CHINESE CHRISTIANITY AND CHINA MISSIONS: WORKS PUBLISHED SINCE 1970
Authors: Lutz, Jessie G.
Source: International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Jul96, Vol. 20 Issue 3, p98, 8p
https://www.doczj.com/doc/b52289001.html,/ehost/detail?vid=4&hid=10&sid=ebfc33c2-f75a-40b4-9151-d80c505d9ba4%40sessionmgr14&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl 2ZQ%3d%3d#db=rlh&AN=9608091091
1.Contribution of Women Missionaries
2.Examining Mission Methodology
3.Roman Catholic Missions
4.The Church under the People's Republic
5.Anti-Christian Movements
6.Missionary and Chinese Biographies
7.Two-Way Transfer of Knowledge and Values
8.Long-term Impact of Christian Education and Social Service
9.Indigenization and the Chinese Church
10.Research Aids
The study of Chinese Christianity and China missions is attracting increasing attention both in China and the West, with the focus shifting toward Chinese Christians rather than Western missionaries. The following bibliography represents a selection from among the many books that have been published on the topic during the last quarter century.
An excellent overall survey of China missions during the nineteenth century is Paul A. Cohen, "Christian Missions and Their Impact to 1900," in The Cambridge History of China, vol. 10, Late Ching, 1800-1911, ed. John K. Fairbank (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1978), pp. 543-90. Still useful also is the collection of essays edited by John Fairbank and containing his introductory remarks on the significance of missions in intercultural relations between China and the West: The Missionary Enterprise in China and America (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1974). The compilation American Missions in Bicentennial Perspective, edited by R. Pierce Beaver (Pasadena, Calif.: Wm. Carey Library, 1977), is worth consulting as well. A recent collection focusing on the Chinese Christian church and issues of indigenization is
Daniel H. Bays, ed., Christianity and China, the Eighteenth Century to the Present: Essays in Religious and Social Change (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press, 1996).
More specific historical studies of merit are Alvyn J. Austin, Saving China: Canadian Missionaries in the Middle Kingdom, 18881959 (Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press, 1986); George Hood, Mission Accomplished? The English Presbyterian Mission in Lingtung, South China: A Study of the Interplay Between Mission Methods and Their Historical Context (Frankfurt am Main: Verlag Peter Lang, 1986); Gerald F. DeJong, The Reformed Church in China, 1842-1951 (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1992); Herbert Hoi-Lap Ho, Protestant Missionary Publications in Modern China, 1912-1949: A Study of Their Programs, Operations, and Trends (Hong Kong: Chinese Church Research Center, 1988); Fernandos Mateos, S.J., China Jesuits in East Asia: Starting from Zero, 1949-1957 (Taipei: n.p., 1995); and T'ien Ju-k'ang, Peaks of Faith: Protestant Missions in Revolutionary China (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1993).
In The Liberating Gospel in China: The Christian Faith Among China's Minority Peoples (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker, 1995), Ralph R. Covell argues that missionaries missed an opportunity in neglecting China's minorities, many of whom responded more positively to Christianity than did most Han Chinese. He employs a contextual approach to explain why some minorities were resistant while others enthusiastically embraced Christianity. Ellsworth C. Carlson, in The Foochow Missionaries, 1847-1880 (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1974), discusses the expectations of American missionaries as they departed for China and their reactions to the Chinese and the Chinese environment; he also includes detail on the "poison scare" of 1871 and the Wushishan Incident of 1878. Illustrated in Sidney A. Forsythe, An American Missionary Community in China, 1895-1905 (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1971) is the tendency for Protestant missionaries to congregate in the treaty ports in insulated Western enclaves, a practice that is in many ways understandable but that has often been sharply criticized.
Earthen Vessels: American Evangelicals and Foreign Missions, 1880-1980, edited by Joel A. Carpenter and Wilbert R. Shenk (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1990), though not confined to China, is a welcome addition to mission literature. Until recently, evangelicals have shown little interest in historical or methodological studies, and it has sometimes been assumed that the era of expanding Protestant missions has passed. Though such may be true of the mainstream denominations, Earthen Vessels demonstrates that the same is not true for evangelicals, who today constitute the great majority of American missionaries. See also Leonard Bolton, China Call: Miracles Among the Lis u People (Springfield, Mo.: Gospel Publishing House, 1984).
Eric Widmer, in The Russian Ecclesiastical Mission in Peking During the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1976), offers information on a mission that has drawn little attention among Western scholars. On the Chinese Jews and Jesuit work among them, see Joseph Dehergne and Donald Leslie, Juifs de Chine a travers la correspondance inedite des Jesuites du dix-huitieme siecle (Rome and Paris: Bibliotheca Instituti Historici S.I., 1980). A valuable collection of essays on relations between church and
state in China is Li Chifang, ed., Zhongguo jindai zheng jiao guanxi guoji xueshu yentaohui lunwenji (Proceedings of the first international symposium on church and state in China: Past and present) (Taipei: Danjiang University, 1987). Though most of the papers are in Chinese and essays on religions other than Christianity are included, several articles in English discuss relations between Christian missions and the Chinese government.
Contribution of Women Missionaries
A perceptive work on the contribution of women missionaries as educators, role models, and social service workers is Jane Hunter, The Gospel of Gentility: American Women Missionaries in Turn-of-the-Century China (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1984). Although pioneer women missionaries were adventurous and even ambitious, few in the nineteenth century were feminists, and Hunter reveals the dilemmas experienced by missionary wives in their competing roles as mothers, householders and wives, and missionaries. Substantiating the importance of China missions for the vitality of the home churches are Valentine H. Rabe, The Home Base of American China Missions, 1880-1920 (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1978); Lawrence D. Kessler, The Jiangyin Mission Station: An American Missionary Community in China, 1895-1951 (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1996); and Herman Schlyter, Der
China-Missionar Karl Gutzlaff und seine Heimatbasis (Lund: C. W. K. Gleerup, 1976). Patricia R. Hill deals more specifically with the importance of the women's mission societies in The World Their Household: The American Women's Foreign Mission Movement and Cultural Transformation (Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press, 1985).
Examining Mission Methodology
In recent years mission methodology has not drawn the attention that it did immediately after the establishment of the People's Republic of China and the exodus of most missionaries. Three works to be noted, however, are James D. Whitehead, Yuming Shaw, and N.J. Girardot, eds., China and Christianity: Historical and Future Encounters (Notre Dame, Ind.: Univ. of Notre Dame Press, 1979), dealing primarily with Roman Catholic missions; Peter K. H. Lee, Confucian-Christian Encounters in Historical and Contemporary Perspective (Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen Press, 1991), a collection of papers that includes contributions by theologians and clerics as well as secular scholars; and F. J. Verstraelen, ed., Missiology: An Ecumenical Introduction (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1995), useful especially for the variety of perspectives presented. David C. E. Liao, The Unresponsive: Resistant or Neglected? The Hakka Chinese in Taiwan Illustrate a Common Missions Problem (Chicago: Moody Press, 1972); Dorothy A. Raber, Protestantism in Changing Taiwan: A Call to Creative Response (Pasadena, Calif.: Wm. Carey Library, 1978); and two works by Allen J. Swanson, Taiwan: Mainline Versus Independent Church Growth (Pasadena, Calif.: Wm. Carey Library, 1970) and The Church in Taiwan, Profile, 1980: A Review of the Past, a Projection for the Future (Pasadena, Calif.: Win. Carey Library, 1981), all discuss the quandary of Protestant missionaries in Taiwan, where the membership of most churches has leveled off after a period
of rapid growth during the 1950s and 1960s. Robert W. Hefner, ed., Conversion to Christianity: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives on a Great Transformation (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1993) presents stimulating analyses of case studies from many mission fields, in which the complexity and diversity of the conversion process are illustrated. Though most of the contributors do not adopt a relativist stance, they do insist on the crucial importance of the social context to conversion.
Roman Catholic Missions
Partly because of differences in the locales of resource materials and differences in the native languages of the missionaries and their writings, research on Roman Catholic and on Protestant missions has generally been carried out separately. Opportunities for cross-fertilization and comparative studies have thereby been neglected. This situation is being remedied to some extent as the history of modern Roman Catholic missions is receiving greater attention. I include here only a sample of recent works. The Catholic-Chinese encounter of the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries continues to attract writers; see John D. Young, East-West Synthesis: Matteo Ricci and Confucianism (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Univ. Press, 1980); Jonathan D. Spence, The Memory Palace of Matteo Ricci (New York: Viking Penguin, 1984); Matteo Ricci, S.J., The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven, trans. Douglas Lancashire and Peter Hu Kuo-chen, S.J., ed. Edward J. Malatesta, S.J. (St. Louis, Mo.: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1985); David E. Mungello, Curious Land: Jesuit Accommodation and the Origins of Sinology (Stuttgart: F. Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden, 1985); D. E. Mungello, ed., The Chinese Rites Controversy: Its History and Meaning (Nettetal: Steyler Verlag, 1994); George Minimaki, The Rites Controversy, from Its Beginnings to Modern Times (Chicago: Loyola Univ. Press, 1985); Noel Golvers, The "Astronomia Europaea" of Ferdinand Verbiest, S.J. (Nettetal: Steyler Verlag, 1993); John W. Witek, Controversial Ideas in China and in Europe: A Biography of Jean-Francois Focquet, S.J., 1665-1741 (Chicago: Loyola Univ. Press, 1982); and John W. Witek, ed., Ferdinand Verbiest (1623-1688): Jesuit Missionary, Scientist, Engineer, and Diplomat (San Francisco: Ricci Institute, 1995).
Robert E. Entenmann has succeeded in unearthing material about Chinese Roman Catholic communities that survived during the era when Christianity and Christian missions were outlawed in China, from 1724 to 1844. See his articles "Catholics and Society in Eighteenth-Century Sichuan," in Christianity in China, ed. Daniel H. Bays (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press, 1996); "Clandestine Catholics and the State in Eighteenth-Century Sichuan," American Asian Review 5, no. 3 (Fall 1987): 1-45; and "Chinese Catholic Clergy and Catechists in Eighteenth-Century Szechwan," in Actes du Vie Colloque International de Sinologie, Varietes Sinologiques, n.s., 75 (Paris: Institut Ricci, 1994). D. E. Mungello has written The Forgotten Christians of Hangzhou (Honolulu: Univ. of Hawaii Press, 1994). In Lotte e trionfi' in Cina. I Gesuiti nel Ciannan, nel Celi'e nel Cuantun dal loro ritorno in Cina alla divisione del Ciannan in tre Missioni indipendenti (1842-1922) (Frosinone: Casamari, 1975), Fernando Bortone, S.J., provides an account of the return of the Jesuits to China in 1842 and their work in the Jiangnan region until 1922.
In his monograph on Roman Catholic missions beginning in the nineteenth century--China, American Catholicism, and the Missionary (University Park: Pennsylvania State Univ. Press, 1980)--Thomas A. Breslin offers a critical assessment. More sympathetic are the writings of Louis Tsing-sing Wei, Le
Saint-Siege et la Chine de Pie XI a nos jours (Paris: Editions A. Allais, 1968); Jean-Paul Wiest, Maryknoll in China: A History, 1918-1955 (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1988); and Vincent Thoreau, Le tonnerre qui chante au loin. Vie et mort du pere Lebbe, apotre des Chinois, 1877-1940 (Brussels: Didier Hattier, 1990). Particularly interesting in Wiest is the disclosure that Maryknoll sisters did not remain cloistered but worked out in the Chinese community; also noteworthy are his details on the training of Chinese novices and the reactions, sometimes negative, of the Chinese girls. Father Lebbe, who urged in the 1920s that Chinese clergy be accorded greater responsibility and status, has grown in stature as the issue of indigenization has become prominent. An interesting work on the intertwining of missions and imperialism is Louis Tsing-sing Wei, La politique missionnaire de la France en Chine, 1842-1856. L'ouverture des cinq ports chinois au commerce etranger et la liberte religieuse (Paris: Nouvelles Editions Latines, 1960).
The Church under the People's Republic
Numerous works on the Chinese church under the People's Republic of China have appeared. Obtaining accurate information on the "underground churches," or autonomous Christian communities, has been difficult, however; nor has it been easy to present a balanced picture of the official churches, that is, the Catholic Patriotic Association and the Three-Self Movement, or of their relation to the autonomous underground churches. To be recommended are Alan Hunter and Chan Kim-Kwong, Protestantism in Contemporary China (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993); Alan Hunter and Don Rimmington, eds., All Under Heaven: Chinese Tradition and Christian Life in the People's Republic oF China (Kampen: J. H. Kok, 1992); and The Catholic Church in Modern China: Perspectives, ed. Edmond Tang and Jean-Paul Wiest (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1993). Though presenting a more sympathetic view of the Three-Self Movement than Hunter and Chan, Seeking the Common Ground: Protestant Christianity, the Three-Self Movement, and China's United Front, by Philip L. Wickeri (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1988), is perceptive and informative, particularly on the government and the party hierarchies that regulate religion. Donald E. MacInnis, ed., Religion in China Today: Policy and Practice (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1989) provides a useful selection of translated documents with commentary, as does Elmer Wurth, ed., Papal Documents Related to the New China (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1985).
Other works offer a variety of perspectives: Richard C. Bush, Jr., Religion in Communist China (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1970); Angelo S. Lazzarotto, The Catholic Church in Post-Mao China (Hong Kong: Holy Spirit Study Centre, 1982); G. Thompson Brown, Christianity in the People's Republic of China (Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1986); L. Ladany, The Catholic Church in China (New York: Freedom House, 1987); Jean Charbonnier, La China sans muraille: Heritage culturel et modernite (Paris: Le Sarment Fayard, 1988); Bob Whyte, Unfinished Encounter: China and Christianity (London: Collins, 1988); Jonathan Chao, ed., The China Mission Handbook: A Portrait of China and Its Church (Hong Kong: Chinese Church
Research Center, 1989); Tony Lambert, The Resurrection of the Chinese Church (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1991); James T. Myers, Enemies Without Guns: The Catholic Church in the People's Republic of China (New York: Paragon House, 1991); Jean Charbonnier, Histoire des Chretiens de Chine (Paris; Desclee, 1992); Beatrice Leung, Sino-Vatican Relations: Problems in Conflicting Authority, 1976-1986 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992); Chan Kim-Kwong, Struggling for Survival: The Catholic Church in China from 1949-1970 (Hong Kong: Christian Study Centre on Chinese Religion and Culture, 1992).
The views of leaders of the Three-Self Movement are available in English in Theresa C. Carino, ed., Christianity in China: Three Lectures by Zhao Fusan (Manila: Chinese Church Research Center, 1987); K.
H. Ting et al., Chinese Christians Speak Out: Addresses and Sermons (Beijing: New World Press, 1984); K. H. Ting, No Longer Strangers: Selected Writings of Bishop K. H. Ting, ed. Raymond L. Whitehead (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1989).
Luo Zhufeng, Religion Under Socialism in China, trans. D. Macinnis and Zheng Xi'an (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1991) presents the results of a survey of Christians undertaken by scholars in China. The interviews and the reports on the attractions of Christianity and the Christian church reveal the importance of a support community and of familiar rituals along with a yearning for universal and transcendental values amid disillusionment with the current regime and its ideology. Another work based on interviews is Jonathan Chao, Wise as Serpents, Harmless as Doves: Christians in China Tell Their Story, ed. Richard Van Houten (Pasadena, Calif.: Wm. Carey Library, 1988). Raymond Fung, Households of God on China's Soil (Geneva: WCC, 1982), relates touching stories of small Christian communities that managed to survive during the decades of persecution.
Anti-Christian Movements
On anti-Christian movements, the following may be noted. Ka-che Yip, Religion, Nationalism, and Chinese Students: The Anti-Christian Movement of 1922-1927 (Bellingham: Western Washington Univ., Center for East Asian Studies, 1980) is an excellent brief coverage emphasizing the importance of Chinese nationalism and student culture in the growth of the anti-Christian movements of the 1920s. Jessie G. Lutz, Chinese Politics and Christian Missions: The Anti-Christian Movements of 1920-28 (Notre Dame, Ind.: Cross Cultural Publications, 1988) provides detail on the relations between the anti-Christian movements and the Kuomintang, the Chinese Communist Party, and the Young China Party, illustrating the usefulness of these movements to the parties in the recruiting and training of young intellectuals and in broadening party appeal and membership. A somewhat similar thesis is presented in Liao Kuangsheng, Antiforeignism and Modernization in China (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Chinese Univ. Press, 1990). Liao argues that Chinese governments and parties have often manipulated antiforeignism, anti-imperialism, and anti-Christianism for their own internal political purposes.
On the nineteenth century, Edmund S. Wehrle relies on missionary and foreign office sources for his study Britain, China, and the Antimissionary Riots, 1891-1900 (Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1966). Joseph W. Esherick, in The Origins of the Boxer Uprising (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1987), denies that the Boxers grew out of antidynastic sects and stresses popular culture and the social ecology of western Shandong in the origins and growth of the Boxers. The viewpoint of Chinese scholars is presented in English by David D. Buck, ed., Recent Chinese Studies of the Boxer Movement (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1987).
Missionary and Chinese Biographies
Although memories fade and are selective, autobiographies and diary excerpts from former missionaries and their offspring can provide valuable insights if used with caution. Among recent publications are the autobiography of a prominent YMCA official working in China during a period of dramatic changes both in China and the home front, Eugene E. Barnett, My Life in China, 1910-1935, ed. Jessie G. Lutz (East Lansing: Michigan State Univ. Press, 1990); Ralph Covell, Mission Impossible: The Unreached Nosu on China's Frontier (Pasadena, Calif.: Hope Publishing House, 1990); Ruth A. Greene, Hsiang-Ya Journal (Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1977), by a social service worker who was the wife of a physician at the Hsiang-Ya Medical School in Changsha; and Edward V. Gulick, Teaching in Wartime China: A
Photo-Memoir, 1937-1939 (Amherst: Univ. of Massachusetts Press, 1995). The life of Ruth V. Hemenway, a surgeon devoted to social service rather than evangelism, is related in A Memoir of Revolutionary China, 1924-1941, ed. Fred W. Drake (Amherst: Univ. of Massachusetts Press, 1977). Other edited autobiographies are E.G. Ruoff, ed., Death Throes of a Dynasty: Letters and Diaries of Charles and Bessie Ewing, Missionaries to China (Kent, Ohio: Kent State Univ Press, 1990), for the period 1892-1913; Grace E. Woods, ed., Life in China from the Letters of Dr. Nancy Bywaters (Devon: Merlin Books, 1992); Golden Inches: The China Memoir of Grace Service (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1989), edited by John Service, son of a YMCA secretary and also a well-known U.S. foreign service worker.
Works by "mish kids," as they identified themselves, are John Espey, Minor Heresies, Major Departures: A China Mission Boyhood (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1994); Janet Fitch, Foreign Devil: Reminiscences of a China Missionary Daughter, 19091935 (Taipei: Chinese Materials Center, 1981); John J. Rawlinson, "The Recorder" and China's Revolution: A Topical Biography of Frank Joseph Rawlinson, 2 vols. (Notre Dame, Ind.: Cross Cultural Publications, 1991); Robert N. Tharp, They Called Us White Chinese: The Story of a Lifetime of Service to God and Mankind, ed. Judy Teller and James Piessinger (Monterey, Calif.: E. E. Tharp, 1994); Stephen Endicott, James G. Endicott: Rebel out of China (Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press, 1980), a sympathetic depiction of a controversial missionary who became critical of the entire mission enterprise as well as of American foreign policy and society; and John Hersey, The Call (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1985). The last work, though a novel, is an insightful portrayal of the gradual disillusionment of a YMCA worker as he moved toward a relativist view of religion and perceived the inadequacy of a Christian individualistic, self-help program for Chinese reform during the 1930s and
1940s. Ida Pruitt, in A China Childhood (San Francisco: Chinese Materials Center, 1978), gives a delightful account of growing up in eastern Shandong.
English-language autobiographies by Chinese Christians include Jeanette Li, Jeanette Li: The Autobiography of a Chinese Christian, trans. Rose Huston (London: Banner of Truth Trust, 1971), the life story of a Pentecostal missionary in Manchuria who managed to keep her faith and to help protect others despite Japanese persecution and who, after imprisonment by the People's Republic of China in the early 1950s, escaped to Hong Kong, where she continued her Christian service; and Shen Zhonghan, Autobiography of a Chinese Farmer's Servant (Taipei: Linking Publishing, 1981), by a prominent agriculturalist at the University of Nanjing who became an executive of the Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction, Taiwan. Also see Angus Kinnear, Against the Tide: The Story of Watchman Nee (Wheaton, Ill.: Tyndale House, 1973) for the life of the founder of the independent church known as the Little Flock; Nicolas Standaert, Yang Tingyun, Confucian and Christian in Late Ming China: His Life and Thought (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1988); and Jonathan D. Spence, The Question of Hu (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1988).
Biographies of missionaries by historians include Irwin T. Hyatt, Jr., Our Ordered Lives Confess: Three Nineteenth-Century American Missionaries in East Shantung (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1976); Herman Schlyter, Karl Gutzlaff also Missionar in China (Lund: C. W. K. Gleerup, 1946); Edward V. Gulick, Peter Parker and the Opening of China (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1973); Ralph Covell, W. A. P. Martin: Pioneer of Progress in China (Washington, D.C.: Christian Univ. Press, 1978); Kathleen L. Lodwick, Educating the Women of Hainan: The Career of Margaret Moninger in China, 1915-1942 (Lexington: Univ. of Kentucky Press, 1995); Patricia Neils, China Images in the Life and Times of Henry Luce (Lanham, Md.: Rowman, 1990); Yu-ming Shaw, An American Missionary in China: John Leighton Stuart and Chinese American Relations (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1992); William J. Haas, China Voyager: The Life of Gist Gee (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1996); Margaret M. Coughlin, Strangers in the House: J. Lewis Shuck and Issachar Roberts. First American Baptist Missionaries in China (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms; Ph.D. diss., Univ. of Virginia, 1972); Wong Man Kong, James Legge: A Pioneer at Crossroads of East and West (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Educational Publishing Co., 1996); and Samuel H. Chao, John Livingston Nevius (1829-1893): A Historical Study of His Life and Methods (New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 1996). Nevius's methodology, with its emphasis on indigenization, was applied in Korea with considerable success. Claudia von Collani has written the biography of the Jesuit sent by Louis XIV to the court of the Kangxi emperor in the seventeenth century: P. Joachim Bouvet, S.J.: Sein Leben und sein Werk (Nettetal: Steyler Verlag, 1985). The life of Gerbilion, one of the French negotiators of the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689 between China and Russia, is the subject of Yves de Thomaz de Bossierre, Jean-Francois Gerbillon, S.J. (1654-1701): Un de cinq mathdmaticiens envoyes en Chine par Louis XIV (Louvain: Ferdinand Verblest Foundation, 1994). A. J. Broomhall produced a broadly conceived, multivolume biography of the founder of the China Inland Mission, entitled Hudson Taylor and China's Open Century, 7 vols. (Sevenoaks, Kent: Hodder & Stoughton, 1981-89).
Two-Way Transfer of Knowledge and Values
As John Fairbank noted, the mission movement was preeminently a people-to-people phenomenon. However unrepresentative missionaries in China might be of their compatriates at home, they represented the West for many Chinese. Missionaries, furthermore, came to China intent on effecting change. They brought heterodox religious doctrines and social values to China; increasingly, they became a two-way conduit for information and images of China in the West and for Western secular knowledge as well as Christian teachings in China. Although other avenues for cultural exchange opened up, missionaries remained important and available agents for knowledge transfer and change, eliciting both negative and positive reactions among the Chinese. Overall studies are Jerome Ch'en, China and the West: Society and Culture, 1815-1937 (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1979); Donald W. Treadgold, The West in Russia and China: Religious and Secular Thought in Modern Times, vol. 2, China, 15821949 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1973); Paul A. Cohen and Merle Goldman, eds., Ideas Across Cultures: Essays on Chinese Thought in Honor of Benjamin I. Schwartz (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1990); Leslie A. Fleming, ed., Women's Work for Women: Missionaries and Social Change in Asia (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1989).
Christianity in China: Early Protestant Missionary Writings, edited by Suzanne W. Barnett and John Fairbank (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1985), is a collection of papers on the Chinese writings of pioneer Protestant missionaries. Studies of the transfer of secular knowledge include Adrian A. Bennett, John Fryer: The Introduction of Western Science and Technology into Nineteenth-Century China (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1967); Peter Buck, American Science and Modern China, 1876-1936 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1980); Paul Cohen, Between Tradition and Modernity: Wang T'ao and Reform in Late Ch'ing China (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1974); Adrian A. Bennett, Missionary Journalist in China: Young J. Allen and His Magazines, 1860-1883 (Athens: Univ. of Georgia Press, 1983).
Studies of the role of Christianity in various facets of China's national history include works on the Taiping Rebellion. The inner world of the Taiping leader, Hong Xiuquan, is explored in God's Chinese Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom o/Hong Xiuquan (New York: W. W. Norton, 1996), by Jonathan Spence. With elegance, Spence narrates the story of how the improbable mix of Christian doctrines, the Chinese spiritual world, the cycle of dynastic decline, and Hong's own mystical vision sparked a rebellion that almost toppled the Qing dynasty in the mid-nineteenth century. Also important are Jen Yu-wen, The Taiping Revolutionary Movement (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1973), a condensed English-language version of Jen's multivolume monograph in Chinese, and Rudolf G. Wagner, Reenacting the Heavenly Vision: The Role of Religion in the Taiping Rebellion (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1982). Examining other aspects of the interaction are "Christianity and Chinese Nationalism in the Early Republican Period--a Symposium," Republican China 17 (April 1992); Charles W. Hayford, To the People: James Yen and Village China (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1990); Lin Zhiping, ed., Zidujiao yu Zhongguo xiandai hua guoji xueshu taohui (International symposium on Christianity and China's modernization)
(Taipei: Yuchouguang, 1994). In Double-Edged Sword: Christianity and Twentieth-Century Chinese Fiction (Hong Kong: Tao Fong Shan Ecumenical Center, 1986), Lewis S. Robinson reveals that a significant number of Chinese fiction writers during the first half of the twentieth century had some association with Christianity and Christian institutions, though they did not necessarily join the church, and in some instances they turned against Christianity.
For analyses of intellectual confrontation and cross-fertilization, the following are useful: John D. Young, Confucianism and Christianity: The First Encounter (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Univ. Press, 1983); Julia Ching, Confucianism and Christianity (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1977); Ralph R. Covell, Confucius, the Buddha, and Christ: A History of the Gospel in Chinese (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1986); Hans Kung and Julia Ching, Christianity and Chinese Religions (New York: Doubleday, 1989). Jacques Gernet, in China and the Christian Impact, trans. Janet Lloyd (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985), argues that the basic concepts and values of Christianity and Confucianism are incompatible and that the Jesuit methodology of accommodation had in the long run little chance of success. This stimulating work has been the focus of much discussion and many counter arguments. Also see Cecile Beurdeley and Michel Beurdeley, Guiseppe Castiglione: A Jesuit Painter at the Court of the Chinese Emperors, trans. Michael Bullock (Rutland, Vt.: Charles E. Tuttle, 1971); Jonathan Chaves, Singing of the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li (Honolulu: Univ. of Hawaii Press, 1993); Giorgio Melis, ed., Martino Martini. Geografo, cartografo, storico, teologo. Trento 1614, Hangzhou 1661 (Trent: Provincia Autonoma di Trento, Museo Tridentino di Scienze Naturali, 1983); Paul A. Rule, K'ungtzu or Confucius? The Jesuit Interpretation of Confucianism (Sydney: Routledge, Chapman & Hall, 1986); Charles E. Ronan, S.J., and Bonnie B.C. Oh, eds., East Meets West: The Jesuits in China, 1582-1773 (Chicago: Loyola Univ. Press, 1988).
A number of works concentrate on the intertwining of missions and Western expansionism, including William R. Hutchison, Errand to the World: American Protestant Thought and Foreign Missions (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1987); Horst Grunder, Christliche Mission und deutscher Imperialismus, 18841914 (Paderborn: Schoningh, 1982); Michael H. Hunt, Making of a Special Relationship: The U.S. and China to 1914 (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1983); and James Reed, The Missionary Mind and American East Asian Policy, 1911-1915 (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1983). On the impact of China and China missions on the West, see Warren I. Cohen, America's Response to China: A History of Sino-American Relations (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1990); Patricia Neils, ed., U.S. Attitudes and Policies Toward China: The Impact of American Missionaries (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1990); and the massive work of Donald Lach and Edwin J. Van Kley, Asia in the Making of Europe, 3 vols. (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1965-93).
Long-term Impact of Christian Education and Social Service
By the 1920s a larger number of Protestant missionaries were devoting their energies to education, medicine, or other social service activities than those that concentrated on evangelism. Roman Catholic orders as well were giving greater attention to middle school and higher education than had been true previously. Though the emphasis on social gospel methodology drew criticism from conservative sectors, the influence of Christian schools, hospitals, orphanages, YMCA and YWCA centers, publishing houses, and so forth was long lasting. Historians have analyzed the role of Christian missions in the training of leaders in the fields of education and medicine; in the introduction of professions such as journalism, nursing and dentistry, library science, physical education, and agriculture; in the fostering of formal education for women; in the inculcation of ideals of civic responsibility and mass education; and in providing alternative structural models in schools, hospitals, and relief agencies.
Overall works on Christian education are Jessie G. Lutz, China and the Christian Colleges, 1850-1950 (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1971); Ruth Hayhoe, China's Universities and the Open Door (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1989); Ruth Hayhoe and Marianne Bastid, eds., China's Education and the Industrialized World: Studies in Cultural Transfer (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1978); Ruth Hayhoe, Education and Modernization: The Chinese Experience (New York: Pergamon Press, 1992); Zhang Kaiyuan and Arthur Waldron, eds., Christian Universities and Chinese-Western Cultures: Selected Works of the First International Symposium on the History of the Pre-1949 Christian Universities in China (Hubei: Huazhong Normal Univ., 1991); Lin Zhiping, ed., Zhongguo jidujiao daxue lunwen ji (Papers from an international symposium on the influence and contribution of Christian colleges in the modernization of China) (Taipei: Yuchouguang, 1992). In The Alienated Academy: Culture and Politics in Republican China, 19191937 (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1990), Wenhsin Yeh contrasts the academic and social life, the makeup of the student body and the faculty, and the curricular emphases of St. John's University with other Chinese universities such as Beida, Shanghai University, and Danghua.
The United Board for Christian Higher Education in Asia commissioned a series of histories of the China Christian colleges, and in addition there are several works by individuals formerly associated with the institutions; see Charles H. Corbett, Lingnan University (New York: Trustees of Lingnan Univ., 1963); John B. Hipps, History of the University of Shanghai (Valley Forge, Pa.: Board of Founders of the Univ. of Shanghai, 1964); Reuben Holden, Yale-in-China: The Mainland, 1901-1951 (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1964). Also see Philip West, Yenching University and Sino-Western Relations, 1916-1952 (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1976). Peking Union Medical College, an influential institution that produced many of China's medical elite, was sponsored by the Rockefeller Foundation but also had close ties with the missionary community. It has been the subject of two studies: Mary Brown Bullock, An American Transplant: The Rockefeller Foundation and Peking Union Medical College (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1980); and John Z. Bowers, Western Medicine in a Chinese Palace, PUMC, 1917-1951 (Philadelphia: Josiah Macy Jr. Foundation, 1972). Two other works on medicine are Cheung Yuetwah, Missionary Medicine in China: A Study of Two Canadian Protestant Missionaries in China Before 1937 (Lanham, Md.: Univ. Press of America, 1988); and Karen Minden, Bamboo Stone: The Evolution of a Chinese Medical Elite
(Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press, 1994), in which West China Union University is presented as a case study.
For information on a variety of reform efforts by missionaries, see James C. Thomson, Jr., While China Faced West: American Reformers in Nationalist China, 1928-1937 (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1969); Shirley Garrett, Social Reformers in Urban China: The Chinese YMCA, 1895-1926 (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1970); Paul R. Bohr, Famine in China and the Missionary: Timothy Richard as Relief Administrator and Advocate of National Reform, 1876-1884 (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1972); Randall E. Stross, The Stubborn Earth: American Agriculturalists on Chinese Soil, 1898-1937 (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1986); Robin Porter, ed., Industrial Reformers in Republican China (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1994); and Kathleen L. Lodwick, Crusaders Against Opium: Protestant Missionaries in China, 1874-1917 (Lexington: Univ. of Kentucky Press, 1995).
Indigenization and the Chinese Church
During recent decades Chinese Christianity has experienced a surprising growth in membership and popularity. Autonomous Chinese churches, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, have survived political persecution and isolation from the Western Christian community to become for some Chinese a haven amid cynicism regarding the governing party and its ideology. Though earlier attempts at indigenization had been disappointing, Christianity by the end of the twentieth century has become an international religion, with national churches taking on a local coloration and assuming responsibility for their own governance, propagation, and support. Study of indigenization and of Chinese Christianity is attracting a growing number of scholars.
See Samuel D. Ling, The Other May Fourth Movement: The Chinese "Christian Renaissance," 1919-1937 (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms; Ph.D. diss., Temple Univ., 1981); Lam Wing-hung, Chinese Theology in Construction (Pasadena, Calif.: Win. Carey Library, 1983); Jonathan T'ien-en Chao, The Chinese Indigenous Church Movement, 1919-1927: A Protestant Response to the Anti-Christian Movements in Modern China (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms; Ph.D. diss., Univ. of Pennsylvania, 1986); Lin Zhiping, ed., Jidujiao yu Zhongguo bense hua (Christianity and indigenization in China) (Taipei: Yuchouguang, 1990); Kwok Puilan, Chinese Women and Christianity, 1860-1927 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992); Kwok Puilan, Discovering the Bible in the Non-Biblical World (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1995).
For the history of specific Chinese Christian communities and individuals, the following are useful: Murray A. Rubinstein, The Protestant Community in Modern Taiwan: Mission, Seminary, and Church (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1991); Nicole Constable, Christian Souls and Chinese Spirits: A Hakka Community in Hong Kong (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1995); Carl T. Smith, Chinese Christians: Elites, Middlemen, and the Church in Hong Kong (Hong Kong: Oxford Univ. Press, 1985); and Carl T.
Smith, A Sense of History: Studies in the Social and Urban History of Hong Kong (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Educational Publishing, 1995).
Research Aids
Individuals wishing to conduct research on China missions and the Chinese church will find a bibliographic survey by Dana Robert valuable in conceptualizing mission/missions; see "From Missions to Mission to Beyond Missions: The Historiography of American Protestant Foreign Missions Since World War II," INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH 18, no. 4 (October 1994):146-62. New research aids are available. On Roman Catholic missions there are Jeroom Heyndrickx, ed., Historiography of the Chinese Catholic Church: Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Louvain: Ferdinand Verbiest Foundation, 1994), a volume that includes substantive as well as bibliographic essays; and E. Zurcher, N. Standaert, S.J., and A. Dudink, Bibliography of the Jesuit Mission in China ca. 1580-ca. 1680 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991). For Protestant missions based in the United States, the work to begin with is Archie R. Crouch et al., eds., Christianity in China: A Scholars' Guide to Resources in the Libraries and Archives of the U.S. (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1989). Useful for Canada is Peter Mitchell, Margo S. Gewurtz, and Alwyn Austin, comps., Guide to Archival Resources on Canadian Missionaries in East Asia, 1890-1960 (Univ. of Toronto--York Univ.: Joint Centre for Asian Pacific Studies, 1988). And for Great Britain, see Leslie R. Marchant, A Guide to the Archives and Records of Protestant Christian Missions from the British Isles to China, 1796-1914 (Nedlands: Univ. of Western Australia Press, 1966).
In addition to the archives of denominational societies, major U.S. collections on Protestant missions are at Union Theological Seminary, New York City; Billy Graham Center, Wheaton College, Wheaton, Ill.; and Yale Divinity School, New Haven. Martha L. Smalley has compiled an excellent finding guide for Yale: Yale University Divinity School: Finding Aids to Archives and MSS Collections. The archives of the Council for World Mission, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, hold the papers of the Commonwealth Missionary Society, the Presbyterian Church of England Overseas Mission, and the London Missionary Society.
A valuable index to the Chinese Recorder, the principal Protestant mission journal published in China for over half a century, has been compiled by Kathleen Lodwick, The Chinese Recorder Index: A Guide to Christian Missions in Asia, 1867-1941 (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1986). For biographical sketches of Jesuits in China until 1800, there is Joseph Dehergne, S.J., Repertoire des Jesuits de China de 1552 a 1800 (Rome and Paris: Bibliotheca Instituti Historici S.I., 1973). Still useful for factual data on Chinese institutions of higher learning, scholarly and professional associations, libraries, and other institutions as of 1933-35 is W. Y. Chyne, Handbook of Cultural Institutions in China (Taipei: Ch'eng-wen Publishing, 1967), reprint of a 1936 edition.
Several institutions have collected oral histories of China missionaries, including Maryknoll Sisters Archives and Maryknoll Fathers and Brothers Archives, Maryknoll, New York; American Lutheran Church Archives, St. Paul, Minnesota; Graham Center Archives, Wheaton College, Wheaton, Illinois; St. John's University Archives, Jamaica, New York; and China Missionaries Oral History Collection, Claremont Colleges, California. Though these materials should be checked against other sources, they can provide a sense of immediacy and of personal reality.
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By Jessie G. Lutz
Jessie G. Lutz is Professor of History Emeritus, Rutgers University. Among her publications are China and the Christian Colleges, 1850-1950 and Chinese Politics and Christian Missions: The Anti-Christian Movements of 192028. This essay is to be published in Chinese, along with a Chinese translation of the author's Christian Missions in China and a bibliography of works in Chinese compiled by Wang Chenmain. The author wishes to express appreciation to Daniel Bays, Gerald Anderson, and John W. Witek, S.J., for suggestions of works to be included in the bibliography.
道教与中国传统文化 道教对中国传统文化的影响摘要？道教是我国 土生土长的传统宗教？自他产生已经有1800多年的历史了？若从它的前身方仙道？黄老道算起时间久更长了？它 同时也是中国传统文化中不可分割的一部分。它的长期发展过程中？对我国封建社会的政治、经济、哲学、文学、艺术、音乐、化学、医学、养身学、气功学、以及民族关系、民族心理和社会习俗等各个方面都曾产生过重要的影响。此外？我国的传统文化主要包括我国古代的思想文化和社会生活 这两个方面？道教对此影响颇深。关键词？道教传统文化影响道教是中华民族的传统宗教,在其创建和 发展过程中吸收、融合了不少传统文化,使这些文化成为它思想源泉的一部分。道教与传统文化的密切关系？表现在它的思想来源上多样性它对我国古代的传统文化都采取了兼收 并蓄的态度？所以道教留下来的思想也是我国传统文化的 大集合、大杂烩同时也是中国传统文化不可或缺的一部分。道教在发展过程中又对我国古代的思想文化、社会生活的各个领域产生过巨大而又复杂的影响。第一对古代政治历史的影响。在我国漫长的封建历史中有许多封建王朝大力提倡道教？用道教的教义作为封建统治的思想武 器？所以道教与我国封建社会的封建统治者关系是十分密
切的。许多古代的农民起义也是与道教的思想密切相关？东汉末年的黄巾起义就是利用道教经典中的某些思想作为他们的思想武器？来指导农民起义？此后利用道教的教义起义的农民战争也有很多。所以道教对我们国家下层社会中的影响是巨大的？也是十分广泛和深远的。第二对我国古代学术思想方面的影响。我国的许多道教学者？例如南北朝的陶弘景？唐代的成玄英等这些都为我国古代文化思想方面具有一定的贡献？特别是道教长期与佛教思想？儒家思想之间的碰撞？排斥到最后的不断融合？兼容并须的发展过程？从而促进了中国古代学术思想的发展？而且道教的许多劝善书以及大量戒律都包含了许多伦理道德的思想？而这些思想是为我国古代社会有着十分重要的影响意义。第三对我国文学艺术的影响。我国古代的许多文学艺术著作中都有道教的影子？道教的主要目的在于羽化成仙？而这种思想也反映在我国古代的许多文学著作中？成为文学著作的重要题材之一？古代以这种思想而创作的诗、词、赋、小说等题材的作品数量众多？伟大的唐代诗人李白就是这其中的主要代表？其部分诗也被称为神仙诗。此外有关道教的雕塑、石刻、建筑都各具特色？由此可见都道教对我国古代艺术的影响是十分深远的？同时也作出了巨大的贡献。第四对我国医学发展的影响。道教为了实现长生不死？从一开始便十分重视炼
犹太教文明、伊斯兰教文明、基督教文明的起源、联系与主要区别并非每一种哲学都是一种宗教，但是每一种宗教却都是一种哲学。詹姆斯〃弗雷泽爵士说过：“宗教被认为是一种超人的控制自然或人类声明发展进程的安慰或调解的力量。” 苦难者的宗教：犹太教犹太民族产生于闪米特族的一支弱小的牧羊部落—希伯来人,这是一个苦难而又伟大的民族. 首领亚伯拉罕将自己部落的神耶和华尊奉万能的神主，将希伯来人视为耶和华的“选民”，神同他们订有契约。这是亚伯拉罕创立的较为模糊的一神信仰，而犹太教便是从这个时候，在这种特殊的神学观念中“种下胚胎”的。 以后摩西在带领以色列人出埃及的过程中，逐渐统一了以色列人的思想与步调，并假托神耶和华于西奈山上给他受戒之说，为以色列人创立了一整套法律，称《摩西十戒》。初步形成了犹太教的教规、教律与礼仪。这也是人类最早的法律之一。标志着犹太教的正式形成。 犹太教后来被波斯人统治，在此期间犹太教得到了重大发展，形成了犹太教圣经《旧约》。在被罗马统治时期，犹太人不仅没有政治上的独立和自由, 而且被迫流亡世界各地, 成了没有祖国的人。1948年, 返回家园的犹太犹太复国主义者建立了新的以色列国, 这种局面才宣告结束。 以色列人从多神观念演变为一神观念的过程，是一个漫长的历史阶段。在面对侵略者的强大，东方民族的宗教信仰，特别是亡国奴的屈辱处境使他们政治、宗教观念发生了很大改变，他们相信耶和华不仅是以色列的保护神，而且是统治世上唯一主宰，耶路撒冷是他的唯一圣所。这种观念在以色列人陆续返回巴勒斯坦后逐渐成熟，犹太人逐步形成了耶和华是独一神的观念，崇奉一神、排斥其他宗教并维护祭祀贵族统治的犹太教才最后形成。 天国之道：基督教以色列人是一个多灾多难的民族，到“巴比伦之囚”时期，他们开始期盼先知们预言的“弥赛亚”，就是“受膏者”或“受上帝祝福的人”。 在罗马统治下，巴勒斯坦的犹太人因其经济地位不同而对罗马统治者持有不同的政治态度，犹太教分裂，其中艾沙尼派和奋锐派强烈宣传人类救世主降临的弥赛亚运动。这种宣传运动，是当时基督教产生的思想基础。 公元2世纪中叶，正统的犹太教徒坚信弥赛亚终必降临。另一部分人也就是后来的基督徒“拿撒勒派”认为弥赛亚已经降临，他不是来复兴强大的以色列王国，而是来建立一个不属这世界的天国，他就是拿撒勒人耶稣。 后来，在反对罗马统治的民族斗争的高潮中，拿撒勒派同罗马统治当局和犹太教上层权贵之间的矛盾冲突日益激化。于是这些人逐渐形成了一个独立的新教派，于公元1世纪末，发展成为最初的基督教。《基督教的起源》一书的作者阿〃罗伯逊认为，拿撒勒人耶稣很可能就是这个拿撒勒派的领袖。 关于耶稣，《福音书》中记载他是由圣灵受孕，由童女玛利亚所生。耶稣是基督宗教教义的中心人物，也是基督宗教的创始人。耶稣一直声称自己就是上帝，直接干犯了律法。因而宗教领袖要求罗马政府处死他，他被钉死在十字架上，但是有人目睹三天后他又复活。 后来耶稣的门徒彼得和保罗大力宣传基督教，他们带领“基督使徒团”进行传教，一生功绩伟大，保罗用文字将基督教教义编纂成圣书《新约》。这时候基督教完全从犹太教脱离出来，成为了独立的宗教，有了自己的崇拜对象基督耶稣，自己的经典《新约圣经》。
中国道教与养生 中国道教与养生 延年益寿，乃至长生不老、长生不死，是人类自我意识苏醒以来世代相传的一种理想和追求。这种美好的理想和愿望，在世界各民 族的宗教观念和文学艺术中，都有所体现和反映。 道教故乡的华夏，是一个有着灿烂文化的文明古国。以贵生著称的华夏民族，历来向往长生。从先秦时代起，就有不少人在孜孜不 倦地探索长生不死之道。数千年来，华夏先民在养生实践中，创造 和发明了种类繁多、功效各异的养生延年之术。这丰富多彩的养生 文化，体现了华夏民族的科学知识水平和卓异智慧。这珍贵的历史 文化遗产，更有待于我们今天的发掘和利用。 道教是中国土生土长的传统宗教。追求长生不死，修炼成仙是它的基本特征。道教是一种乐生恶死的宗教。对于生命的保护和延长 以及渴望永生，向来是道教最为关心和探索最多的课题。 道教初创时期，《太平经》等典籍中，就有追求长生不死的意思。《道藏》的首经《元始无量度人经》称“仙道贵生，无量度人”。 道教认为：“夫万物以人为贵，人以生为宝”。(陆修静《洞玄灵宝 斋说光烛戒罚灯祝愿仪》)正因为道教把人的生命看得宝贵，所以主 张人应当竭力爱护生命，目的是要延年益寿，长生不死。道教继承 了这一文化的优良传统，并将其融入自己的教义和实践之中。 集汉民族不死信仰和养生术大成的道教，确信“我命由我不由天”，一直在执着地追求不死之道。正是在这种积极态度的支持下，二千年来，无数的道教徒在寻求长生成仙的道路上努力探索，锲而 不舍。道教所行的养生术很多，有外丹、内丹、服气、胎息、吐纳、服食、辟谷、存思、导引、按摩、房中等等。大多数养生方法如行 之得法，确能收到奇效。这些已被海内外医家和养生学家所公认。 所以，如果没有道教对于“我命由我不由天”的坚定信仰，没有道
世界三大—神教以犹太教为最早，伊斯兰教为最晚，三者的关系非常密切。要叙述伊斯兰教思想发展，我 想首先要了解三大一神教的基本特点。否则会走弯路的。所以先从介绍三大一神教开始，研究伊斯兰的思 想历程，是比较好的。 “犹太教、基督教和伊斯兰教是世界三大一神教”它们都反对偶像崇拜、多神崇拜，只信仰和崇拜一个主宰 宇宙万物、至高无上的造物主。对这一造物主仅仅是三教各自所称名字不同而矣，犹太教称“阿特乃”，不 愿直呼耶和华，他们的先知是摩西：基督教称弥赛亚或基督或天主、上帝，他们的先知是耶稣；伊斯兰教 称安拉或真主，其先知是穆罕默德。三教都有自己的经典，犹太教的经典是们日约》，希伯来文：基督教 的经典是《新约》，拉丁文；伊斯兰教的经典是《古兰经》，阿拉伯文。三教相互承认这三部经典是天启 经典。这三大一神教，历史悠久，犹太教约产生于公元前十四世纪；基督教约产生于公元一世纪；伊斯兰 教产生于公元七世纪初。这三教的信仰者不少，对全世界都有很大影口向。… 三大—神教何以都渊源于阿拉比亚呢？为什么又构成为中东问题的主要症结呢？要了解这个问题，还须从 历史上寻找答案。 一、原属同一个先民 犹太教、基督教和伊斯兰教是世界性的一神宗教，“这三大一神教，皆发祥于中东的闪族”，“闪族”的全名 是“闪米特人”（Semites），亦称“塞姆人”（Semu）。这个名字出自《旧约全书·创世纪》所载传说，称其为挪亚长子闪（Shemu或Semu，也译为“歇姆”、“塞姆1的后裔。据陈永岭教授主编的《民族词典》称：一 般认为古闪米特人以畜牧为生，原来生活在撒哈拉北部地区。约在公元前五千年，气候剧变，开始东迁， 陆续来到西亚两河流域和叙利亚草原，一直保留着相当统一的民族共同体。至公元前三千年初，按语言明 显地分为东、西两大支。东闪米特人生活在两河流域的北部，*阿卡特语，在与苏美尔人接触中吸收、融化了对方的语言。自公元前三千二百年至公元初，其代表为阿卡德人、巴比伦人、亚述人。按现代分类法， 此支称“闪米特北支”。西闪米特人又分三个分支：西北支（现称闪米特北中支），系指分布在巴勒斯坦、 叙利亚、美索不达米亚北部的各族，最早的代表为阿摩里特人、迎南人、乌加里特人，约在公元前二千年后，有跳尼基人、犹太人、阿拉米人、莫阿比特人、亚奥迪人等。中支（现称闪米特南中支）约在公元前 二千年至前一千年，其代表为利希亚尼特人、萨姆德人等，随后统一共称阿拉伯人。七世纪随着伊斯兰教 的兴起，开始了闪米特人的一次大迁移。现分布在埃及、苏丹、摩洛哥、阿尔及利亚、伊拉克、沙特、叙利亚、也门、突尼斯、黎巴嫩、约旦、利比亚、科威特等国，按方言、历史、文化传统和地域可分为47个民族。南支（现称闪米特南支）分布在阿拉伯半岛的南部，古代代表有马闪人、萨巴人、卡塔班人、哈德 拉人等，南支部分曾于七世纪越过红海到达非洲之角，今埃塞俄比亚闪米特各族的祖先。马赫里人等就属 这支。从这些记述看，“阿拉伯半岛，可能是闪族的摇篮，闪族在这个地方成长之后，迁移到肥沃的新月地区（即伊拉克、叙利亚、黎巴嫩、巴勒斯坦和约旦），后来就成为历史上的巴比伦人、亚述人、胖尼基人 和希伯来人。说阿拉伯半岛是纯粹的闪族文化的发源地，这是持之有故，言之成理的”“现在还有两种生存 着的民族，可以代表闪族，一种是阿拉比亚人，另一种是犹太人；在特殊的相貌和心理特征方面，阿拉比 亚人所保存的闪族特征，比犹太人要丰富得多”据此可知创建犹太教和基督教的希伯来人（即犹太民族的人），首传伊斯兰教的古来氏人（即阿拉伯民族的人），都是闪米特人的后裔。 二、原属同一个古老的一神教 一神思想的始祖是亚伯拉罕（伊斯兰教称易卜拉欣），首传犹太教的是摩西（意为水中捞出的人，伊斯兰 教称穆撒），他是三大一神教的首传者，所以犹太教被称为世界一神教之母。基督教是从犹太教中分出的 一个支系，耶稣是始传者，（伊斯兰教称尔撒）。在犹太教、基督教的影响下产生的伊斯兰教对人类历史
中国的道教与科学 一、道教的起源 道教是发源于古代中国的传统宗教，是一个崇拜诸多神明的多神教原生的宗教形式，主要宗旨是追求得道成仙、救济世人，并以老子的《道德经》等为主要经典。道家虽然从战国时代即为诸子百家之一，但直到汉朝之后才有教团产生，其个别派系为奉老子为道德天尊，把原为道德哲学家神化了。至南北朝时道教宗教形式逐渐完善。 道教的根，深植于中华文化的母体之上，可以说，自从中华大地上有了智慧的人类，中国道教的胚胎就开始孕育、发生了。道教的源，包罗自然崇拜、原始巫术、鬼神信仰、神仙方术、阴阳五行、谶纬神符、方仙道、黄老道和儒、墨、阴阳诸家学说以及燕齐文化、巴蜀文化的某些部分；可以说，凡是能参与历史宗教形成过程的中国文化（包括主流部分和非主流即异端部分）的诸因素，都一齐向着道教的发生与形成，情有独钟地奔涌去了。 道教以“道”为最高信仰，认为“道”是化生宇宙万物的本原。在中华传统文化中，道教（包括道家、术士等）被认为是与儒学和佛教一起的一种占据着主导地位的理论学说和寻求有关实践练成神仙的方法。 二、道教文化对古代科学技术的影响 （一）从积极方面看，在科学技术上，道教文化崇尚自然的思想，为发展中国古代的科学技术建立了不朽的功绩。在中国历史上，科学的起源和发展是与道教文化分不开的。中国古代的化学、矿物学、生物学、医药学等大都发源于道家。 1.仙道贵生——道教的长生观及对中国医学和养生学的影响。 对生命或长寿的思考是人类的一项最具普遍意义的课题，也是中国传统文化中的一个最为悠久而光辉的主题。而在这追求生命长久的漫漫历程中，跋涉得最为劳苦艰辛，表现得最为执着热烈，所留下的足迹也最为鲜明深刻者，当数中国的道教文化及道教思想家、养生家们。道教的长生方法主要包括清静无为、节欲避害、阴阳平和、形神相安及心斋、坐忘、服气、服饵、外丹、内丹、导引、行蹻…它们都分属于养神、养形、适应自然三大部分。其中导引按摩、道教气功、道教武术、呼吸修炼都是流传较广的养生之术。除此之外，对传染病和体内寄生虫的认识和防治，在道教的科学探索中得到了提高。从早期道书对人体内“三尸”的讨论，逐渐发展出对体内具体的寄生虫的观察和防治。葛洪《肘后备急方》首次记载的以青篙治疗疟疾的方法, 具有
基督教与犹太教异同点分析 基督教作为西方社会的一种唯一的和绝对性的宗教信仰，对于塑造西方文化的基本特征起到了难以估量的作用，构成了西方文化的重要根源。但基督教并不是凭空创造而出的，它与犹太教有着深厚的历史渊源——基督教由犹太教发展而来，希伯来的犹太教为基督教准备了一个历史背景（圣教历史）和精神氛围（罪孽意识和救世福音）。基督教与犹太教有着千丝万缕的联系，但随着时间的推移，这两种宗教在教义及观念上又有着极大地区别。 相同之处 基督教和犹太教都产生于亚洲西部地区的巴勒斯坦和小亚细亚等地，犹太教的圣经在基督教中称为《圣经·旧约》，这是犹太教和基督教共同承认的经书。同时，基督教承袭了犹太教的“至高一神”、“救世主”、信仰“先知”和“启示”等观念。 不同之处 绝大多数基督教派及基督信徒认为上帝是“三位一体”的，即圣父、圣子、圣灵三位一体的神。耶稣基督是圣父、圣子、圣灵三位一体上帝的圣子，道成肉身来到世界上，亦是旧约圣经所预言的弥赛亚。他来不是要拯救以色列人脱离压迫，而是要把所有人从罪恶中救赎出来。而犹太教认为这个“三一”观不符希伯来圣经，上帝是独一的上帝即雅赫维（耶和华），而非三位一体的上帝。犹太教认为耶稣是一位优良的伦理教师或是一位先知，而不是弥赛亚，更不是道成肉身来到世上的上帝。犹太教认为犹太教徒是雅赫维的“特选子民”，而基督教则敬拜耶稣是上帝的儿子，认为凡信奉上帝的人都为其“选民”。犹太教盼望弥赛亚（复国救主）降临，认为真正的弥赛亚尚未到来，应继续等待，而基督教则认为真正的弥赛亚已经到来，他就是耶稣。 犹太教宣扬“末世论”，犹太人中盛传上帝将派一位“受膏者”（弥赛亚）来复兴犹太国，苦难的世纪（“末世”）即将结束，弥赛亚不久将降临，把犹太人带入“千禧年”的幸福生活中。末世论带有此岸行性和直观性。基督教提倡“救赎说”，受希腊唯心哲学影响，把眼光从此岸的人转向了彼岸的灵，把天国从现世搬到了来世。进入天国的也不再是具有肉体的人，而是超脱了肉体的灵魂。此
中国原始道家的天道自然观 *导读：对道概念的诠释是原始道家生态哲学体系的起点， 整个哲学体系也是在道这个命题的统率下展开的。 总书记在庆祝中国共产党成立90周年大会上的讲话中指出：在当代中国，坚持发展是硬道理的本质要求就是坚持科学发展。我们要以科学发展为主题，以加快转变经济发展方式为主线，加快建设资源节约型、环境友好型社会，不断在生产发展、生活富裕、生态良好的文明发展道路上取得新的更大的成绩[1]。这一 讲话，是对近年社会各界普遍强调的重视生态文明、实现人与自然和谐相处、促进经济社会全面协调可持续发展要求的回应和重申，为今后我国经济社会发展指明了方向。回顾历史，自产业革命以后，在人类经济社会取得巨大成就的同时，生态危机正如同巨浪一般汹涌而来。面对日益严重的生态危机，有识之士开始认真思考人与自然的关系，并把这种思考延伸到对传统文化的反思之中，企图从中找出解决问题的方法及理论根据。1967年，林 恩怀特教授在《科学》杂志上发表了《我们生态危机的历史根源》一文，宣称基督教应当为出现的生态危机负责，因为基督教相信
上帝创造了人类并赋予人类主宰万物的特权[2]。该文引起了科学、宗教、哲学等各界的强烈反向，也引起了人们对传统文化与生态问题相互关系的反思。在中国，讨论传统文化的现代生态意义的文章及著作亦已有不少。本文主要阐释以老子和庄子为代表的中国原始道家的天道自然观，并说明它对今天保护环境进而实现人类的可持续发展可能产生的有益启示。 一、基石：尊崇天道 对道概念的诠释是原始道家生态哲学体系的起点，整个哲学体系也是在道这个命题的统率下展开的。对于道这个命题，老子在《道德经》中明确地告诉人们：道可道，非常道（《道德经》第1章，以下凡引自《道德经》的均只列出章数），有物混成，先天地生。寂兮寥兮，独立而不改，周行而不殆，可以为天地母。吾不知其名，强字之曰：道（25章），道之为物，惟恍惟惚。惚兮恍兮，其中有象；恍兮惚兮，其中有物；窈兮冥兮，其中有精，其精甚真，其中有信（21章）。在老子看来，道是可知的，它并不神秘，其中有象，其中有物。但由于道的权威性远远超出了我们的想象，因而我们也不知道该如何恰当地称呼它，只好暂且称之为道。庄子也指出：夫道，有情有信，无为无形，可传而不可
第二节人体的营养 1、食物中的营养物质 热能蛋白质：构成人体细胞的基本物质，为人体的生理活动提供能量；糖类：人体最重要的供能物质，也是构成细胞的成分； 热能脂肪：供能物质，单位质量释放能量最多；但一般情况下，脂肪作为备用的能源物质，贮存在体内； 维生素：不参与构成人体细胞，也不提供能量，含量少，对人体生命活动起调节作用; 维生素作用缺乏症 维生素 A 促进人体正常的发育，增强抵抗能力，维持人的正常视觉。皮肤粗糙，夜盲症 维生素B1 维持人体正常的新陈代谢和神经系统的正常生理功能。神经炎，脚气病 维生素 C 维持正常的新陈代谢，维持骨骼、肌肉和血管的正常生理作用，增强抵抗力。坏血病，抵抗力下降 维生素D 促进钙、磷吸收和骨骼发育。佝偻病（如鸡胸、X形或O形腿等）、骨质疏松症 水：约占体重的60%~70%，细胞的主要组成成分，人体的各种生理活动都离不开水。 无机盐：构成人体组织的重要材料，如：钙、磷（构成骨骼和牙齿）、铁（构成血红蛋白） 2、消化和吸收
（1）消化系统的组成 消化道：口腔→咽→食道→胃→小肠→大肠→肛门 （食物的通道） 消化腺：唾液腺、胃腺、肝脏、胰腺、肠腺 （分泌消化液，肝脏是人体最大的消化腺，分泌胆汁，参与脂肪消化）（2）小肠的结构特点： 小肠是消化食物和吸收营养物质的主要场所。 肠壁构造（由内向外）：黏膜、黏膜下层、肌肉层、浆膜 小肠适于消化、吸收的特点： ①最长； ②内表面具有皱襞和小肠绒毛（大大增加了消化和吸收的面积）； ③小肠绒毛内有毛细血管、毛细淋巴管，绒毛壁和毛细血管、毛细淋巴管的管壁都很薄，只由一层上皮细胞构成，这种结构有利于吸收营养物质； ④有各种消化液。 （3）食物的消化：在消化道内将食物分解成为可以吸收的成分的过程。物理性消化：牙齿的咀嚼、舌的搅拌和胃、肠的蠕动，将食物磨碎、搅拌，并与消化液混合。 化学性消化：通过各种消化酶的作用，使食物中各种成分分解为可以吸收的营养物质。 淀粉的消化（口腔、小肠）：淀粉→麦芽糖→葡萄糖 蛋白质的消化（胃、小肠）：蛋白质→氨基酸 脂肪的消化（小肠）：脂肪→脂肪小微粒→甘油+脂肪酸
西方三大宗教，按照出现前后，分别为犹太教、基督教、伊斯兰教。几大宗教之间令人眼花缭乱的流血冲突，往往给人造成错觉，那就是他们的信仰互相之间不共戴天。实际情况是，三大宗教的本质信仰是一致的。 犹太教，基督教，伊斯兰教，都起源于古老的犹太教。是犹太教，最先发展了宇宙中间独一真神的信仰，记载于圣经的旧约。在其信仰中，人类犯了悖逆上帝的原罪，上帝最后会派来救世主“以赛亚”拯救人类。几千年来，犹太人在等待这位救世主，至今还没有来临。旧约的意思，是指上帝与人之间的，以摩西戒律为主体的约定。 两千年前，犹太教出现了一个重要分支，其教主是耶稣，30岁开始传教，自称是上帝之子，是预言中的那位救世主。耶稣在旧约的基础上，代表上帝与人们立新约，于是圣经有了后半部分的新约，基督教从而诞生。犹太教其他分支不承认耶稣救世主的身分，他们要继续等待真正的救世主，而对基督徒来说，那是极大的亵渎。但分歧归分歧，犹太教基督教双方都还是以旧约为基础，自然，信仰的是同一个上帝。 公元7世纪，穆罕默德诞生于今沙特阿拉伯的麦加。他起初是一个商人，但被上帝遴选为最新的信使，根据上帝的启示，录下了古兰经，创立了新的伊斯兰教。古兰经传递了上帝最新的意旨，但它的基本源泉，仍然离不开犹太教的旧约。 于是有了下面的概括：犹太教：继续等待救世主，信奉旧约。基督教：耶稣是那位救世主，因此耶稣是神，信奉旧约与新约，以实践新约为主。伊斯兰教：继续等待救世主，穆罕默德是上帝最后的信使，传递了记载于古兰经中的上帝最后的信息。穆罕默德是先知，但他不是救世主，他是人，不是神。对待基督教，伊斯兰信徒尊重耶稣，但他们同样认为耶稣是人，不是神。古兰经认为耶稣是较早的一位先知，与穆罕默德的地位相同。 耶和华是犹太教和基督教的信徒们对上帝的称呼，安拉则是阿拉伯语对上帝的称呼，但称呼不重要，真正重要的是，归根到底，三大宗教信仰的是同一个上帝。他们之间的分歧，只是对上帝后来的安排做出了不同的解释。因此，看似不共戴天的犹太人阿拉伯人，信仰差异所造成的敌对意识，其实也并不突出。相对来说，反而是基督教的难调和性比较大，因为基督教相信耶稣是那位救世主，是真神，但其他两家不承认。 基督教与犹太教之间的宿怨，部分来自于基督徒指责犹太人杀害了耶稣。这里又出现了我早先举例过的，上帝造了不完美的人之后又惩罚其不完美，同样性质的不近情理。如果耶稣之生之死都是上帝的计划，那么耶稣一开始就注定要被害死，犹太人岂不是成了替罪羊，或者说，又中了上帝的圈套？时代毕竟是在进步，2000年，教皇保罗六世公开为天主教在历史上对犹太人的迫害向犹太人道歉，“基督徒对上帝的另一部分儿女的令人遗憾的行为。” 公元一世纪前期，基督教起源于地中海东部地区。早期的基督徒是清一色犹太人，其信仰基础是古老的犹太教，因此，基督教实际上是犹太教的一个分支。从创立初期开始，基督教就被看作是异端邪说，受到了多方面的迫害。执行迫害最甚者，是当时统治巴勒斯坦地区的罗马帝国政府，广泛并且残酷。处死耶稣，罗马政府虽不是始作俑者，但他们还是批准了死刑的执行。耶稣死后，十二门徒中的雅各、彼得，以及基督教早期最重要的领袖保罗等人，也都是在随后的传教活动中被罗马帝国处死。然而，迫害并没有能阻止基督教的发展。到公元四世纪时，基督教已经发展为罗马帝国区域内具有广泛影响力的宗教，尽管直到此时，基督教仍然属于非法并继续遭受迫害。 公元313年，人类文明史上极为重要的一件事发生了：罗马皇帝君士坦丁发布政令，宣布基督教合法，并采取具体措施，对基督教在帝国范围内的大发展提供有力的支持。而后，君士坦丁自己也正式宣布成为基督教徒。公元337年，君士坦丁去世，公元380年，狄奥多西皇帝宣布基督教为罗马帝国国教。由于罗马帝国的强势影响，从此基督教在塑造欧洲文明
简述基督教对犹太教的继承与超越 （论基督教与犹太教的关系） 基督教与犹太教同源，两教均诞生于巴勒斯坦的耶路撒冷圣城。但先有犹太教，后有基督教，后者是由前者衍生而来。公元一世纪三○年代，原属犹太教的一个分支派系，逐渐从犹太教中分离出去，并逐渐形成基督教。基督教在犹太教的基础上既有继承又有超越。 就继承的方面来讲，第一，犹太教的“至高一神”的观念为基督教直接继承，并成为基督教传统中的重要因素。但基督教认为上帝是圣父、圣子、圣灵三位一体的神，而犹太教则认为上帝是独一的上帝，而非三位一体的。第二，基督教笃信救世主，其救世主观念是从犹太教的“弥赛亚”观念发展而来的，对于基督徒来说，真正的弥赛亚已经到来，基督就是弥赛亚，即救世主。而犹太教则认为真正的弥赛亚尚未到来，应继续等待。第三，基督教继承了犹太教的经典，其中包括律法书、先知书、圣录等，并把它称作《旧约圣经》。所不同的是，犹太教还有圣法经传《塔木德》，而基督教则适应时代的发展，编纂了《新约圣经》，以满足传教的需要。第四，基督教采用了犹太教的“立约说”，继承了犹太教信仰“先知”及“启示”等观念。第五，犹太教文化在宗教礼仪、结社形式、民俗、民风等方面也对基督教文化产生了广泛的影响。例如，基督教袭用了犹太教的教会这种组织形式及其祈祷、唱诗、读经、讲道等礼拜仪式。但就大体而言，犹太教在宗教礼仪中，强调严格的戒律和繁缛礼仪，而基督教则废除严格的戒律和烦琐的礼仪，实行较为简便的宗教仪式。另外，基督教与犹太教使用的历法不尽相同，同时，基督教改安息日为礼拜日，改逾越节为复活节。 而就基督教对于犹太教的超越这方面来讲，首先，基督教突破了犹太教的民族局限性和狭隘性，具有开放性、兼容性、综合性、适应性、灵活性的特点。基督教不限制其教徒与外族人通婚，而犹太教则规定其教徒不能与未受割礼的外族人通婚，犹太教这种排它性和唯民族主义不仅阻碍其民族的发展，更限制了犹太教的传播与扩展。其次，犹太教的核心是律法和祭祀, 基督教的核心则是道德和信仰。基督教也尊重律法, 但是认为仅有律法是不够的。耶稣始终教导信徒们超出律法, 不要拘泥于此。基督教彻底改变了犹太教的律法主义，提倡“道德之爱”，从而使基督教走向更加伦理化的道路。 作为同源的两个宗教，有着极大的共同点，但是其不同与差异却更加明显并处于压倒性的优势，由此，逐渐发展壮大的基督教便开始对犹太教进行诋毁和迫害，并最终导致两教至今都不可两立的事态。
道家对中国文化的影响 道家是诞生在古老神州大地上的重要的本土思想。道家的起源可以一直追溯到泰古二皇。春秋时期，老子集古圣先贤之大智慧，总结了古老的道家思想的精华，形成了无为无不为的道德理论。道家以“道”为核心，认为天道无为、主张道法自然，提出了道生法、知雌守雄、刚柔并济等政治、军事策略，是“诸子百家”中极为重要的哲学流派，影响中华文化各个领域，对中华哲学、文学、宗教、科技、艺术等等影响深远。 一、道家对中华哲学的影响 英国学者李约瑟也曾说过：“中国人性格中有许多最吸引人的因素都来源于道家思想。中国如果没有道家思想，就像是一棵某些深根已经烂掉的大树。”由此可见，道家哲学对中华文化的形成和发展，对中华民族的思维特征、民族心理、民族性格都产生了极其重大的影响。 道家哲学的核心，体现在其对自然的崇尚、主张自然无为的天道观，强调“道”是世界的本原，因而从人类到自然界都要以“道”为其法则，“人法地，地法天，天法道，道法自然”。道家哲学是一种以自然哲学为构架的、以“自然之道”一贯之的思想体系，它的本体论、社会政治哲学等都无不主张“道法自然”，体现了鲜明的自然主义色彩。道家哲学这种崇尚自然、返朴归真的思想，与我们今天所强调的可持续发展思想可谓一脉相承，倡导人们更加热爱自然、回归自然，祈求人与自然在和谐相处的环境中共同发展。老子道家哲学以“道法自然”的自然哲学为构架，培育中华民族的智者气象，发展博大精深的智慧之思，探讨宇宙之本源、生命之奥秘、人生之真谛。老子的人生哲学是“自然无为”。照着这句话去做，人们自可与道合一，与自然和谐。可惜许多人受物质生活的压迫，无法发展自己的精神生活，无法创造自己的伟大人格。他的教训，真是我们现代唯物主义和享乐主义的苦口良言。 二、道家对中华文学的影响 在道家观念的影响和塑造下，中国古代的知识分子的处世哲学也有较强的适应性，他们不仅能入世，也能出世，道家主张轻功名，重生命，道家的主要经典《道德经》大抵以虚静无为、冲退自守为事，这种不与世争的观念使得中国古代文人在失意之时能够得到一种自我解脱，道家的自然主义，正是用来慰藉中国人受伤的心灵的止痛药膏。在这种处世哲学下，中国文人能够适应时代的变化，在不同的心境下写出不同的作品，李白是这样，苏轼是这样，还有很多的文人都是这样，在一种淡泊的心态下也让他们的文学作品有了更多的风采。另外道家对浪漫主义思潮的影响极大。《庄子》则是一部浪漫主义的寓言哲理著作，庄周在其幻想的国度里构建了自己“独与天地精神往来而不傲倪于万物”的理想世界，其丰富瑰丽的想象开启了中国古代浪漫主义的大门。屈原的《离骚》现实叙述与幻想驰骋相交织，同时蕴含着哲学、宗教、文学等多重因素，是远古神话传说的直接的和完全的继承者，这种浪漫主义的文学传统也在后世薪火相传，汉代的辞赋家贾谊、建安时代的曹植、两晋六朝时的左思、郭璞、鲍照、陶渊明、盛唐的李白、中唐的李贺以至宋代以苏轼、辛弃疾为代表的豪放词派。明清的小说家吴承恩、蒲松龄，都在一定程度上继承发展了这一优良传统，甚至清代的现实主义巨著《红楼梦》的开端部分也极具浪漫主义色彩，“游幻境”的片断实际上是对人物形象的一次总结，具有强烈的神奇魔幻的色彩。
道家——道法自然，无为而治 有人说，中国文人的外表是儒家，但内心永远是老庄。当我们在儒家思想影响下，不断进取时，也不能忘却对自己内心平静的一种追求，毕竟我们去努力了，并不一定都是有结果的。 在政治上可能儒家法家更能一展所长，发展到今天，道家更倾向于内心的诉求，一种心理的平衡。 道家以“道”为核心，认为天道无为、主张道法自然，提出无为而治、以柔克刚、刚柔并济等具有朴素的辩证法思想，对中国乃至世界的文化都产生了巨大的影响。 大量的中外学者开始注意到与吸取道家的积极思想，故学者说：“道家思想可以看为中国民族伟大的产物。是国民思想的中心，大有‘仁者见之谓之仁，知者见之谓之知，百姓日用而不知’的气概。” 汉初的黄老之学，魏晋的玄学都是对道家思想的继承和发展。 1、道家学派代表人物 道家崇尚自然，有辩证法的因素和无神论的倾向，主张清静无为，反对斗争；提倡道法自然，无所不容，自然无为，与自然和谐相处。 道家代表人物为老子﹑庄子。
老子是道家学派的创始人。姓李名耳字聃，楚国人，约与孔子同时，出身于没落贵族。反映他思想的书为《老子》，又名《道德经》（第一句：道可道非常道），大约是战国人编纂的。 传说中的老子具有一些神秘的色彩，有个传说讲的是孔子见老子。 孔子向老子问道。老子坐在那里一言不发，只是张开嘴向孔子伸了伸舌头。孔子十分不解，再次问道。老子长时间不发话，孔子继续洗耳恭听。老子拗不过孔子，最后又张开了嘴，让孔子看他已经脱落不在的牙齿。这个时候孔子顿悟。老子即闭目养神，孔子便悄悄离去。 圣人碰面，没有高谈，也无阔论，寥寥几句，来无影、去无终，可谓“大道无形，道在口中”。 这个故事想表达的是柔弱胜刚强，刚强的牙齿已经掉了，但柔软的舌头依然存在。 回到鲁国，众弟子问道：“先生拜访老子，可得见乎？”孔子道：“见之！”弟子问。“老子何样？”孔子道：“鸟，我知它能飞；鱼，吾知它能游；兽，我知它能走。走者可用网缚之，游者可用钩钓之，飞者可用箭取之，至于龙，吾不知其何以？龙乘风云而上九天也！吾所见老子也，其犹龙乎？学识渊深而莫测，志趣高邈而难知；如蛇之随时屈伸，如龙之应时变化。老聃，真吾师也！”
道教与中国文化 一、道教概说 道教是以我国古代社会的鬼神崇拜为基础，以道家神仙方伎派关于神仙可致的理论为基本信念，以老子为教主，以“道”为教旨和最高信仰，以斋醮、祈祷、诵经、礼忏为基本科仪，以服饵、导引、胎息、房中、辟谷等为修持方法，以积善成德、羽化登仙为最高目的的民间宗教。 二、道教源流 （一）道教起源诸说 1．源于道家说。 2．源于神仙家说。 3．原始宗教巫术演变说 4．源于墨家说。 （二）道教的形成与历史发展 道教之历史发展大致可分为四个时期： 1、孕育、产生与形成时期（先秦——西晋）； 2、发展与兴旺时期（东晋——五代）； 3、鼎盛与潜寂期（宋——鸦片战争）； 4、沉寂与新生期（鸦片战争——新中国）。 三、道教的教义和教理 （一）“道”与“德” （二）太上老君 （三）太道无形，生育天地 （四）生道合一，长生久视 （五）天道承负，因果报应 四．道教的宗派 （一）正一道： （二）全真道： （三）真大道教： （四）太一道： （五）净明道： 五、道教与中国文化 （一）道教与中国的文学艺术 1．神仙说对古代小说和戏剧的渗透 2．道教与“游仙诗” （二）道教与中国的世俗文化 （三）道教与中国人的处世哲学 （四）道教与科学 1．道教与生命科学 2．道教与自然科学
禅宗文化与禅道智慧 一、佛教的中国化与中国化的禅宗 （一）佛教中国化与禅宗的形成 （二）禅宗的历史与分派 （三）禅宗、禅道及其现代转化 二、生佛不二的心性智慧 （一）即心即佛 （二）心外无法 （三）心体的特点 三、般若直观的禅悟智慧 （一）禅悟是无相无境，一丝不挂 （二）禅悟是超越对待、泯除知解 （三）禅悟是当下自证、顿悟菩提 四、语势兼用的传释智慧 （一）不立不离：传释的两难 （二）绕路说禅：语中无语 （三）善用语言：般若的妙用 五、自由自在的解脱智慧 （一）缚脱无二，回归本真 （二）身心自然，自由自在 （三）个我解脱与众生解脱 六、禅道智慧与现代人生 （一）禅道的人间性与人生性 儒之道有体相用，道之道有体相用，禅之道也有体相用。禅道之体是禅道历史所展现出的诸多特质，禅道之相是禅道所蕴含的多层面的哲理智慧，禅道之用则是纳禅道于现实人生生活的实践智慧 （二）人生智慧与智慧人生 禅道理论智慧的向下贯通与现实落实，成为化解人生烦恼与痛苦的利器，会成就一个智慧的人生。禅道是化解人生痛苦与烦恼的智慧活泉，它对现代文明所呈现出的悖论具有重要的启示，尤其在现代科技文明语境下更突显禅道心性智慧及其现代意义。 （三）禅道传统与现实人生 禅道既是宗教之道，又是现实人生之道。禅道既是传统之道，也是现实之道。
因果律——人与宇宙自然的基本关系规律——人与宇宙自然的基本关系规律 纵观目前世界，人类思想意识领域已伴随科学发展进入了有史以来最活跃的阶段，同时也进入了多数人思想最为颓废、精神最为脆弱的阶段。人类的思想领域急需具共识性的自然真理的注入，方可帮助人类解脱迷茫。人类的伟大哲人、印度大乘佛教创始人释迦牟尼在公元前500年就悟透了人与宇宙自然界的基本关系是因果关系、而称之为因果律。他认为：宇宙自然万物皆起于因果，在因果关系的自然作用中循环往复、无始无终。在基础世界观方面，中国传统的易道文化与释迦牟尼的因果律是一致的。无论今日社会如何认识和评价它，这种人与自然的基本关系规律都是客观存在、永恒不变的。因果律可解读为物质能量互动因果规律。不久的将来这一理论必会成为地球人的共识，并引导人类进入更加高级的精神文明阶段。 下面，让我们结合现代知识来重新认识一下释迦牟尼的因果律。 一．宇宙物质运动的能量互动作用关系是形成自然因果的前提 现代科技已经揭示：物质的本质是能量。所以宇宙天体及一切自然物质间的实质关系都是物质对物质的能量互动作用关系。物质的能量互动作用是促进宇宙物质世界发展变化的基本动力。众所周知，一切宇宙物质间的基本关系构成总是以物质的质量、能量条件为基本前提的，即大质量、大能量物质必然影响小质量、小能量物质的基本状态。一切自然事物间的能量互动作用是构成宇宙自然万物错综复杂自然关系和形成因果规律的前提条件。 1.物质能量互动作用是宇宙物质运动的基本形态 宇宙物质运动的能量作用是复杂的。即有对应物质间的能量互动作用，更有强大的宇宙运行天体所产生的引力场对作用双方的制约关系。所以任何存在的事物总以适应、服从于宇宙物质运动规律为基本前提、并始终与之保持合理的同步一致性。一切自然事物间的能量互动也在与宇宙物质运动规律同步的条件下，按照大质量、大能量物体影响小质量、小能量物体的作用法则进行着。如：太阳的质量能量远大于地球；地球的质量能量又远大于月球，所以地球即一边自动，一边围绕太阳进行同步互动；月球也一边自动、一边环绕地球旋转
道教对中国科学技术的影响 摘要：道教文化在中国传统文化中占有重要地位，是中国传统文化的主流之一，具有丰富的内容。道教与古代科技关系十分密切，它不仅对古代科技发展有多重影响和作用，而且对现代科技创新也有重大启示和作用。冯友兰先生在《中国哲学简史》一书中很早就指出：“道教有征服自然的科学精神，对中国科技史有兴趣的人，可以从道士的著作中找到许多资料。” 我们一般都会以为宗教很科学是对立的，日本学者中山茂就认为：“从本质上讲，宗教与科学是无关的，因此要在他们之间的关系建立其严格的法则，在实践上是不可能的”。中国国学大师疑古派学者钱玄同也认为道教和科学是死敌，他说：“欲祛除妖精鬼怪，烧丹画佛的思想，当然以剿灭道教为唯一方法。”其实宗教和科学既是对立的，又是统一的，既有对立冲突的一面，也有相互交相互渗透的部分，我们要用辩证思想来看待问题。 道教文化是中华传统文化的重要组成部分，而道教科技则是道教文化中的瑰宝。道教科技在中国科技史上占有极为重要的地位，对中国传统科技发展曾有过积极的推动作用。包容万象的道教科学哲学思想，无疑是道教内部能够产生丰富的科技成就的一个重要原因。李约瑟博士有言：“道家思想乃是中国的科学和技术的根本”。从道教史可以看出，由于道教特殊的信仰和追求，其本身就包含着相当重要的科技内容，不少道教徒在科技领域中跋涉，取得了杰出的成就。在中国科学技术史上，道教科学曾起到举足轻重的作用，中国古代的四大发明几乎都与道教有关。道教科学的范围很广，所涉及的科学领域有化学、生物学、医学、物理学、地质学、矿物学、天文学，乃至宇宙学，在个别领域，如原始化学领域，甚至占着主要地位；道教的内外丹术，则构成了中国科技史上独特的篇章。其中，道教外丹黄白术，对中国古化学和冶金学有重要贡献。内丹学则在人体科学奥妙的探索、包括生理心理学、脑科学，老年学、气功学等多项领域有卓著成绩。气功、导引、存思、守一、睡功、辟谷、食疗等在身心医学、体育学、营养学、养生学等领域取得了极为独特的成就。道教医药学在中国传统医学史上有其不容忽视的地位，道教中的房中术亦包含有诸多性医学、性心理学的合理科学成分。不仅如此，道教在天文、地理、博物、本草、矿物、铸造等多种领域都有突出贡献。所以说，道教对中国科学技术的影响力之大，是毋庸质疑的。 从道教科技的整个发展历史来看，汉代是道教科技的萌芽期。这时期，先秦以来中医药学发展中与神仙思想的天然关系，在汉代神仙方士对海上仙药的梦想和寻觅中进一步得到表现；仙方与汉代方士医群体崛起，神仙不死术盛行。东汉以后，对神仙不死药的追求，经历了一个从寻觅到炼制的转变过程。道教炼丹企求长生不死，虽然荒谬，但却是古代火药发明的先驱。道士们为了炼造长生不老的金丹，做了许多实验，其中把硝、硫磺、木炭混合在一起烧炼的配方，虽然没有能够做到让人羽化成仙，但却发明了四大发明之——火药，这可以说是道教对中国科技最重要的一个贡献。另外，唐代道教炼丹家金陵子的炼丹著作《龙虎还丹诀》，记录了他的“点丹阳法”即制砷白铜法、“炼红银法”即提炼纯铜法等炼丹实验活动，书中一反过去道士写经中对某些重要环节的秘守或使用令人费解的词汇等习惯，而是明确指出操作规程。这些操作规程，已具有类似现代化学实验操作规程的科学严密性特点。晋代葛洪在《抱朴子·金丹篇》中也记录了炼丹过程中的各种化学反应。正是这些方士们常年的炼丹活动和著书立说，为中国古代的化学做出了不可比拟的贡献。 不仅如此，在这种转变过程中，方士们对中国传统医药学的吸收和发展，也不容忽视。譬如，对先秦医药学有集大成意义的《神农本草经》，就夹杂了不少汉人的神仙思想，吸收了汉代方士和早期原始道教的医药学成就。有“万古丹经王”之称的汉代丹经巨著《周易参同契》，有丰富的化学和内丹学理论，至今为中外学者研究和重视。而且，道教以去病延年、长生不死为最终目的，炼丹家为了炼丹在不知不觉中却成了医学和药物学专家。葛洪在书中说“为道者，莫不兼修医术。”修医术的目的不外乎两个原因，一是为了保护自己，二是为
中国道教与传统文化班级：10工试2班 姓名：蒲建民 学号：1001400227
中国道教与传统文化 摘要：中国的传统文化与道教的联系非常密切，道教既是我国的传统宗教，也是中国传统文化中不可分割的一部分。道教形成于东汉末期，在道教的产生和发展过程中，它吸收融合了不少传统文化，使这些文化成为它思想来源的一部分。此外，道教对我国古代的思想文化和社会生活也产生过巨大的影响。 关键词：起源道教传统文化关系影响 首先道教与传统文化的密切联系表现在它的主要思想来源是古代宗教迷信和思想文化。道教将老子奉为自己的开教祖师，王阜写的《老子圣母碑》中说“老子者，道也。乃生于无形之先，起于太初之前”。1道教丰《道德经》为圣典，信仰追求长生。“自然无为”思想是道教奉行的的核心准则。 道教的形成是通过一点一滴地积累、汇集而来的，道教以正式形式出现是在东汉后期，但其孕育过程很长，难以确定能追溯到什么时候。它跟随着历史的脚步不断发展并调整，更新和演变，最终汇集成为丰富的道教文化，并产生了相当深刻和久远的影响。中国传统文化中的重要组成部分便少不了道教在其发展过程中所积累的经书典籍和文献资料。虽然自清朝以后道教逐渐衰落，但这种宗教信仰已深入民心，所以至今道教仍有较大影响。道教在中国文化史中并不是像昙花那样，仅有一瞬间的光华，它与其他文化领域有着长期互动交融的关系，淡淡的散发着它的光辉。 一、道教教义来源于各派文化 道教是中华民族的传统宗教,在其创建和发展过程中吸收、融合了不少传统文化,使这些文化成为它思想源泉的一部分。道教与传统文化的密切关系，首先表现在它的思想来源上。主要表现在它对传统文化中古代原始自然崇拜、道家思想、儒家思想、黄老思想、佛教思想等的吸收融合。 （一）原始自然崇拜 在古时候，人们对于一些不能作出合理解释的奇异现象，认为有一种超越自然的力量在起作用，因而人们从心底萌生了对日月星辰、江河湖海和逝去的先祖的崇拜，并视之为神仙，并由此逐步形成了一个完备的的神灵系统。战国中期以后，神仙思想逐渐成熟，从官方到思想界到民间，影响越来越大。受这一潮流的影响神仙思想与道家思想开始交流，而且趋势越来越强。教道教吸收了这种鬼神思想，在此基础上三者再次进行揉合，并将这个系统中的许多神灵视为道教神灵中的一员。 （二）道家思想 道教作为宗教的一支，依附于老庄，虽然老庄中有一些宗教思想因素给道教以一定的支持，但老庄却不是道教的创始者。先秦和秦时，《老子》、《庄子》等书是学术方面的著作，而不是宗教典籍。而从东汉后期开始，《老子》逐渐被神学化，发现道的人—老子便被尊为道教教主，民间巫术与神仙方术也逐渐依附于《老子》的学说。道家本来一般不管什么外丹和符录科教，甚至有点反对鬼神。以老子开始的道家，视道为超越一切有形事物的最高法则；道教则进一步突出了道的超越性，使道成为似乎有着无所不能的神的抽象形态。道家提倡清净无为，追求内心的安宁；道教更是发挥这种离俗超脱的精神，形成出世理论。至于《老子》书中提到的“谷神不死”、“长生久视之道”，2《庄子》书中所说的的神人“不食五谷，吸风饮露，御飞龙而游四海之外”3，这些思想道教更是直接吸收。道教原来只是各种世俗迷信的杂合，由于它善于吸收融合、改编道家理论，形成了一套自己独有而又十分完善的神 1王阜《太平御览·老子圣母碑》中华书局，1960年第1册第2页 2《老子道德经》中华书局，1980年第238页 3《庄子集释》中华书局，1961年第246-247页