行不同的接触和交往更重要）
C. Controversy
There is always a lot of controversy on whether there are significant differences in language learning according to age.
a.According to Ellis (2005), there is a common ground concerning the role of age on language learning:
(1) Adult learners have an initial advantage where rate of learning is concerned, particularly in grammatical rules.
(2) Only child learners are capable of acquiring a native accent in informal learning contexts.
b. Long (1990) puts the critical age at 6, but Scovel (1981) argues that there is no evidence to support this.
(1). Children may be more likely to acquire a native grammatical competence. Some adults, however, may succeed in acquiring native levels of grammatical accuracy in speech and writing and even full
― linguistic competence.‖
(2). Children are more likely to reach higher level of attainment in both pronunciation and gram -mar than adults.
(3). The process of acquiring the grammatical knowledge is not substantially affected by age, but that of acquiring pronunciation may be.
D. Disagreements
Even the differences exist, disagreements arise among scholars. 4 major causes suggested by Larsen-Freeman and Long(2000:163) are:
a.The Social psychological perspective
According to Brown(2004), the argument
is that adults differ from children in the formation of social attitudes.
E.g. They might be more inhibited, or that their identity as a speaker of a certain first language might be firmly established. Then so far as negative attitudes are concerned, children’s negative attitudes are not fully formed.
b. Cognitive Perspective
Several researchers, including Felix (1981) and Krashen (1982) have implicated cognitive development, particularly attainment of Piaget’s formal operations stage, as negatively affecting language acquisition. Thus the argument is that child foreign language learning and adult foreign language learning
Note: (Piaget’s formal operations stage )
The formal operational stage begins at approximately age twelve to and lasts into adulthood. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts. Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge during this stage. might actually involve different processes. The former utilizes LAD ( Language Acquisition Device) as in their first language acquisition and the latter employs general problem-solving abilities. Therefore they experience a quite different process in a foreign language learning.
c. Input perspective
Features of the input have been suggested as potential explanations by Snow.
Younger learners are likely to receive better (more conc rete ―here and now‖, less complex) input than adults, which provides the children with clearer L2 samples from which to learn syntax.
Children also enjoy more opportunities for language play with their native-speaking peers, through which they get phonological practice. Moreover, younger learners typically receive a larger amount of input.
d. Neurological perspective
Two main positions in this field, first
A Lateralization Process Around Puberty
Lennenberg(1967) provides evidence to show that the two halves of the brain ( the left and right hemispheres) become specialized for different functions around puberty, a process called lateralization. It is believed that, prior to puberty there is a critical period during which the brain is more plastic. Because this loss of plasticity is significant in that it signals a loss of flexibility of
“ neuro-physiological programming of neuromuscular coordination mechanisms” (Scovel 1981:37), something that would be expected to adversely affect an individual’s ability to control the articulators necessary in second language acquisition.
This statement explains that after puberty language acquisition becomes more difficult.
Second, the approach is exemplified by
Selinger (1978) and Scovel(1981;1988)
They agree that foreign language learning abilities decline with loss of neurological plasticity, they feel that there is likely more than one neurological cause of the loss of plasticity, not just lateralization.
In conclusion, while various explanations of the age relationship have been proposed, the idea that there exist biological constrains on foreign language learning currently seems the most tenable one at present. But obviously, in this area, as in many others, a great amount of work remains to be done.
1.3. Language aptitude
A. The definition
a. Carroll (1981) defines general aptitude as the capacity of learning a task.
b. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics defines ― language aptitude‖ as ― the natural ability to learn a language, not including intelligence, motivation, interest, et
c.”
c. Skehan’s View
Skehan (1986;1989) shows whether intelligence is to be seen as part of aptitude or as distinct from Carrol’s claim.Here Cummins (1983) distinguishes between basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) and cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP). BICS are skills required for fluency and sociolinguistic appropriateness while CALP consists of the linguistic knowledge and literary skills required for academic work. Thus, both BICS and CALP are strongly related with language aptitude.
Skehan’s research has also addressed another issue—the extent to which the effect of aptitude is to be viewed as “globally”, as the aggregation of aptitude strengths in the different compo- nents, or differentially, with learners finding different routes success in language learning depending on the nature of their aptitude.
Skehan carried a study in which he uses cluster analysis in the Army School of Language in Britain. The study leads Skehan (1989) to propose that there are three types of foreign language learners, i.e. analytic-orientated learners, memory-orientated learners and even learners. All the kinds can achieve a high level of success in language learning.
C. Conclusion and Application
Aptitude consists of two aspects: a memory-oriented aspect and a language-oriented aspect.
Learners do well if they have both aspects or if they have either of them.
In application,
a) studying the differences in the type of aptitude that individual learners serves as one way of investigating the learning style of second or foreign language learners.
b) Aptitude is usually considered as a cognitive variable, and also important in explaining varia- ble performance among learners. Ellis (2005) claims that language aptitude is one of the best predicators
of second or foreign language learning.
1.4. Motivation and Attitude
A. Motivation is probably the most often used term for explaining the success or failure of virtually any complex task. Motivation is defined by Gardner as the combination of effort +desire to achieve the goal of learning the language +favorable attitudes towards learning the language.
Motivation refers to the directed effort indivi dual learners make to learn the language. Thus, motivation and achievement are only indirectly related, according to Gardner & Lambert (1972), who carried out one of the best-known studies of motivation in language learning.
B. Attitudes
Actually, motivation is examined as a factor of a number of different kinds of attitudes. Different clusters of attitudes are divided into two basic types of motivation: instrumental and integrative motivation.
(1) Instrumental motivation refers to moti-vation to acquire a language as means for attain -ing instrumental goals: furthering a career, read -ing technical material, translation, and so forth.
An integrative motivation is employed when a learner wishes to integrate himself within the culture of the target language group, to identify himself with and become a part of that society.
In conclusion, integrative motivation has been shown with instrumental motivation to serve as a powerful predicator of success in formal contexts.
C. Social Context
The social contexts help to determine both what kind of orientation learners have and what kind is most important for language learning. There is no single means of learning a second language:
Some learners in some contexts are more suc -cessful in learning a language if they are integra- tively oriented, and others in different contexts benefit from an instrumental orientation.
It is likely that the relationship between moti- vation and achievement is an interactive one. A high level of motivation exactly stimulates learn -ing but perceived success in achieving the goals can help to maintain existing motivation and even create new types.
D. Interest
Interest is identified by Keller (1984) as one of the main elements of motivation, defining it as a positive response to stimuli based on existing cognitive structures in such a way that learners’ c uriosity is aroused and sustained. Self-direction is essential in ensuring the success of a foreign language learning.
E. Suggestions
Some suggestions offered by William & Burden (2000:141-2) for teachers to direct their own practice in motivating their learners:
a. To recognize the complexity of motivation
b. To be aware of both initiating and sustaining motivation.
c. To discuss with learners why they are carrying out activities.
d. To recognize people as individuals.
e. To build up individ uals’ beliefs in them-selves. ….etc
Therefore, researchers claim that attitudes are said to affect motivation which in turn affect the target language acquisition. Thus based on correlations, attitudes are said to have an important but indirect effect on language acquisition.
F. In Application
(1)On the whole, our foreign language learners are “appreciative” about the people of the target language and their languages, which is very beneficial for learning while some Chinese learners feel it very hard to learn a foreign language due to many cultural and methodological and environmental causes.
(2)(2) From the motivation types of foreign language learning, most of the Chinese learners are instrumentally-motivated with the exception of a small number of the Chinese learners, who are integratively-motivated because of their special family backgrounds and interests. Most learners are exam-oriented or career-driven to learn a foreign language.
Assignments
1. What is the best age for the Chinese to start learning English in China ?
2. What motivation types do most Chinese learners have in FLL? Why?
3. Are instrumentally-motivated Chinese learners successful in FLL? Why?
4. How are Chinese learners efficiently motivated in FLL ?
1.5. Cognitive Style
a. The Concept
The idea of cognitive style stems from general psychology. It is generally defined as the charac -teristic ways in which individuals orientate to problem solving in language learning process.
Moreover, Little & Singleton (1990) believe that the studies of cognitive styles can be helpful for adult learners to explore their own learning pre -ferences and to shape their learning approach to cater for the requirements of a particular learn -ing task.
b. Relations between cognitive styles and SLL
Naiman et al. (1978), do find a link between cognitive styles and second language achieve- ment, is field independence / dependence.
Field independence /dependence
(依赖型风格与独立型风格）
(1)According to Naiman, people are termed field dependent if they are unable to abstract an element from its context, or background field. On the other hand, Naiman et al. find that field independent learners scored higher on imitation and listening comprehension tasks than subjects who are field dependent.
(2) A field-dependent person has difficulty find -ing a geometric shape that is embedded or "hidden" in a background with similar (but not identical) lines and shapes. The conflicting patterns distract the person from identifying the given figure. A person who is field-independent can readily identify the geometric shape, regard -less of the background in which it is set. This manner of interpretation, however, is not limited to visual cues. Many researchers are studying auditory and other sensory perception abilities that may vary from person to person. There is also a strong connection between this cognitive style and social interactions. People who are field-dependent are frequently describ -ed as being very interpersonal and having a well-developed ability to read social cues and to openly convey their own feelings.
Others describe them as being very warm, friendly, and personable. Interestingly, Witkin and Donald Goodenough, in their 1981 book Cognitive Styles, explained that this may be due to a lack of
separation between the self and the environment (or "field") on some level. Field-dependent people notice a lack of structure in the environment (if it exists) and are more affected by it than other people. Thus most of the available evidence offers support for a relationship between field inde -pendence and second language learning success.
(2) Brown (2004) suggests that field inde-
pendence may be important to classroom learn -ing and to performance on paper-and-tests; however, when it comes to untutored second language acquisition, field dependence
may be more beneficial because successful foreign language learning will be determined by how well the learner can communicate with speakers of the target languages, and empathy will help in this regards. But of the three measures of language proficiency, there is the weakest link between field independence and communicative competence.
Reflectivity/ Impulsivity(思考型与冲动）
(1) Individuals who have a reflective cognitive style tend to mull ( ponder) things over when making a decision. Conversely, an impulsive person tends to make a quick guess when faced with uncertainty.
It is quite common that impulsive learners
make more errors in reading than those reflec-tive learners.
Aural / Visual
(口头表述型与视觉感受型）
(1)This cognitive style refers to a person’s pref erred mode of presentation: aural or visual. Levin et al. (1974) observe that many learners could be considered bi-model, i.e. learning via one mode or the other does not contribute appreciably to a difference in outcome. But for a sizable minority, approximately 25 percent of all learners, the mode of instruction clearly does influence their success as language learners.
Analytic/ Gestalt （分析型与整合性）
(2) Gestalt Thinking: Learning to see and record the world in terms of wholes, whose properties are so unified that they cannot be derived from their parts. Gesture drawing exercises attempt to record the gestalt without the analytical details.
Analytical (Visual) Thinking: The mental act of separating a visual whole into its elemental parts so that one or more of them can be studied in depth. In visual analytical thinking, mental skill must be expressed in an observable activity that communicates clearly the degree of learning; verbalization about the nature of the learning must never replace appropriate visual expression.
In 1974, Hatch made a distinction between learners who are data-gathers and those who are rule-formers. The former are fluent but inaccu -rate producers of the target language, while the latter are much more halting in their use of the target language, but more accurate as well.
Assignments:
1.What cognitive styles do Chinese learners maintain in FLL? Compare field independent learners and field dependent learners in FLL.
2. How can a teacher of English improve learn -ing styles of learners so as to learn English efficiently in the Chinese classrooms?
1.6 Self-esteem and anxiety
(1) Self-esteem is considered to be the most pervasive aspect of any human behavior. No successful cognition or affective activity can be carried out without some degree of self-esteem, i.e. knowledge of oneself, and belief in his
own capabilities.
(2) Self-esteem is in fact derived from the accumulation of experience with them- selves and with others and from assessments of the world around them. Three general levels of self-esteem have been described:
A. Global self-esteem
It is relatively stable in a mature adult, and is resistant to change except by active and extended therapy.
B. Situational or specific self-esteem
It refers to one’s self-appraisals in particular life situations, such as social interaction, work, educa -tion, home, or on certain relatively discretely defined traits, such as intelligence, communicative ability, etc.
C. Task self-esteem
It relates to particular tasks within specific situations. Specific self-esteem might include foreign language learning in general, while task self-esteem might refer to one’s self evaluation of a particular aspect of the process: speaking, writing, a particular class in a target language, or even a special kind of classroom exercise.
(3) “ Willingness to communicate” is considered as significance of self-esteem by MacIntype & Gardner(1989) in a foreign language learning setting.
Anxiety
1) The construct of anxiety plays an important part in foreign language learning. Anxiety is simply related to feelings of uneasiness, frustra -tion, self-doubt, apprehension, or worry.
2) Just like self-esteem, anxiety can be experienced at various levels ( Oxford 1990) ---At the global level, trait anxiety is a more permanent predisposition to be anxious.
--At the situational level, state anxiety is experie -nced in relation to some particular event or act.
3) Three components of foreign language anxiety identified by MacIntype & Gardner (1991)
A. Communication apprehensio n, arising from the learner’s inability to adequately express mature thoughts and ideas;
B. Fear of negative social evaluation, arising from a learner’s need to make a positive social impression on others;
C. Test anxiety, or apprehension over academic evaluation.
4) Another view about anxiety is not to view it as a total negative factor or still another, as facilitative anxiety, which means that some apprehension over a task is necessary or positive in learning.
The learner then becomes alert and cannot relax entirely.
Thus, it could well be that a little nervous ten- sion in the process of learning is good and that it is believed that there is an optimal point along the continuum: both too much and too little anxiety may hinder the success of language learning.
Assignment
1. How is self-esteem of a learner built in English teaching ?
2. How is proper tension of a learner kept and overdue tension reduced in one aspect (listening, reading, speaking )of English teaching?
2. Studies on Learning Process
2.1 On the role of previous acquired know -ledge and the transfer of native (mother tongue) language 1). Knowledge of the mother tongue
In recent years researches have got to under -stand that language learning is a creative process of constructing a system in which learners are testing hypotheses about the target language
from a number of possible sources of know -ledge, such as limited knowledge of the target language itself, knowledge about their first language, knowledge of the real world.
2).The influence of the mother tongue (native language knowledge) on the acquisition of a
foreign language
a. It lies in the degree of aware -ness of this knowledge of the learner.
The younger, the learner, the less he or she is influenced; the older, the learner, the more he or
she is influenced.
b. In the 1950s to 1960s when behaviorist linguistic theories thrived, contrastive analysts argued that the negative transfer of the native language is the only cause of the learning difficulty of a foreign language.
c. However, EA (Error Analysis) researchers later found that of the errors committed by the learners only 25% or so attribute to the influe- nce of the negative transfer of the mother ton -gue while the other errors are due to excessive use of common cognitive means (一般认知手段) , such as inference, generalization…etc .
d. According to Shu Dingfang, for a foreign language learner who has known the basic vocabulary and grammatical structure of a language, the learning of the vocabulary and semantic structure of the target language must be influenced by the vocabulary and semantic knowledge of the native language; additionally, different nations have different ways of communication and discourse structures, the knowledge of which in the native language must surely influence the acquisition of the new ways of communication and discourse structures in different situations, ways and degrees.
Moreover, the distance between the native language and the target language has much to do with the transfer of the native language.
It is found in some studies that 51% of the errors committed in English learning by the learners whose native language is Chinese are due to their negative transfer of the language while only 3% of the errors made by those English learners whose native language is Spani- sh are due to the negative transfer of the language. ( Ellis, 1986: 29)
In conclusion, the native language plays a very complicated role in the acquisition of a foreign language such that it is worth-while for a teacher of foreign languages to study on how to make good use of native languages of our learners to encourage a positive transfer of them and reduce a negative transfer. Assignments:
1. What is the greatest negative transfer of Chinese in the English learning? How can it be efficiently improved?
2. How do you understand the distance between English and Chinese in the English teaching in China?
3. How can one aspect of positive transfer of Chinese be efficiently employed to enhance the English learning ?
2.2 On the study of inter-language
2.2.1 The definition and its theory
a. Inter-language has appeared in recent years as a new concept in the learning theories of foreign languages. Inter-language as ―a legitimate system of the target language in its own right‖ is neither the system of the native language nor the system of the target language, but a system based upon the best attempt of the learners to provide order and structure to the linguistic stimuli surrounding him. (Dai Weidong 2007:33)
b. While learning a second language, learners build up a system for themselves which is differe -nt in some ways from their first language and second language systems.
The system which the learners build up for themselves has been given various names, but the most widely used terminology is that suggest -ed by Selinker (1974). He calls this Intelanguage to emphasize the structurally intermediate status of the learner’s language system between his mother tongue and his target language. A detail -ed study of this Inter-language could help us to understand the learners’ problems better and try to provide timely help to learners, so that they achieve competence in the language they are trying to learn.
2.2.2 Selinker’s theory of Interlanguage
1） Based on the theory that there is a ‘psycho -logical structure latent in the brain’ which is activated when one attempts to learn a second language. Selinker (1972) proposes the theory of Inter-language.
Selinker says that in a given situation the utter -ances produced by the learner are different from those native speakers would produce had they attempted to convey the same meaning.
This comparison reveals a separate linguistic system. This system can be observed when we study the utterances of the learners who attempt to produce a target language norm.
2）To study the psychological processes involved one should compare the Inter-language of the learner with two things. These two things are as under:
---Utterances in the native language to convey the same message made by the learner.
---Utterances in the target language to convey the same messagemade by the native speaker of that language.
According to Selinker five central processes are responsible for this Inter-language. They are:
--language transfer.
--transfer of training.
--strategies of second language learning.
--strategies of second language communication.
—overgeneralization.
Jean D’Souza (1977) thinks these five process -es could be reduced to three. for according to him. there is no clear cut distinction between processes three. four and five. According to him overgener -alization could include strategies of second lan -guage learning and strategies of second language communication. Besides he points out that it is not always possible to say with certainty
whether a learner uses a particular form because he thinks it is enough to communicate effectively or because he is using a particular strategy.
c. According to inter-language theory, the forei gn language learnt by the learner is a continuous process of gradual accumulation and perfection during which every point forms a system and has its unique features. (根据中介语理论，外语学习者所学的外语知识是一个逐渐积累和逐渐完善的过程，整个过程形成一种连续体，在这一连续体上的每一个时点都形成一个系统，具有其独特的特点（束定芳2006:57) 。
In the study of inter-language, we can know which stage of learning a learner is on and which strategies the learner is practicing, which is of great significance to the understanding of the characteristics of the learning process of a foreign language and the designing of teaching plans and methodologies.
d. The key issues of Inter-language Theory
(1) What processes are responsible for inter-language construction?
(2) What is the nature of the inter-language continuum ?
(3) What are features of the inter-language system?
(4) What explanation is there for the fact that most learners do not achieve full target language competence?
(5) What is the role of input and output during a learner’s inter-language development? Page 36
2.2.3 Inter-language Researches
1)Contrastive Analysis( CA 对比分析)
a). It thrived in the 1950s to 60s.
b). It was replaced by Error Analysis and Inter-language researches
c). CA was given much attention again in
the 1980s more on its new perspectives.
(1) The influence of the native languages
enlightened by Weinreich (1953 )and Haugen (1956) on bilingual studies of the immigrants, Lado focused this influence upon the learning process of foreign languages.
Lado made a well-known formula that it is easy for a foreign language learner to learn the components of the target language which are similar to the components of the native language while it is difficult for him to learn the different components of the target language.
This formula indicates that (1) The native language of a foreign language learner can be compared with the target language;
(2) According to the differences in CA, we will predict some language items which cause difficulty in learning and the errors a learner may make;
(3) We will decide by the predictions which items should be particularly dealt with in the curricu- lum and textbooks;
(4) In order to cope with these particular items we can overcome the interference of the native language so as to form new language habits by means of intensification (e.g. repetition and drilling practice).
(2) New Changes of CA and Its Criticism
A. New Changes
In the late 1960s when the psychological and linguistic foundations of CA were severely challenged and applied linguistics and language teaching were influenced by cognitive psychology, CA changed to the process study of language acquisition as it was doubted about its prediction on the errors of a learner.
B. CA criticism
So far those aspects of CA criticized are:
(1)that CA equals differences of a language with difficulty. But ―differences‖ by the critics are in the forms of a language while ―difficulty‖ is a concept in psychology.
No psychological evidence shows the equality of these two concepts.
(2)Another criticism about the CA theory has the limitation in the prediction of learners’ errors, which is one of the most essential causes for the decline of CA.
In conclusion, as a means of language researches, CA is far from perfection, but it has become an important way in the theoretical studies of linguistics and a necessary facilitator in the foreign language teaching.
C. Some CA advocates believed that all the errors in the foreign language learning derive from the negative transfer of the native language. However, some experiments found that learners are likely to make mistakes in both the forms and similarities between the target language and the native language. Now as the CA study has rapidly developed, the range of the CA study has extended to the CA between pragmatics and discourse structures, with a pragmatic focus on the conditions of speech acts, the analyses of communicative patterns in order to reveal the fact that to what extent the native language influences the transfer and development of communicative competence.
Assignments:
1.What are the differences between inter -language and the target language or the native language?
2.How do you understand the process of a foreign language acquisition is a process of reconstruction of a knowledge structure?
3.How can inter-language be applied in the study of semantic knowledge and pragmatic knowledge ?
if a study is conducted on EA of a learner.
(2) Provide researchers with evidences of how learners learn or acquire a foreign language and what strategies and measures they employ in learning.
(3) EA is exactly essential for the learner himself because it is one of the methods in learning make mistakes in the acquisition of a language and it is also one of the methods to assume the nature of the language he is learning.
2) Psychological Foundation of EA
EA is psychologically based on cognitive theory, which is closely related with Chomsky’s language acquisition mechanism and universal grammar. One of the EA fundamental hypotheses is a special language mechanism in the mind. One of the EA main objectives is to try to reveal how much the universal grammar influences the second language acquisition.
3) The General Function Steps of EA:
A. To select language materials
B. To identify errors
C. To classify errors
D. To explain the causes of errors
E. To evaluate results for improvement of teaching
4) Issues in EA
A. In EA study a most frequently asked question is: By what criteria can an error of the learner be identified, the criterion of the native people or the criterion of the learner himself ?
Some researchers argue that since inter-language is a language, it surely has many variants,
e.g. “It has to be Henry here. Or it must be Henry here.”
It is quite natural at times for a learner to say something as exactly as a native speaker does while at other times he can’t. Thus we can have different criteria for different learners, both native people and non-natives.
B. Now some researchers tend to consider that it is more natural for a learner to conduct a wrong linguistic act than make a mistake in learning. That’s why foreign language learners can not speak the target language as idioma -tically as native speakers.
C. Shu Dingfang argues that as the purposes of acquisition of a foreign language vary the criteria of them should be different. Some learners are evaluated by the criteria of the native people, but others are not. E.g. Some people have to communicate with the native people in the target language while others only try to communicate with their own people in the target language.( like in China)
5) Two Views of EA
A.Behaviorist view considers that an error is a deviation in the stimulus and response. (刺激-反应中的一种偏差）The correct form of the error can be rein- forced in a new stimulus.
B. Cognitive view argues that a learner’s error proves him a flexible decision maker with a good judgment. During the process of learning and communicating he can well adjust his goals and ways to the goals. Thus this view holds that it is unnecessary for a learner to deliberately try to correct errors, for it natural for him to make an error and he can easily make few errors when his language ability is good enough.
C. Shu Dingfang argues that both the views are biased in some ways. The behaviorist view is too mechanical about errors while the cognitive view is too generous about errors. We must distinguish between two errors: an error in under- standing and an error in expression.
Understanding errors show that learners are ignorant of the target language rules. For this teachers have to tell them the right usages for them to learn. Expressing errors are made due to the differences between the two knowledge systems and two competences.
6) The Contributions of EA
A. EA has made CA reevaluated so that CA research has been found some limitations in the foreign language teaching.
B. EA research has changed the people’s view about the nature of errors from avoidance or correction of errors to a guidance to language learning
C. An effective method and program about EA has been developed. Nowadays, EA has become an important part in the SLA studies.
7) Important discoveries of EA
A.The influence of errors on intelligibility in the language communication is not so serious as learners imagine.
B. The influence EA has upon intelligibility does not merely lie in the nature of errors themselves, but lies in how much language environment can help a learner understand what a speaker means.
C. It is shown in some researches that generally vocabulary errors have more influences on communication than grammatical errors.
Phonetic errors have the least influence on communication. There are differences in the degrees of errors among the three errors.
8）The Limitation of EA Research
A. It is difficult to define the definition and the criteria of errors.
B. There is no unified criteria for the classification of errors. Some people
have classified errors into “intra-lingual” (语内）errors and “inter-lingual”(语际) errors, but some errors can not be classified into either of them. For example, “ I am knowing him well.” due to teachers’ over-emphasis on grammatical rules of the present continuous tense.
C. It is very hard for EA to explain “avoidance” (回避）in the communicative strategy….etc. Assignments:
1.What is the difference between the criterion of language proficiency of native speakers and that of foreigners in English? Why?
2. What is the difference in the influence of communication between global errors (整体错误) and local errors(局部错误）? Why?
A global error means an error (conjunctions) which affects the whole structure of a sentence while a local error (misuse of an article) refers to an error of elements in a small part of a sentence. Questions for the Final Theses
1. What do you think is the positive transfer of Chinese in the English learning ? How can it be efficiently employed to enhance the English learning?
2. How can a teacher of English improve English learning of a poor learner by the improvement of his learning strategies?
3. How can a teacher improve the content of language input of learners by inter-language theory?
4. What is the difference in the influence of communication between global errors (整体错误) and local errors(局部错误）?
Note:
A global error means an error (e.g. conjunctions) which affects the whole structure of a sentence while a local error (e.g. misuse of an article) refers to an error of elements in a small part of a sentence.
5. What is the greatest negative transfer of Chinese in the English learning? How can it be efficiently improved?
6. On the Improvement of the English learning through the positive transfers of Chinese ?
7.On the equivalence between Chinese and English in Translation
8. On the Improvement of English Vocabulary Learning of the Chinese Learners from a cognitive linguistics perspective?
9.On the Different Proficiency Criteria between Inter-language and Other Languages
10. On the Influence Differences between Lexi -cal Errors and Grammatical Errors in Communication
3) Learning Strategy
A. The Features
Learners who are strategically smart are assumed to become successful in language learning.
The main characteristics of strategies:
a. Meta-cognitive (元认知）strategies:
Make use of knowledge about cognitive processes and attempt to regulate language learning through planning, monitoring, and evaluating.
Meta-cognitive Model of Strategic Learning
Plan
Monitor Problem-solve
Evaluate
Oxford (1990): Diagram of the Strategy System ( 2 classes, 6 groups and 19 sets)
Direct Strategies:
Memory, cognitive strategies and compensation strategies
A Creating Mental Images
B Applying Images and sound
1. Memory C Reviewing well
D Employing action
A Practising
2. Cognitive S. B Receiving and sending
messages
C Analyzing and Reasoning
D Creating structure for input and output
A Guessing Intelligently
3. Compensation B Overcoming limitations
Strategies in speaking and writing
Indirect Strategies
1). Meta-cognitive strategies 2). affective strategies 3). social strategies
A Centering your learning
1)(MS) B Arranging and planning your
learning
C Evaluating your learning
A Lowering your anxiety
B Encouraging yourself
2) (AS) C Taking your emotional
temperature
A Asking questions
3) (SS) B Cooperating with others
C. Empathising with others
b. Cognitive strategies:
The strategies mean the operations used “in problem-solving that requires direct analysis, transformation or synthesis of learning material” ( Rubin 1994).
c. Social/ affective strategies:
They concern the ways in which learners select to interest with other learners and native speak -ers. Here are six broad strategies shared by good language learners
According to Ellis (1990; 2005), Cohen (2000), Cook (2000),
William & Burden (2000) and O’Malley & Chamot (2001).
a. Seeking for a learning style that suits them.
Good language learners become aware of the type of the target language learning that suits them best.
b. Involving themselves in the language learning process
Good language learners do not passively accept what is presented to them but go out to meet it. They participate more in the classroom, whether visibly or not.
c. Developing an awareness of language both as system and as communication
Good language learners are conscious not only that language is a complicated system of rules but also that it is used for a purpose.
d. Paying constant attention to expanding their language knowledge
Good language learners are not content with their knowledge of a language but are always trying to improve it. They make guesses about things they do not know.
Good language learners try to develop their knowledge of the target language in its own right and eventually to think in it.
f. Taking into account the demands that the target knowledge learning imposes
Good language learners realize that the target language can be very demanding. Another language is another soul.
Assignments:
1. What are the differences between learning strategies of good FL learners and those of poor FL learners? Why?
2. How can a teacher of English improve English learning of a poor learner by the improvement of learning strategies?
3. What role does a learning strategy play in the whole process of FLL?
Unit 2 Researches on Use of Language and the Cultivation
1. Introduction
A great focus in the research of modern lingui- stics is the transfer from an emphasis on the language forms to a focus on the analyses of language functions, in other words, on the studies of language in use, the most important subjects of which are social linguistics, cognitive linguistics and discourse analysis ..etc
Here we only take a study of the most influential subject—cognitive linguistics as our focus in this unit.
2. Cognitive Linguistics and Language Learning
1)Definition and Its Features
A. Definition
Cognitive linguistics, the science of the study of language forms, meanings and laws
starting from cognition, is a subject of language research based on the human experience about the world.
B. Features
On one hand it observes and studies languages from human cognitive knowledge ( the way people get to know the objective world); on the other hand, it tries to find out some laws in the studies of languages by observing it, to explore the relations between cognition and languages and the natures
of them and simultaneously prove that a language derives its meaning from human cognition.
2). Important Issues and the Philo- sophical Foundations of Cognitive Lin –guistics
A. Transforming Grammar by Chomsky
In t he 1950s to 1960s Chomsky started his transforming grammar and raised ―menta- lism‖( 心灵主义)—LAD ( language acquisition device, 语言习得机制) to revolutionize the re -search in languages to realize that a language is open-ended, dependent and a common product of objective world, social culture, physiological base and cognitive ability.
B. In the 1960s psychological linguistics and cognitive science led to the start
of cognitive psychology, which forms a part of cognitive linguistics with cognitive science together. C. Cognitive linguistics started in America and Europe in the late of the 1980s, a new science in linguistics. It has put forth a complete and challenging idea to the traditional theories in linguistics. Cognitive linguistics has been predicted to be “the hottest subject in the coming 20 years”( Prof. Liu Yun-qing)
3)The Philosophical Foundations of Cogni- tive Linguistics
A. Experiential Realism( 经验现实主义)
Cognitive linguistics studies the influence of cognitive structure ( the reflections about the objective world in the human mind) and the laws of cognition. Experiential realism argues that every experience has to follow some law and some structure, which makes an experiential gestalt(经验的完型). Thus the reflection of the objective world forms a cognitive world or cognitive structure in the human mind.
B. Psychology
Based on psychology, modern cognitive linguistics rapidly developed during 1960s to 70s and became a new dominating branch in psychology. It has not merely provided a new approach to the study of internal psychological mechanism in cognition---theory of information processing, but it states that
all are controlled by the cognitive process of man. Thus cognitive linguistics puts forth a study on the process and the structure of cognitive activities themselves so as to discover the nature of intelligence.
3). The Nature and Two Vital Issues of CL
A. The Nature
a. The Explanatory Nature
Cognitive linguistics is an explanatory linguistics. It states that as a a cognitive part, language must be limited by the cognitive human means and laws of the world. If cognitive linguistics intends to express its full descriptive power of language, it must explain any linguistic phenomenon and study the cognitive laws of human beings. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not merely describes linguistic facts, but it also devotes to the theoretical explanation of language, focusing on the discovery of the cognitive laws behind the linguistic facts.
b. The Semantic-centered nature
Cognitive linguistics centers on semantics.
Cognitive linguistics states that meanings are reproductive. Meanings of language are conceptualized as reflection of the human ex -perience and cognition of the world and correspond to human cognitive means and laws.
c. Reflection of Commonness of Linguistics
Although cognitive linguistics studies a certain language, it mainly tries to explore the commonness of language in order to discover the cognitive laws of the humans and the universal laws of language. B. Two Vital Issues
A. The Differences between cognitive linguistics and semantics
Both semantics and cognitive linguistics focus on meanings of language. However, semantics studies meaning, based on the assumption that meaning is independent of human perception and human cognition.
Cognitive linguistics focuses on the concept that linguistic expressions reflect a particular way of perceiving the world of the people. Thus the same thing can be interpreted differently when it is viewed from a different perspective. Cognitive linguistics emphasizes human cognitive abilities in learning of a language.
B. Category and Prototype
a. Category
Category refers to the classification of things in human cognition. From a cognitive perspective, category has two senses:
a). Unlike the traditional view that a category, a mechanical reflection of the objective world in the brain, is clearly defined with its members maintaining their own fixed common characteris -tics, belonging to a certain category, a category when viewed cognitively, is a fuzzy category. Firstly, them members of the category are defined not by their commonness, but by their familiarities of the category—some common features shared by its members in which some members share more of them than the others.
Secondly, those which share more of the common features of the category are prototyped or central members—prototyped while the others are non-prototyped or periph- eral members. Thus, categories are indefinite and fuzzy with each other.
b. Prototype
Prototype refers to a center around and in which members of a category go and share common features. Construction of a category is a process of fuzzy
construction around a prototype. It has 4 features: a. It is uncertain to determine the inherent nature and characteristics of a category and it changes according to the cognitive needs of people; b. it has a central or important feature and a peripheral or unimportant feature; c. there is an over- lapping combination between members in a category; d. members keep an unequal position between each other.
e.g. Birds (category)—robin(知更鸟)-swallow—sparrow-pigeon- cock- duck- parrot—etc…
软件工程专业学科前沿讲座报告 院 (系)：计算机科学与工程 专业：软件工程 班级：17060212 学生：张嘉琪 学号：17060212119
人工智能（Artificial Intelligence），英文缩写为AI。它是研究、开发用于模拟、延伸和扩展人的智能的理论、方法、技术及应用系统的一门新的技术科学。人工智能亦称智械、机器智能，指由人制造出来的机器所表现出来的智能。通常人工智能是指通过普通计算机程序来呈现人类智能的技术。通过医学、神经科学、机器人学及统计学等的进步，有些预测则认为人类的无数职业也逐渐被人工智能取代。 人工智能在计算机领域内，得到了愈加广泛的重视。并在机器人，经济政治决策，控制系统，仿真系统中得到应用。人工智能是计算机学科的一个分支，二十世纪七十年代以来被称为世界三大尖端技术之一（空间技术、能源技术、人工智能）。也被认为是二十一世纪三大尖端技术（基因工程、纳米科学、人工智能）之一。这是因为近三十年来它获得了迅速的发展，在很多学科领域都获得了广泛应用，并取得了丰硕的成果，人工智能已逐步成为一个独立的分支，无论在理论和实践上都已自成一个系统。 人工智能是研究使计算机来模拟人的某些思维过程和智能行为（如学习、推理、思考、规划等）的学科，主要包括计算机实现智能的原理、制造类似于人脑智能的计算机，使计算机能实现更高层次的应用。人工智能将涉及到计算机科学、心理学、哲学和语言学等学科。可以说几乎是自然科学和社会科学的所有学科，其范围已远远超出了计算机科学的范畴，人工智能与思维科学的关系是实践和理论的关系，人工智能是处于思维科学的技术应用层次，是它的一个应用分支。从思维观点看，人工智能不仅限于逻辑思维，要考虑形象思维、灵感思维才能促进人工智能的突破性的发展，数学常被认为是多种学科的基础科学，数学也进入语言、思维领域，人工智能学科也必须借用数学工具，数学不仅在标准逻辑、模糊数学等范围发挥作用，数学进入人工智能学科，它们将互相促进而更快地发展。通常，“机器学习”的数学基础是“统计学”、“信息论”和“控制论”。还包括其他非数学学科。这类“机器学习”对“经验”的依赖性很强。计算机需要不断从解决一类问题的经验中获取知识，学习策略，在遇到类似的问题时，运用经验知识解决问题并积累新的经验，就像普通人一样。我们可以将这样的学习方式称之为“连续型学习”。但人类除了会从经验中学习之外，还会创造，即“跳跃型学习”。这在某些情形下被称为“灵感”或“顿悟”。一直以来，计算机最难学会的就是“顿悟”。或者再严格一些来说，计算机在学习和“实践”方面难以学会“不依赖于量变的质变”，很难从一种“质”直接到另一种“质”，或者从一个“概念”直接到另一个“概念”。正因为如此，这里的“实践”并非同人类一样的实践。人类的实践过程同时包括经验和创造。这是智能化研究者梦寐以求的东西。 前景:目前随着人工智能AI的迅猛发展，今后几年触摸一体机一定会和人工智能
1.什么是信息，信息科学研究的内容主要包含哪些方面？ 答：信息含义： 1）形式化信息： 就是将技术观的信息或申农所首先明确的通信意义上的信息概念推广，之所有的经过语音、文字符号、图像、或电子技术处理的信息。 2)狭义信息： 包括形式化信息和效用信息。所谓效用信息就是某些人在定义信息时要求的具有新颖性、价值性等特点的信息，及那些被人们认为具有某种经济、政治、军事或其他社会价值的信息。 3）广义信息： 广义信息包括狭义信息以及目前被很多学者认为属于信息的东西。如被表述出来的感觉和认知、书本知识、各种数据资料、消息以及一些尚未被辨识的事物之间的某些联系等。主要内容：光通讯技术：光通讯的基本概念，光通讯的发展趋势，光通讯的重要意义和应用。通信与信息系统：介绍通讯与信息系统的基本概念，通信与信息系统的应用领域，通信与信息系统的历史和最新进展等。 物理电子与纳米技术：电子学与物理的关系、纳米材料技术、纳米电子学、纳米表征技术等。 无线通信技术：无线通讯的基本概念，无线通讯的发展现状与趋势等。
量子电子学与激光技术：量子电子器件的基本知识、发展历史和现状、量子电子的应用领域等。 计算机软件：介绍计算机软件的概念、计算机软件的主要研究内容，计算机软件的发展趋势，软件工程等。 计算机体系结构：：计算机体系结构的基本概念，计算机体系结构的发展历史、现状与趋势。 计算机网络与信息系统：计算机网络的基本概念，计算机网络的基础知识，计算机网络的主要作用。 数字多媒体技术：数字媒体技术的基础知识、标准以及国内外的发展现状和未来。 2.什么是数字签名，数字签名有什么特征？ 答：以电子形式存在于数据信息之中的，或作为其附件的或逻辑上与之有联系的数据，可用于辨别数据签署人的身份，并表明签署人对数据信息中包含的信息的认可。 鉴权 公钥加密系统允许任何人在发送信息时使用私钥进行加密，数字签名能够让信息接收者利用发送者的公钥确认发送者的身份。当然，接收者不可能百分之百确信发送者的真实身份，而只能在密码系统未被破译的情况下才有理由确信。 鉴权的重要性在财务数据上表现得尤为突出。举个例子，假设一家银行将指令由它的分行传输到它的中央管理系统，指令的格式是(a,b)，其中a是账户的账号，而b是账户的现有金额。这时一位远程
当代无机化学发展前沿 【论文摘要】: 无机化学是化学学科里其它各分支学科的基础学科，在近年来取得较突出的进展，主要表现在固体材料化学、配位化学等方面。未来无机化学的发展特点是各学科交叉纵横相互渗透，用以解决工业生产与人民生活的实际问题。文章就当代无机化学研究的前沿与未来发展趋势做了简要阐述。 当前无机化学的发展趋向主要是新型的无机化合物的合成和应用，以及新的研究领域的开辟和建立。因此21世纪理论与计算方法的运用将大大加强理论和实验更加紧密的结合。同时各学科间的深入发展和学科间的相互渗透，形成许多学科的新的研究领域。例如，生物无机化学就是无机化学与生物学结合的边缘学科；固体无机化学是十分活跃的新兴学科；作为边沿学科的配位化学日益与其它相关学科相互渗透与交叉。 根据国际上最新进展和我国的具体情况,文章就“无机合成与制备化学研究进展”和“我国无机化学最新研究进展”两个方面进行阐述： 一、无机合成与制备化学研究进展 无机合成与制备在固体化学和材料化学研究中占有重要的地位, 是化学和材料科 学的基础学科。发展现代无机合成与制备化学, 不断地推出新的合成反应和路线或改进和绿化现有的陈旧合成方法, 不断地创造与开发新的物种, 将为研究材料结构、性能(或功能) 与反应间的关系、揭示新规律与原理提供基础。近年来无机合成与制备化学研究的新进展主要表现为以下几个方面： （一）极端条件合成 在现代合成中愈来愈广泛地应用极端条件下的合成方法与技术来实现通常条件下无法进行的合成, 并在这些极端条件下开拓多种多样的一般条件下无法得到的新化合物、新物相与物态。超临界流体反应之一的超临界水热合成就是无机合成化学的一个重要分支。 （二）软化学合成 与极端条件下的合成化学相对应的是在温和条件下功能无机材料的合成与晶 化, 即温和条件下的合成或软化学合成。由于苛刻条件对实验设备的依赖与技术上的不易控制性, 减弱了材料合成的定向程度。而温和条件下的合成化学——即“软化学合成”,正是具有对实验设备要求简单和化学上的易控性和可操作性特点, 因而在无机材料合成化学的研究 领域中占有一席之地。 （三）缺陷与价态控制 缺陷与特定价态的控制是固体化学和固体物理重要的研究对象, 也是决定和优化 材料性能的主要因素。材料的许多性质如发光、导电、催化等都和缺陷与价态有关。晶体生长行为和材料的反应性与缺陷关系密切, 因此, 缺陷与价态在合成中的控制显然成为重要的科学题。缺陷与特定价态的生成和变化与材料最初生成条件有关, 因此，可通过控制材料生成条件来控制材料中的缺陷和元素的价态。 （四）计算机辅助合成 计算机辅助合成是在对反应机理有了了解的基础上进行的理论模拟过程。国际上一般为建立与完善合成反应与结构的原始数据库, 再在系统研究其合成反应与机理的基础
测控技术与仪器专业发展前沿报告 通过上这门测控技术与仪器专业前沿选修课，对马上要考研的我有所帮助。对本专业有了较之前更深入的认识，包括本专业的基本研究领域，考研方向，专业发展方向等。 本专业的考研方向主要有一起和控制两方面。本专业研究领域很广，包括计算机应用、电子信息、智能仪器、虚拟仪器、测 量与控制等多领域的产品设计制造、科技开发、应用研究、企业 管理等，还包括计量、测试、控制工程、智能仪器仪表、计算机 软件和硬件等高新技术领域的设计、制造、开发和应用等。测控包括几个很重要的过程：信号采集、信号整理、信号处理、数据 显示控制。信号采集主要是通过各种（温度、流量、压力、湿度、气味等）传感器采集对象发出的各种信号；信号整理主要是对采 集到的电信号进行平整、滤波、模数转换等，转换成便于处理的数字信号；信号处理主要是对数字信号进行处理以便显示，或者发出控制信号；数据显示控制环节中显示主要是指将数字信号通过便于我们观察的形式显示出来以便我们进行判断，而控制主要是指将控制信号传送给并作用于对象的过程。上面的四个环节就构成了整个测控的过程。 本专业（参考网上的资料）发展方向与学科前沿有： (1)配合数控设备的技术创新(如主轴速度，精度创成) 数控设备的主要误差来源可分为几何误差和热误差。对 于重复出现的系统误差，可采用软件修正；对于随机误
差较大的情况，要采用实时修正方法。对于热误差，一 般要通过温度测量进行修正。中国机床行业市场萎缩同 时又大量进口国外设备的原因之一就是因为这方面的技 术没有得到推广应用。 (2)运行和制造过程的监控和在线检测技术； 为了在开放环境下求得生存空间，没有自主创新技术是 没有出路的。因此应该根据有专利权、有技术含量、有 市场等原则选择一些项目予以支持。根据当前发展现状， 信息、生命医学、环保、农业等领域需要的产品应给予 优先支持。如医学中介入治疗的精密仪器设备、电子工 业中的超分辨光刻和清洁方法和机理研究等。 (3)配合信息产业和生产科学的技术创新 为了在开放环境下求得生存空间，没有自主创新技术是 没有出路的。因此应该根据有专利权、有技术含量、有 市场等原则选择一些项目予以支持。根据当前发展现状， 信息、生命医学、环保、农业等领域需要的产品应给予 优先支持。如医学中介入治疗的精密仪器设备、电子工 业中的超分辨光刻和清洁方法和机理研究等。 这次专业选修课由几个老师共同介绍，我比较感兴趣的是迟键男老师讲的计算机视觉技术，也有意向读研时研究计算机视觉。同时，我还在做一个基于图像处理的车流量监测科技创新项目，有较大的联
小学数学教学改革的动态和发展趋势 (一)培养目标 更加突出了一个共识，即更加强调创造性人才的培养。更加强调通过形形色色、生动活泼的数学课内外教学，达到激发学生学习兴趣和培养学生创造性思维活动的目的。创造性志向要从小培养，培养学生改造环境，勇于参与健全的人类活动，自愿为推动人类社会进步，为祖国的繁荣强盛，建设发展而创造的意向和理想，并从小在学校教育中得到培养。 要培养学生的创造志向，首先要诱导学生的创造愿望，使之成为学生掌握创造才干的重要动力。因此，当前小学数学教育中普遍存的以计算技能和解决常规问题为重点的教学内容、教学方法已不能适应这一变化。反之要求我们在数学教学活动中，尽量使学生思想开阔活跃，不受压抑，不因循守旧，不沿袭传统，不唯书唯上。换句话说，如何调动学生学习的主动精神和自我构建能力，是教学实践中应该考虑的核心之一。认识大千世界的好奇心，寓教于游戏的浓厚趣味，促进学生提问和多思路的解题的参与意识，都是引起学习动机的重要因素。实践证明，儿童的强烈学习动机是培养其创造志向并进而掌握创性才干的前提。 (二)学习方式 更加倡导学生"主动参与、探究发现、合作交流"的学习方式。培养学生的创造才能的正确途径是什么呢？国内外为此开展了广泛的研究和探索，形成多样、效果不一。但在有一点已经达成了共识即由教师讲授学生被动学习的学习方式必须改变。 数学本身就是一门思维深邃、逻辑严谨的科学。一个数学问题，既有数学结构，又有逻辑一一语言结构。因此，学生在上数学课，尤其是在解决数学问题时包含着复杂的心智活动，如联想、分析、分类、想象、选择作计划、预测、推论、心算、估算、检验和评价等。这就要求我们在教学中安排适当的情境，以帮助学生打开思路，理解问题和形成多渠道的发散思维。亦即要善于应用各种手段(包括常规教具和现代化的教具)，引导学生主动参与积极思考，而非仅仅是通过感官学习；引得学生多提出问题、讨论问题和解决问题，自主探索问题的结论，而非一味模仿或机械记忆；要善于应用当今世界科技发展和社会进步的新鲜事例，将学生引向自己探索发现的道路，而非完全接受教师的知识传授。 合作交流学习方式是近几年在国内外教学中积极倡导的一种学习组织方式，学会合作和交流也是现代社会人才应该具备的一种能力。因此，在设计教学计划和组织教学的过程中，教师应经常给学生组织合作与交流的机会，使学生在合作交流的过程中学习别人的方法和想法，表达自己对问题的看法，从而学会从不同的角度认识数学，学会倾听别人发表意见的好习惯。另外在合作交流学习的过程中，学生还可以逐步意识到在激烈竞争的现代社会中，合作的重要性，没有合作就可能失败，没有合作，就没有人类的进步，发展也将受到最大的限制。但是在现阶段，这种学习的方式，还往往流于形式，其中还有很多问题，值得进一步研究、探讨。 (三)教学内容的选择 更加强调现代化更加强调结合学生的生活实际。把逻辑体系与心理体系结合起来确定教学内容及进行教学实验已经形成一种改革的趋势。
化学前沿综述报告 摘要：催化剂的概念以及在新能源和环境治理中的应用，如：煤燃烧、废水处理。关键字：催化剂煤燃烧废水处理 化学前沿综述课不是一门只是教授书本知识的课程。在这里我学到了很多新鲜、实际的知识，大大拓宽了知识面。从中了解了当前化学各学科大致的发展方向以及如何在实际中将所学到的化学专业知识应用起来。在“化学反应动力学前沿简介”报告中我了解到了固体表面特征、固体表面孔的类型、固体表面力与吸附的关系、以及吸附原理、吸附平衡及其表征方法。在“自组装与光子晶体”报告中我了解了光子晶体是将两种或两种以上介质材料排列成具有光波长量级的一维、二维或三维周期结构的人工晶体。由于光子晶体具有光子带隙,光子局域等特性, 所以它具有巨大的应用前景。在“过渡金属催化的碳氢键活化”报告中我了解了碳氢键活化反应都需要对底物进行卤化或金属化等预活化步骤,因此过渡金属催化的通过碳氢键活化直接构筑碳-碳键的方法就成为构筑碳-碳键的绿色经济的途径。在这门课中也是我对催化剂有了新的了解和认识，催化剂在实际应用是广泛的，如在新能源和环境治理中。 当前新能源问题和环境治理是社会关注的热点，而催化剂在这两个领域将是很有作为的。新能源领域：我国是能源消耗大国，而在我国能源消耗结构中，煤占有重要地位。所以合理有效开发利用煤是一个具有现实意义的课题。环境治理方面：我国和全球都面临着严重的环境问题，其中水污染尤为严重，治理也就尤为迫切。所以利用催化剂在治理水污染具有长远意义。下面就简述一下催化剂的概念和在工业实际中的应用。 催化剂会诱导化学反应发生改变，而使化学反应变快或减慢或者在较低的温度环境下进行反应。催化剂在工业上也称为触媒。化学催化剂的应用历史很长，特别在石油化工、精细化工、有机化工和生物化工中，可以说，催化技术已成为化学工业最关键的核心技术之一。据统计，到目前为止，人类所掌握的化学反应80%以上必须在催化剂存在下才能实现。在化学工业生产中，最常用的催化剂是无机酸和无机碱。催化剂对化学反应速率的影响非常大，有的催化剂可以使化学反应速率加快到几百万倍以上。催化剂一般具有选择性，它仅能使某一反应或某
学科专业前沿知识及职业导航 机械设计制造及其自动化专业是研究各种工业机械装备及机电产品从设计、制造、运行控制到生产过程的企业管理的综合技术学科。机械设计制造及其自动化专业研究的主要内容包括机械与机器的组成原理、运动分析方法、力学分析方法及电气控制原理，各种机电产品的设计技术、制造技术与控制技术、计算机辅助设计技术、现代机械制造技术与方法，机电一体化技术，计算机辅助制造技术，特种加工技术，自动化制造系统，机器人技术，计算机集成制造技术，计算机原理及应用等。 该学科是一门涉及学科较多、应用广泛的综合性科学技术。作为一个系统工程，它由5个单元组成。程序单元。决定做什么和如何做。作用单元。施加能量和定位。传感单元。检测过程的性能和状态。制定单元。对传感单元送来的信息进行比较，制定和发出指令信号。控制单元。进行制定并调节作用单元的机构。自动化的研究内容主要有自动控制和信息处理两个方面，包括理论、方法、硬件和软件等，从应用观点来看，研究内容有过程自动化、机械制造自动化、管理自动化、实验室自动化和家庭自动化等。 机电一体化专业就业前景。有关研究报告显示“机电一体化”一词最早是日本提出的，在上世纪80年代初，日本名古屋大学最早设置了机电一体化专业。如今在本科，已改称为“机械电子工程”专业;在高职高专则仍延用机电一体化专业名称。机电一体化专业是精密机械——电子技术(含电力电子)——计算机技术等多门学科交叉融合的产物，属高新技术，也是当前发展最快的技术之一，它是先进制造技术的主要组成部分。它的发展推动了当前制造技术的迅速更新换代，是产品向高、精、快迅速迈进，使劳动生产率迅速提高。由于我国逐渐成为世界制造业基地加上传统企业面临大规模的技术改造与设备更新，国内急需大量先进制造技术专业人才。因此该专业毕业生就业前景很好，而且待遇也高。毕业生主要在各行政、企业、事业单位从事机械、电气工程、常用电器的维修、安装与调试以及技术管理等工作。 它的发展推动了当前制造技术的迅速更新换代，是产品向高、精、快迅速迈进，使劳动生产率迅速提高。由于我国逐渐成为世界制造业基地加上传统企业面临大规模的技术改造与设备更新，国内急需大量先进制造技术专业人才。因此该专业毕业生就业前景很好，而且待遇也高。毕业生主要在各行政、企业、事业单位从事机械、电气工程、常用电器的维修、安装与调试以及技术管理等工作。
数学学科前沿讲座 通过一个学期的学习和学校数位专家教授的耐心讲解，产生了一些自己对数学学科的体会。下面就简要谈谈，通过听取前沿讲座我对数学学科的理解与变化。近半个多世纪以来，随着计算机技术的迅速发展，数学的应用不仅在工程技术、自然科学等领域发挥着越来越重要的作用，而且以空前的广度和深度向经济、金融、生物、医学、环境、地质、人口、交通等新的领域渗透，所谓数学技术已经成为当代高新技术的重要组成部分。因有数学,才有今天科技的繁荣，在我们身边到处都有数学问题。今天科技领域也以数学为基础。如计算机的发展，一切理论都是数学家提出的，某个物理学家要研究某个项目，都要以丰厚 的数学功底为前提。在人们的生活中，时刻与数学打交道，可谓世界因数学而精彩。既然数学有如此大的魅力，下面将粗略的介绍一下。数学曾出现三次危机：无理数的发现——第一次数学危机；无穷小是零吗——第二次数学危机；悖论的产生---第三次数学危机。数学历来被视为严格、和谐、精确的学科，纵观数学发展史，数学发展从来不是完全直线式的，他的体系不是永远和谐的，而常常出现悖论。在悖论中逐渐成熟，进而到现在出现多个分支，分为：基础数学、数论、代数学、几何学、拓扑学、函数论、常微分方程、偏微分方程、概率论、应用数学、运筹学。 一、应用数学应用数学属于数学一级学科下的二级学科。应用数学是应用目的明确的数学理论和方法的总称，它是数学理论知识与应用科学、工程技术等领域联系的重要纽带。应用数学主要研究具有实际背景或应用前景的数学理论或方法，以数学各个分支的应用基础理论为研究主体，同时也研究自然科学、工程技术、信息、经济、管理等科学中的数学问题，包括建立相应的数学模型、利用数学方法解决实际问题等。主要研究方向： (1) 非线性偏微分方程非线性偏微分方程是现代数学的一个重要分支，无论在理论中 还是在实际应用中，非线性偏微分方程均被用来描述力学、控制过程、生态与经济系统、化工循环系统及流行病学等领域的问题。利用非线性偏微分方程描述上述问题充分考虑到空间、时间、时滞的影响，因而更能准确的反映实际。本方向主要研究非线性偏微分方程、H-半变分不等式、最优控制系统的微分方程理论及其在电力系统的应用。 (2)拓扑学拓扑学，是近代发展起来的一个研究连续性现象的数学分支。中文名称起 源于希腊语Τοπολογ的音译。Topology 原意为地貌，于 19 世纪中期由科学家引入，当时主要研究的是出于数学分析的需要而产生的一些几何问题。发展至今，拓扑学主要研究拓扑空间在拓扑变换下的不变性质和不变量。拓扑学是数学中一个重要的、基础的分支。起初它是几何学的一支，研究几何图形在连续变形下保持不变的性质(所谓
化学学科的前沿方向与优先领域基础学科在整个自然科学体系中占有十分重要的地位和作用。由基础科学研究产生的大量新思想、新理论、新效应等为应用科学提供了理论基础，对现代技术的发展有巨大的推动作用。国内外大量事实说明，"科学理论不仅更多地走在技术和生产的前面，而且为技术、生产的发展开辟着各种可能的途径"。基础研究是社会与科学发展的基础，而基础学科的建设与发展，是基础科学研究的基础。 化学和其它科学一样，是认识世界和改造世界重要学科。它与物理科学、生命科学等相互渗透，不断形成新的交叉学科。 学科的前沿方向与优先领域为： （1）合成化学； （2）化学反应动态学； （3）分子聚集体化学； （4）理论化学； （5）分析化学测试原理和检测技术新方法建立； （6）生命体系中的化学过程； （7）绿色化学与环境化学中的基本化学问题； （8）材料科学中的基本化学问题； （9）能源中的基本化学问题； （10）化学工程的发展与化学基础。 今日化学何去何从 今日化学何去何从？对于这个问题有两种回答：第一种回答：化学已有200余年的历史，是一门成熟的老科学，现在发展的前途不大了；21世纪的化学没有什么可搞了，将在物理学
与生物学的夹缝中逐渐消微。第二种回答：20世纪的化学取得了辉煌的成就，21世纪的化学将在与物理学、生命科学、材料科学、信息科学、能源、环境、海洋、空间科学的相互交叉，相互渗透，相互促进中共同大发展。本文主张第二种回答。 1. 20世纪化学取得的空前辉煌成就并未获得社会应有的认同 在20世纪的100年中，化学与化工取得了空前辉煌的成就。这个“空前辉煌”可以用一个数字来表达，就是2 285万。1900年在Chemical Abstracts（CA）上登录的从天然产物中分离出来的和人工合成的已知化合物只有55万种。经过45年翻了一番，到1945年达到110万种。再经过25年，又翻一番，到1970年为236.7万种。以后新化合物增长的速度大大加快，每隔10年翻一番，到1999年12月31日已达2 340万种。所以在这11年中，化学合成和分离了2 285万种新化合物、新药物、新材料、新分子来满足人类生活和高新技术发展的需要，而在1900年前的历史长河中人们只知道55万种。从上面的数字还可以看出，化学是以指数函数的形式向前发展的。没有一门其他科学能像化学那样在过去的100年中创造出如此众多的新化合物。这个成就用“空前辉煌”来描述并不过分。但“化学家太谦虚”（这句话是Nature 杂志在2001年的评论中说的，参见文献[1]），不会向社会宣传化学与化工对社会的重要贡献。因此20世纪化学取得的辉煌成就，并未获得社会应有的认可。 2.20世纪发明的七大技术中最重要的是信息技术、化学合成技术和生物技术 报刊上常说20世纪发明了六大技术： ①包括无线电、半导体、芯片、集成电路、计算机、通讯和网络等的信息技术； ②基因重组、克隆和生物芯片等生物技术； ③核科学和核武器技术； ④航空航天和导弹技术； ⑤激光技术； ⑤纳米技术。
1.自动化专业简介 自动化是指装置在无人干预的情况下按规定的程序或指令自动地进行操作或运行。广义地讲，自动化还包括模拟或在现人的智能活动。自动化技术广泛应用于工业、农业、国防、科学研究、交通运输、商业、医疗、服务以及家庭等各方面。采用自动化技术不仅可以把人从繁重的体力、部分脑力劳动以及恶劣、危险的工作环境中解放出来，而且能扩展、放大人的功能和创造新功能，极大地提高了劳动生产率，增强人类认识世界和改造世界的能力。因此自动化是一个国家或社会现代化水平的重要标志。 总的来说，自动化专业是一个口径宽，适应面广的专业，具有明显的跨学科的特点，对实现我国工业、农业、国防和科学技术现代化，对迅速提升我国综合国力具有重要和积极的作用。 2.自动化发展历史 1946年，美国福特公司的机械工程师D.S.哈德最先提出“自动化”一词，并用来描述发动机汽缸的自动传送和加工的过程。 50年代，自动调节器和经典控制理论的发展，使自动化进入到以单变量自动调节系统为主的局部自动化阶段。 60年代，随着现代控制理论的出现和电子计算机的推广应用，自动控制与信息处理结合起来，使自动化进入到生产过程的最优控制与管理的综合自动化阶段。 70年代，自动化的对象变为大规模、复杂的工程和非工程系统，涉及许多用现代控制理论难以解决的问题。这些问题的研究，促进自动化的理论、方法和手段的革新，于是出现了大系统的系统控制和复杂系统的智能控制。 3.自动化技术展望 自动化技术发展至今应经达到了一个相当高的水平，然而它从未停下发展的脚步它的未来仍然在不断地开拓者。展望自动化的未来，虽然不能完全预测出以后的自动化技术将会发展成什么样，但是它的一些发展方向还是比较明确的。首先，机器人技术将会是自动化技术发展的前沿，从上个世纪机器人的产生，到如今，机器人的发展可谓日新月异，它已经成为先进制造业不可缺少的自动化装备，
学科前沿专题 专业：机械电子工程姓名：刘洪民 学号：22
一、阐述机械制造业的变革及挑战。 机械制造业作为一个传统的领域已经发展了很多年，积累了不少理论和实践经验，但随着社会的发展，人们的生活水平日益提高，各个方面的个性化需求越加强烈。作为已经深入到各行各业并已成为基础工业的机械制造业面临着严峻的挑战。机械制造技术的发展趋势可以概括为：（1）机械制造自动化。（2）精密工程。（3）传统加工方法的改进与非传统加工方法的发展。 下面对自动化技术给予论述和展望。 机械制造自动化技术始终是机械制造中最活跃的一个研究领域。也是制造企业提高生产率和赢得市场竞争的主要手段。机械制造自动化技术自本世纪20年代出现以来，经历了三个阶段，即刚性自动化、柔性自动化和综合自动化。综合自动化常常与计算机辅助制造、计算集成制造等概念相联系，它是制造技术、控制技术、现代管理技术和信息技术的综合，旨在全面提高制造企业的劳动生产率和对市场的响应速度。 一、集成化 计算机集成制造（CIMS）被认为是21世纪制造企业的主要生产方式。CIMS 作为一个由若干个相互联系的部分（分系统）组成，通常可划分为5部分：1．工程技术信息分系统 包括计算机辅助设计（CAD），计算机辅助工程分析（CAE），计算机辅助工艺过程设计（CAPP），计算机辅助工装设计（CATD）数控程序编制（NCP）等。 2．管理信息分系统（MIS） 包括经营管理（BM），生产管理（PM），物料管理（MM），人事管理（LM），财务管理（FM）等。 3．制造自动化分系统（MAS） 包括各种自动化设备和系统，如计算机数控（CNC），加工中心（MC），柔性制造单元（FMS），工业机器人（Robot），自动装配（AA）等。 4．质量信息分系统 包括计算机辅助检测（CAI），计算机辅助测试（CAT），计算机辅助质量控制（CAQC），三坐标测量机（CMM）等。 5．计算机网络和数据库分系统（Network & DB） 它是一个支持系统，用于将上述几个分系统联系起来，以实现各分系统的集成。 二、智能化 智能制造系统可被理解为由智能机械和人类专家共同组成的人机一体化智能系统，该系统在制造过程中能进行智能活动，如分析、推理、判断、构思、决策等。 在智能系统中，“智能”主要体现在系统具有极好的“软”特性（适应性和友好性）。在设计和制造过程中，采用模块化方法，使之具有较大的柔性；对于人，智能制造强调安全性和友好性；对于环境，要求作到无污染，省能源和资源充分回收；对于社会，提倡合理协作与竞争。 三、敏捷化 敏捷制造是以竞争力和信誉度为基础，选择合作者组成虚拟公司，分工合作，为同一目标共同努力来增强整体竞争能力，对用户需求作出快速反应，以满足用户的需要。为了达到快速应变能力，虚拟企业的建立是关键技术，其核心是虚拟制造技术，即敏捷制造是以虚拟制造技术为基础的。敏捷制造是现代集成制造系
数学学科发展前沿调研报告 145407 徐珺 数学，是研究数量、结构、变化、空间以及信息等概念的一门学科，从某种角度看属于形式科学的一种。而在人类历史发展和社会生活中，数学发挥着不可替代的作用，也是学习和研究现代科学技术必不可少的基本工具。近半个多世纪以来，随着计算机技术的迅速发展，数学的应用不仅在工程技术、自然科学等领域发挥着越来越重要的作用，而且以空前的广度和深度向经济、金融、生物、医学、环境、地质、人口、交通等新的领域渗透，所谓数学技术已经成为当代高新技术的重要组成部分。 一、数学学科的意义 数学在人类文明的进步和发展中一直发挥着重要的作用。过去，人们习惯把科学分为自然科学、社会科学两大类，数、理、化、天、地、生都归属于自然科学。但是，现在科学家更倾向于把自然科学界定为以研究物质的某一运动形态为特征的科学，如物理学、化学、生物学。数学是忽略了物质的具体运动形态和属性，纯粹从数量关系和空间形式的角度来研究现实世界的，具有超越具体科学和普遍适用的特征，具有公共基础的地位。数学的许多高深理论与方法正广泛深入地渗透到自然科学的各个领域中去。数学在当代科技、文化、社会、经济和国防等诸多领域中的特殊地位是不可忽视的。发展数学科学，是推进我国科学研究和技术发展，保障我国在各个重要领域中可持续发展的战略需要。 由于数学的性质及其应用途径不断发生变化，新的数学领域不断涌现，数学的应用范围的不断扩充，加之计算机的发展和应用爆炸性的增长，都要求发展新的数学。数学是打幵科学大门的钥匙，数学在科学理论成就中的重要性。早在古希腊的毕 达哥拉斯学派就把数学看作万物之本源；享有“近代科学之父”尊称的伽利略认为， 宇宙像一本用数学语言写成的大书，如不掌握数学的符号语言，就像在黑暗的迷宫
《机械学科前沿技术》 ——综述报告 《机械学科前沿技术》综述报告 摘要：机械学科前沿技术学科综合性强，技术要求高；能够促进国民经济的发展，提升中国制造业的技术水平，促进中国从制造大
国到制造强国的转型，提升在国际上的竞争力；在计算机辅助的基础上，制造技术便捷民众的生产与生活，提高国家的国防能力，同时可以帮助人类向更远的外太空和更深的海洋系统进行探索；符合现代科技的发展潮流。在工业4.0的背景下，人类的活动对机械前沿技术提出了更高的要求：需要更高的智能化、集成化、微型化，能够在更加极端的环境背景正常运行。今日之世界以非昨日之世界，在人类已经有能力毁灭地球的前提下，利用前沿技术提升制造业已经成为时代发展主流。中国虽已经是今非昔比，但高新技术空白区依然较大，我们肩负着复兴中华民族的伟大中国梦，任重而道远！ 那么什么是先进制造技术？先进制造技术是在传统制造技术上不断吸收机械、电子、信息、材料、能源以及现代管理技术的成果，将其综合应用于产品设计、加工装配、检验测试、经营管理、售后服务乃至回收的全过程，以实现优质、高效、低耗、清洁、灵活的生产，提高对动态多变市场的适应能力和竞争能力的制造技术的总称。它包括现代设计方法、先进制造工艺、制造自动化技术、现代生产管理技术和先进制造生产模式及系统。人类进入21世纪以来，以信息技术为代表的高新技术不断发展，市场需求逐渐个性化和多样化，制造业面临着新的机遇和挑战，其发展的重要特征是全球化、网络化、虚拟化。为了适应经济全球化，适应高新技术发展的需求，适应愈加激烈的市场竞争环境，未来先进制造技术发展的总趋势是精密化、柔性化、虚拟化、网络化、智能化、敏捷化、绿色化、集成化以及创新管理的方向发展。
应用化学学科前沿 高分子材料
前言： 高分子材料也称聚合物材料，它是以高分子化合物（树脂）为基体，再配以其他添加剂（助剂）所构成的材料。高分子材料包括天然高分子材料，如棉、麻、丝、毛等；由天然高分子原料经过化学加工而成的改性高分子材料，如粘胶纤维、醋酸纤维、改性淀粉等；由小分子化合物通过聚合反应合成的合成高分子材料，如聚丙烯树脂、顺丁橡胶、丙烯酸涂料等。由于高分子材料概括性太大，先介绍几种不同高分子材料的发展现状。
高分子材料是材料领域中的新秀，它的出现带来了材料领域中的重大变革。高分子材料与其他的各种材料（如木材、陶瓷、金属、水泥、棉、毛、丝、皮革、纸张等）并驾齐驱，在各种工业部门得到了广泛的应用，这主要是高分子材料本身具有许多的优良特性，例如塑料质地轻盈、加工成型方便，可以制成各种生活用品；工程材料具有较高强度，可以代替金属,由于高分子材料的相对密度为1.0~1.4，是钢铁相对密度的1/8、铝的1/2，这对于要求减轻自重的应用，有特殊的意义。 从我们以前学过的化学知识中可以知道，高分子材料其实是有机化合物, 有机化合物是碳元素的化合物．除碳原子外, 其他元素主要是氢、氧、氮等．碳原子与碳原子之间, 碳原子与其他元素的原子之间, 能形成稳定的结构．碳原子是四价, 每个一价的价键可以和一个氢原子键连接, 所以可形成为数众多的、具有不同结构的有机化合物．有机化合物的总数已接近千万种, 远远超过其他元素的化合物的总和, 而且新的有机化合物还不断地被合成出來．這样, 由於不同的特殊结构的形成, 使有机化合物具有很独特的功能．高分子中可以把某些有机物结构（又称为功能团）替换, 以改变高分子的特性．高分子具有巨大的分子量, 达到至少１万以上, 或几百万至千万以上, 所以, 人们將其称为高分子、大分子或高聚物． 高分子的种类繁多，随着化学合成工业的发展和新聚合反应和方法的出现，种类不断增加，就要进行分类。可以根据来源、性质、用途、结构等不同的角度进行多种分类。依据材料的性能和用途，可以将聚合物分为塑料、纤维、橡胶、涂料、粘合剂、功能高分子、离子交换树脂等；按应用功能分类可以分为通用高分子如塑料、纤维、橡胶、涂料、粘合剂等，功能高分子如具有光电磁等物理功能的高分子、高分子药物等，特殊功能高分子如耐热、高强度的聚碳酸酯等，仿生高分子如高分子催化剂、模拟酶等。 高分子材料可以人为合成，那是不是代表着人们可以随心所欲的合成自己需要的材料呢？答案当然是否定的。就目前人类的科学发展水平来看，想随心所欲的合成高分子材料是不可能的。先来看看目前高分子材料的发展现状以及发展前景吧。 随着高分子材料合成与加工的技术进步,塑料在各行业得到广泛、深入的应
软件学院学科前沿知识讲座感想 听了几位老师所讲的学科先沿讲座，我的感想颇多. 尤其是对林林老师的《智慧时代中的挑战与机遇》颇有感触。下面我谈谈自己通过听讲,查资料,经过思考后对这一问题的理解. 当今的信息新技术主要包括这么几类，即新息安全新技术：主要包括密码技术、入侵检测系统、信息隐藏技术、身份认证技术、数据库安全技术、网络容灾和灾难恢复、网络安全设计等。信息化新技术：信息化新技术主要涉及电子政务、电子商务、城市信息化、企业信息化、农业信息化、服务业信息化等。软件新技术：软件新技术主要关注嵌入式计算与嵌入式软件、基于构件的软件开发方法、中间件技术、数据中心的建设、可信网络计算平台、软件架构设计、SOA与RIA技术、软件产品线技术等。网络新技术：网络新技术包括宽带无线与移动通信、光通信与智能光网络、家庭网络与智能终端、宽带多媒体网络、IPv6与下一代网络、分布式系统等。计算机新技术：计算机新技术主要关注网格计算、人机接口、高性能计算和高性能服务器、智能计算、磁存储技术、光存储技术、中文信息处理与智能人机交互、数字媒体与内容管理、音视频编/解码技术等。 大胆的预测一下计算机技术往下怎么发展，因为形势明白了，历史规律搞清楚了，需求也明白了，该怎么做呢？我大胆做这么一个发言，中国计算机界必须把握机遇迎接挑战。看一下处理器方面该怎么做，上个世纪我们关心的是每秒种可以完成多少指令，处理的速度。后来发现不对，应该做高性能的处理器，每花掉一块钱可以处理多少能力，重要的是功耗要低，然后是无线，是互联，我们更关心消耗每瓦功率处理能力是多少，大家关心的点开始转移，从每秒处理能力，关心到每块买到多少处理能力，到最后消耗每瓦功耗有多少能力。在处理结构上面有什么变化，从上世纪70年代左右，人围着计算机转，每个单位只要很好就有一个漂亮的机房，大家围着机房转，算题是通过一个小窗口把题递进去，过一段时间里面算好，把题递出来。那时候一切围绕CPU转，所以那时候CPU当之无愧，我的处理器是中心所以叫CPU。再往下可以看到计算机围着人转，我们口袋里的手表等一切一切，人走到哪里，计算装备围着我来转，在机器内部不是围着CPU转，而是围着存储期，I/O，通道转，因此不能光搞CPU，比如出现PIM等新的名称，所以我们应该与时俱进。从CPU，C要改成无处不在的处理单元。 网络将怎么发展，我们在上个世纪70年代所关心的就是互联互通互操作，在这儿不是讲互联互通互操作不重要，它是一个基础绝对重要，关心这个是数据和控制信号的传递，数据和控制信号可以传过去。做了一些日子以后发现，需求不仅仅是这个，我们要提高网络的带宽，我们关心是信息沟通和处理能力的增强，光把信号传过去是不是可以处理好呢？再往下又是怎样的？我们应该关心网上有这些信息，有这么多人用，是动态的变化，所以我们要关心信息融合、信息确认等。要把消息传给该给的人，该给的时间，该给的地方，该给的人，传正确的东西，这个变化不承认不行的，以往包括我个人在内，我和我同事们宣扬，看我家里环境，办公室环境，我计算机有多少能力联网，这已经过去了。下面关心的是这个网络具有多少计算个算计的能力，算计要做推理更难，再往下要面对什么问题？我的网络环境怎么样有非常强的资源按需聚合，人机协同工作的协调能力，体系结构将怎么发展，70年代的时候，大家做体系结构设计，费劲脑筋是在计算机内挖掘可能的潜力，处理可能的矛盾，搞体系结构的人，什么是好的所长，厂长，它的学问是处理轻重缓急，这件事应该放得下，哪件事应该要处理，所以好的应该处理删、增、减、抑、扬，在这种情况下发现，我们设计在机群中挖掘和平衡，我们要在网络环境下怎么做挖掘和平衡，因为系统给人用的，机器的环境，是给销售人员，管理者用的，所以把协同工作做好，就要验证，所以从HPCS变成HPCE，我们需要的不是高性能，需要的是生产力可用性，中国科学家预感比较早，因此1997年再一次会上，就决定当前做ClieitServer，之后做Cluster，之后做Networking，之后是VSE，
1.叙述高等代数或近世代数中以数学家名字命名的5个定理(需写具体内容) 答：1、 罗尔定理：如果函数f(x)在闭区间[a,b]上连续,在开区间(a,b)内可导,且在区间端点的函数值相等,即f(a)= f(b),那么在开区间(a,b)内至少有一点ξ(a<ξ 计算机科学前沿热点及发展趋势 摘要:计算机科学围绕信息、知识、智能等主题发展迅速。文章系统地介绍了信息处理、文字与自然语言的理解、数据仓库和数据挖掘；知识科学；人工智能、人工神经网络的研究、遗传算法、逻辑学等领域研究中前沿的若干问题，并提出未来计算机科学的发展趋势。 关键词:信息技术知识科学智能技术发展趋势 在短短的60年里，计算机科学发展至今，取得了巨人的成就。从观念上改变了人们对世界的认识，将人类社会带入了信息时代。加速T人类社会的发展。在今天计算机科学技术已经成为人们日常生活工作中不可或缺的重要组成部分，而计算机技术的发展也将越来越多影响人类社会的进步。 1 计算机科学前沿热点 近年来，计算机科学中前沿的问题主要围绕信息、知识、智能三大研究领域展开讨论。本文中所指的信息是指客观事物的属性。而知识不同于信息，它是人们对信息经过大脑的加工与处理后，形成的规律、规则、方法及认识。智能则是指大脑从历史信息、知识的基础之上形成的对现有信息、知识的推理、演绎、判断的方法。 根据研究分析表明，在三大研究领域中，主要有以下前沿热点研究： (1)信息方面:信息处理、数据仓库和数据挖掘、生物信息学。 (2)知识方面：以知识科学与知识工程为主要研究的问题。 (3)智能方面：以人工神经网络的研究,机器证明,人工智能与专家系统,遗传算法,代数逻辑学形成了本研究领域的主要特色。 1.1 信息科学 1.1.1信息处理技术 信息处理技术是当今计算机科学发展的重点，目前计算机处理的信息可分为符号和数据，因而一切要由计算机处理的对象首先是符号化和数字化。信息科学正在形成和迅速发展，现在主要的研究课题集中在以下六个方面: (1)信息源理论和信息的获取。主要研究自然信息源和社会信息源,以及从信息源提取信息的方法和技术。 (2)信息的传输、存储、检索、转化和处理。 (3)信号的测量、分析、处理及显示。 (4)模式信息处理。研究对文字、声音，图像等信息的处理、分类和识别，研制机器图像和语音识别系统。 (5)知识信息处理。研究知识的表示、获取和应用，建立具有推理和自动解决问题能力的知识信息处理系统，即专家系统。 (6)决策和控制。在对信息的采集、分析、处理、识别和理解的基础上作出判断、决策或控制，从而建立各种控制系统、管理信息系统和决策支持系统。 1.1.2数据挖掘技术 传统的数据库技术是单一的数据资源，即以数据库为中心，对事务处理、批处理到决策分析等各种类型的数据处理工作。近年来，随着计算机技术的发展,对数据库中数据操作提出了更高的要求，希望计算机能够更多的参与数据分析与决策的制定等领域。数据库处理可以大致划分为两大类:操作型处理和分析型处理(或信息型处理)。这种分离,划清了数据处理的分析型环境与操作型环境之间的界限,从而由原来的以单一数据库为中心的数据环境发展为一种体系化环境,因而产生了数据挖掘技术。在这方面目前主要解决的前沿问题有: (1)异构数据的接口机制；(2)数据仓库的体系结构问题；(3)数据仓库的数据优化问题；(4)计算机科学前沿热点及发展趋势
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