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语言学概论第四章笔记句法学

语言学概论第四章笔记句法学
语言学概论第四章笔记句法学

Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学

1.W hat is Syntax?

Syntax studies the sentence structure of language. The term syntax came originally from Greek. It literally meant arrangement. It means that sentences are structured according to a particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered grammatical sentences. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.

句法学研究语言的句子结构。该术语来自希腊语,字意是排列。句子是根据一种特定的排列词的方式构成的。排列正确的句子被认为是合乎语法的句子。合乎语法的句子是根据一套句法规则构成的。句法是一个规则系统。

2. Syntax as a system of rules 句法是规则系统

Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars f all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.

The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.

句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统,句子由单词组合而成。句子的语法性是指句子的合成必须符合操本族语者头脑中的语法知识。任何一种语言的句法规则都包含了说话者的头脑中的语言知识系统(称为语言能力)。

任何语言的句法规则的数量是有限的,但说话者可以理解和表达的句子的数量是无限的。

3. The basic components of a sentence 句子的构成

A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject(主语)and its predicate(谓语)which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.

句子是一个结构独立和完整的语法单位,这一单位通常由一些单词组成一个完整的陈述句、问句或命令。一个句子至少包含一个主语和一个谓语,而谓语又包含一个限定动词或一个动词词组。

The referring expression(被指称的对象), such as a person, a place, a thing, an idea, or an event, is grammatically called subject. A subject is usually a noun or a noun phrase. The part of sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate. A finite verb, informally called the main verb of a sentence, expresses existence, action or occurrence which is limited by person, number, tense and mood.

主语是指句子中被指称的对象,如人、物、事、概念等。主语通常由名词或名词词组构成。谓语是指对句子中主语进行表述或判断的部分。谓语通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。限定动词常被称为句子的中心动词,表述存在、动作或出现,限定动词送人称、数、时态和情态的限制。

4.Types of sentence 句子的类型

a)The simple sentence 简单句

A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.

简单句由一个子句构成,该子句包含一个主语和一个谓语,且独立构成句子。

b)The coordinate sentence 并列句

A coordinate sentence contains two clause joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”but””or”.

并列句包含两个子句,由and, but, or 等并列连词连接。

c)The complex sentence 复合句

A complex sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. That is, the two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinate clause is normally called an embedded clause, and the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause.

复合句包含两个或两个以上的子句,其中一个被并入另一个句子。复合句中两个句子的地位是不同的,一个句子从属于另一个句子。被并入或是从属的子句通常被称为子句,而包含子句的子句被称为主句。

5. The linear word order of a sentence 句子的线性词序

When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. Meanwhile, they are heard or read as arranged one after another in a sequence. This sequential order of words in a sentence suggests that the structure of a sentence is linear.

我们说出或写下一个句子,其中的词语是按次序一个接一个出现的。同时,对方也是一个接一个次序听到这个词语的。句子中词语的这种有次序的排列表明,句子的结构是线性的。

6. The hierarchical structure of a sentence 句子的层次结构

The superficial arrangement of words in a linear sequence does not entail that sentences are simply linearly structured. Sentence structure is hierarchical in nature.

组成句子的单词表面上的线性排列并不意味着句子仅仅是线性结构的。句子实际上是有层次结构的。

7. Tree diagrams of sentence structure 句子结构树形图

The hierarchical order can be best illustrated with a tree diagram of constituent structure.

句子的层次结构可以用各组成部分的树形图来很好地说明。见课文67-70页。

In addition, the hierarchical structure of sentences can also be illustrated by using brackets and subscript labels.

另外,句子的层次结构还可以用括号和写在下角的标记来标示。见课文71页。

8. Lexical categories 词类

Words are organized into groups of lexical categories, commonly known as parts of speech. A language has major and minor lexical categories. Major lexical categories are open categories that new words are constantly added. Minor lexical categories are closed categories because the number of the lexical items in these categories is fixed and no new members are allowed for. English has four major lexical categories and six minor lexical categories.

所有的词都有某种属性,即词性。词可以分为主要词类和次要词类。主要词类不断有新词加入,它是开放词类,而次要词类是封闭的,因为这类词的词项是固定的,不允许有新词加入。英语有四个主要词类和六个次要词类。

主要词类:

Noun (N) 名词:student

V erb (V) 动词:like

Adjective (Adj) 形容词:tall

Adverb (Adv) 副词:loudly

次要词类:

Determiner (Det) 限定词:the, a, this, his

Auxiliary (Aux) 助动词:can, do, will

Preposition (Prep) 介词:in, at, over

Pronoun (Pron) 代词:he, she, us, mine

Conjunction (Conj) 连词:and, or, but, while

Interjection (Int) 感叹词:oh, ah, eh

9. Phrasal categories 词组类型

Four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), prepositional phrase (PP), and adjective phrase (AP).

NP and VP are essential components of a sentence, comprising the subject and predicate. Important note: NP just contain a noun, VP just contain a verb, PP just contain a preposition and AP just contain an adjective.

通常讨论的词组类型有四种,分别是:名词词组,动词词组,介词词组和形容词词组。

名词词组和动词词组是句子中最重要的词组,因为它们构成了句子的主语和谓语。

重要:一个名词词组只包含一个名词,一个动词词组只包含一个动词,一个介词词组只包含一个介词,一个形容词词组只包含一个形容词。

10. Grammatical relations 语法关系

The structural and logical function relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In English and many other languages, the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb. Strictly speaking, this statement is true only in terms of the structural subject(结构主语)and the structural object(结构宾语). The logical subject (逻辑主语)and the logical object(逻辑宾语)may have different positions.

语法关系是指句子中名词词组和动词的关系,其中涉及到主语和宾语的结构性和逻辑性。从结构上看,英语句子中的主语往往出现在动词之前,宾语往往出现在动词止回。这种置动词之前的主语叫结构主语,置动词之后的宾语叫结构宾语。结构主语和结构宾语只是句子的形式主语和形式宾语,而意义上的主语和宾语才是句子的逻辑主语和逻辑宾语。逻辑主语是实施者,而逻辑宾语是受事者。逻辑主语和逻辑宾语在句子中的位置可以同形式主语和形式宾语在句子中的位置相同,也可以不同。如英语被动句中的形式主语是逻辑宾语,而形式宾语是逻辑主语。

11. Phrasal structure rules 短语结构规则

The combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule.

短语结构规则是一组句法重写规则。

Example 1:

S →NP VP. The arrow is read as “consist of”, or “is rewritten as” 。

The rule is: a sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase.

在本例中,箭头读作“包含”或“重写为”。这样的规则就读作:一个句子包含或可以重写

为一个名词词组和一个动词词组。

Example 2:

NP →(Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S)

A noun phrase consists of, or is rewritten as, an optional determiner, an optional adjective, an obligatory noun, an optional prepositional phrase, and/or an optional sentence.

这就是名词词组的短语结构规则,读作:一个名词词组包含或可以重写为一个限定词、一个形容词、一个名词、一个介词词组和(或)一个句子,其中名词是必须有的,其它是可选成分。

Example 3:

VP →V(NP)(PP)(S)

AP →A(PP)(S)

PP →P NP

12. The recursiveness of phrase structure rules 短语结构规则的循环性

Significantly, these rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.

Although these rules are part of the rules and regulations of the grammar, they suffice to explain how language is “creative”, and how speakers with “finite” minds have the ability to produce and understand an infinite set of sentences. That is, the recursive property captures the ability of language to generate more constituents to a sentence and enables speakers to repeat syntactic constituents within the same sentence.

由于这些短语规则的循环性,运用它们可以造出无数句子,这些句子又可以是无限长的。这些规则虽然只是语法规则的一部分,却足以解释为什么语言具有创造性,为什么说话人的记忆力是有限的,却能表达并理解无限的句子。这就是说,循环性体现了语言中的句子能够有更多的成分,并且使说话者能够在同一个句子中重复一些句法成分。

13. X-bar theory X标杆理论

NP/VP/AP/PP all must contain one obligatory word, we call XP. This means that XP must contain X, where XP stands respectively for NP/VP/AP/PP and X stands for N/V/A/P.

The rule modified as: XP →(Specifier)X(Complement).

X 标杆理论是将各种短语结构规则高度抽象地综合成单一的X标杆规则理论。根据该理论,短语由指示语、核心词和补语组成,其中指示语和补语可有可无,但核心词却不可缺少。

14. Syntactic movement and movement rules 句法位移和移位规则

a)NP movement 名词词组位移

NP-movement occurs when a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice. Example: The man beat the child. / The child was beaten by the man.

Not all NP-movement are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice.

Example: It seems they are quite fit for the job. / They seem quite fit for the job.

NP “they” has moved from the subject position of the embedded clause to the matrix clause.

名词词组从原先所处的位置移至另一位置的句法现象叫做名词词组位移。例如,在主动语态句中当主语的名词词组和充当宾语的名词词组可以逆向移位,使句子转换成被动语态。

并不是所有的名词词组位移都和主动语态转被动语态相关。示例中的they由从句的主语位

置位移到了主句的主语位置。

b)WH movement WH位移

WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative. WH-movement is syntactically required when the sentence changes from a statement into a question.

WH位移能把句子从肯定句变为疑问句,在英语中不可缺少的。

c)Other types of movement 其它类型的位移

(1)General questions (一般疑问句) in English may also involve syntactic movement with AUX-movement. AUX-movement is the movement of an auxiliary verb, such

as be/have/do/will/can/should, to the sentence-initial position.

Example: She is an English professor. / Is she an English professor?

一般疑问句也会通过助动词移位引起句法移位,助动词移位即助动词移到句首

的移位,助动词有be/have/do/will/can/should。

(2)For stylistic purposes, a post-verb adjective in an adverbial clause beginning with “though” may propose to the sentence initial position.

Example:

Though she was sick, the woman fought with the wolf and saved her children. /

Sick though she was, the woman fought with the wolf and saved her children.

由于文体的原因,以though开头的状语从句中位于动词后的形容词可以移到句

首。

15.D-structure and S-structure 深层结构和表层结构

What syntactic movement suggests for the study of the grammar is that a sentence structure may have two levels of syntactic representation, one that exists before movement takes place, and the other that occurs after movement takes place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representations are commonly termed as D-structure (the deep structure) and S-structure (the surface structure). It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure, while the application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence from the level of D-structure to that of S-structure.

句法位移对语法研究的启示是,一个句子结构可以有两个层次的句法表现,一个存在于位移发生之前,一个存在于位移发生之后。在正规的语言学研究中,这两种句法表现称为深层结构和表层结构。短语结构规则通过插入词汇在深层结构上生成句子,而应用句法位移规则又把句子从深层结构转化到表层结构。

Since syntactic movement does not occur to all sentences, the D-structure and S-structure of some sentences look exactly the same at different levels of representation.

由于并非所有句子都能发生句法位移,因而一个句子的深层结构和表层结构在不同的表现层次上是完全相同的。

16.Move α– a general movement rule 移动α规则

Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules, that is, the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move Alpha. Alpha is a Greek symbol used here to represent any constituent, and what Move Alpha says is “move any constituent to any place”.

It is too powerful, so the grammar should include some conditions which will restrain the movement power of the rule and which will stimulate that only “certain constituents” can move to only “certain positions.”

移动α规则是一条支配句法成分位移的普遍原则。如果X标杆理论规则将各种短语结构规则

高度抽象地综合起来一样,该规则综合了所有的位移规则,可以解释所有语言中的一切位移现象。

如果一个成分可以移到任意位置,那么就会又不合乎语法的句子出现。规则应该有一些条件来限制移位能力,使得只有“某些成分”可以移动到“某些位置”。

17.Theory of universal grammar 普遍语法理论

Since early 1980s Noam Chomsky developed a theory of universal grammar (UG) know as the principle-an-parameters theory. UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift which exists in the mind or brain of a normal human being. UG consists of a set of general conditions, or general principles and also contains a set of parameters.

从八十年代初期开始,乔姆斯基发展了一种普遍语法理论,称为原则与参数理论。普遍语法是一个语言知识体系,是人类特有的天赋,它存在于正常人的头脑中。普遍语法包含一组广义条件,或广义原则,还包含一种参数。

18.G eneral principles of universal grammar 普遍语法的广义原则

a) Case Condition. As is required by the Case Condition principle, a noun phrase must have Case and Case is assigned by verb or preposition to the object position, or by auxiliary to the subject position. The theory of Case Condition accounts for the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.

格条件原则。格条件原则要求名词词组必须有格,宾语的格是由动词或介词决定的,而主语的格是由助动词决定的。格条件理论说明了为什么名词词组只在主语和宾语的位置上出现。

b) Adjacency Condition. As is required by Adjacency Condition principle, a Case assignor and a Case recipient should stay adjacent to each other. This condition explains why no other phrasal category can intervene between a verb and its direct object.

毗邻条件。毗邻条件决定格分派,该条件要求格分派者和格接受者要相互毗邻。这一条件解释了为什么任何别的词组类型都不能插到动词和它的直接宾语之间。

19.T he parameters of universal grammar 普遍语法的参数

Parameters are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages. Set in one of the permissible ways, a parameter acquires a particular value, for example, a plus or minus value, which allows the grammar of a language to behave in a way very different from that of another language.

参数是普遍语法中的句法选项,它使广义原则能以一种或另一种方式进行操作并造成了不同自然语言之间在语言上的显著不同。一个参数若以某种可允许的方式设置,它就可以得到某种意义,如加或减的意义,这就使一种语言的语法和另一种语言的语法有很大不同。

a) UG is believed to contain a parameter wit the values (+ strict adjacency) and (- strict adjacency) set on the Adjacency Condition. With English-type languages, the Adjacency Parameter is set to the (+ strict adjacency) value, while for French-type languages, the parameter is set to the other.

普遍语法被认为包含一个参数,这个参数的意义是设置在毗邻条件之上的(加严格毗邻)和(减严格毗邻)。英语属前者而法语属后者。

b) Another parameter, the one that involves word order, concerns the directionality of Case assignment, known as the Directionality Parameter. This parameter offers a neat and consistent account for the typological difference in the word order within the VP category between English and Japanese. In English, VP →V NP while in Japanese, VP →NP V.

另一个参数与词序有关,它涉及格分派的方位,被称为方位参数。这一参数为英语和日语的动词词组的词序的类型差异提供了一个满意的、恰当的解释。

杨忠《语言学概论》笔记

Chapter 1 Introduction Ⅰ.What is language? 1. Different definitions of language (1) Language is a system whose parts can and must be considered in their synchronic solidarity. (de Saussure, 1916) (2) [Language is] a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. (Chomsky, 1957) (3) Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. 2. Each of the definitions above has pointed out some aspects of the essence of language, but all of them have left out something. We must see the multi-faceted nature of language. 3. As is agreed by linguists in broad terms, language can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Ⅱ.Features of human language 1. Creativity (1) Language provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understanding brand new messages. (2) The grammar rules and the words are finite, but the sentences are infinite. Every speaker uses language creatively. 2. Duality (1) Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meanings. (2) Certain sounds or sequences of sounds stand for certain meanings. (3) Certain meanings are conveyed by certain speech sounds or sequences of speech sounds. 3. Arbitrariness (1) The relationship between the two subsystems of language is arbitrary. (2) There is no logical connection between sound and meaning. 4. Displacement (1) There is no limit in time or space for language. (2) Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future. 5. Cultural transmission (1) Culture cannot be genetically transmitted. Instead, it must be learned. (2) Language is a way of transmitting culture. 6. Interchangeability All members of a speech community can send and receive messages. 7. Reflexivity (1) Human languages can be used to describe themselves. (2) The language used to talk about language is called meta-language. Ⅲ.Functions of language – three meta-functions 1. The ideational function

“英语”语言学概论第六章笔记

Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学 1.What is pragmatics? 什么是语用学? Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. It places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used. 语用学研究的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。 由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程,因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究。它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。 2.Pragmatics and semantics 语用学和语义学 Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, but they are different. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning, the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics. 语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究,但两者是不同的。它们的本质区别在于研究意义时是否考虑了语言使用的语境。没有考虑到语境进行的研究就没有超出传统语义学的研究范围;相反,考虑到语境进行的研究就属于语用学的研究范围。 3.Context 语境 Context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的概念。它一般被理解为说话者和听话者所共有的知识。The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. 共有的知识包括他们所使用的语言方面的知识和双方对世界的认识,包括对世界的总的认识和对正在进行的语言交际所处的环境的具体认识。 4.Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized, while utterance meaning is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 句子的意义是抽象的,非语境化的,而话语的意义是具体的,受语境制约的。话语意义基于句子意义;它是一个句子的抽象意义在特定语境中的具体体现,或简而言之,在一个语境中的具体化。 5.Speech act theory 言语行为理论 Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century. 言语行为理论是语言语用研究中的一个重要理论。它最初是由英国哲学家约翰.奥斯汀在20世纪50年代提出的。 According to speech act theory, we are performing actions when we are speaking.

《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)

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27.书面语:书面语是用文字记录的语言形式,它是文字产生或在口语的基础上产生的,书面语是经过加工、提炼和发展了的口语的书面形式。 26.口语:就是有声的口头语言,任何一种语言都有口头存在形式。它是书面产生的基础。 28.语言相关论:语言相关论是萨丕尔和沃尔夫提出的关于语言与思维关系的观点,主张语言决定思维,不同的语言就有不同的思维方式。 29.大脑语言功能临界期:大脑语言功能临界期是指大脑的单侧化,大脑左半球的分区以及语言的遗传机制,都只提供人具有语言能力的潜在可能性,这些潜能必须在一定期限内被一定的语言环境激活才可能起作用。26.语言符号的所指 :语言符号的所指是符号的形式所指的意义内容。 29.机器翻译:通过计算机把一种语言自动翻译成另一种或多种自然语言的信息处理技术。 26.语音:语音是人的发音器官发出的、用于人与人之间交际并表达一定意义的声音。 27.词:词是最小的、有意义的、能够独立运用的语言单位。 28.语用:语用指语言运用,即人们在一定的交际环境中对语言的实际运用。 29.文字:文字是记录语言的书写符号系统。 27.单纯词:单纯词是由一个构词语素构成的词。 29.屈折:屈折是通过词的内部发生语音的交替变换来改变词的语法意义的手段。 28.意译词:是用本族语言的构词材料和规则构成新词,把外语中某个词的意义翻译过来。 27.仿译词:是用本族语言的语素逐个对译外语原词的语素造成的词,它不仅把原词的词义翻译过来,而且保持了原词的内部构成方式。 29.主谓词组:两个成分之间具有被说明和说明关系的词组是主谓词组。 27.复辅音:一个音节内处于同一个肌肉紧张的渐强阶段或渐弱阶段上的两个或两个以上辅音的组合。 27.双语现象:某一言语社团使用两种或多种语言的社会现象,具体而言是社团内的全体成员或部分成员双语并用的现象。 28.亲属语言:从同一种语言中分化出来的各个语言叫亲属语言,亲属语言之间具有历史同源关系。 26.调位:利用音节内的音高差别来起辩义作用的语音单位叫做调位,调位是一种非音质音位,依附在音位的组合序列上。 29.词组:实词与实词之间具有直接联系的相对独立的词群。 28.语素:语素是语言中音义结合的最小单位。 28.词尾:附着在词干后的,能改变词的语法形式,但不能构成新词的语素。 29.语素:音义结合的最小语言单位。 26.词类:词类是词在语法上的分类。它指可以替换出现在语法结构某些共同组合位置上的词的类,即具有聚合关系的词的类。 27.词法:(1)词法主要描写词的形态特征和词形变化规则。例如,俄语的名词在形式上有单数和复数的区别,有阳性、阴性、中性等性的区别,有主格、宾格、属格等格的区别,这些都是典型的词法现象。(2)由于印欧语言中构词单位、构词方式和词类都与词的形态变化相关,因此构词和词类问题也成为词法的一部分。27.语法意义:语法意义是语法形式所体现的意义,是语言中通过一类形式或功能所获得的意义。二者相辅相成,不可分离。如“动词+名词”有动宾关系的意义,汉语所有的同类组合都是如此,这种意义就是一种语法意义。 27.语法形式:语法形式就是能体现表达某种语法意义的形式。表示某一类语法意义或者有共同作用的形式,如词类形式、组合形式、虚词形式,就是语法形式。语法形式不是个别的语音形式和词语形式,但能产生某一类意义或者有共同作用的语音表现形式或者词形变化形式也是语法形式。 27.语法手段:根据语法形式的共同特点所归并的语法形式的基本类别叫做语法手段。语法手段可分为词法手段和句法手段两大类。通过词形的变化来表现语法意义的形式是词法手段;通过结构的变化来表现语法意义的形式是句法手段;例如英语名词后加s表示复数,英语动词后面加ed表示过去时,就是词法手段中的词形变化。 28.自源文字:自源文字指独立发展起来的文字。如古埃及文字、苏美尔文字、汉字,这些文字的形体、体系都是由最早使用该文字的人们独创的。 29.语音合成(1)语音合成是语音信息处理研究中的主要工作。 (2)语音合成就是让计算机模拟人的发音器官的动作并发生类似的声音。如汉语的语音合成目前已初步实现自动生成声韵调结合的音节。 26.句子:句子是词或词组按一定规则组合成的、能表达相对完整的意义、前后有较大停顿并带有一定的语气和句调的语言单位。 27.异化:语流中两个相同或相近的音,其中一个因受另一个影响而变得不相同或不相近。

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Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics 历史语言学 1.The purpose and significance of the historical study of language 研究语言变化的目的和意义 The historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence. Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric development in the evolution of language and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language, and provide valuable insights into the kinship patterns of different languages. The historical study of language also enables us to determine how non-linguistic factors, such as social, cultural and psychological factors, interact over time to trigger linguistic change. 研究语言变化对于理解人类语言和人类的语言能力极其重要。 历史语言学的研究成果揭示语言变化的史前发展和同一语言早期和后期变体自己的联系,为不同语言的亲缘关系提供线索。 历史语言学的研究还可以使我们对非语言的因素,如社会文化和心理因素等在语言变化过程中所起的作用有更深的认识。 2.The nature of language change 语言变化的本质 All living languages change with time. Unless a language is no longer spoken by the general public of a society, such as Latin, its change is inevitable. As a general rule, language change is universal, continuous and, to a considerable degree, regular and systematic. Language change is extensive, taking place in virtually all aspects of the grammar. Although language change is universal, inevitable, and in some cases, vigorous, it is never an overnight occurrence. Language development may be regarded as linguistic evolution from one stage to another. 所有尚在使用的语言都随着时间的变化而变化。语言的变化是不可避免的。语言变化是普遍的、连续的,在一定程度上也是规则的和系统的。语言变化涉及语法系统的各大组成部分。在语言演变过程中,词汇和语法规则有的消亡了,有的诞生了,有的是外借的,有的则转化了其意义或功能。 尽管语言变化是普遍的,必然的,有时甚至是显著的,但语言的变化是一个缓慢的渐变过程,其变化是同代人所不易察觉的。 语言的发展可以看作是语言从一个阶段到另一个阶段的演化过程。 3.Major periods in the history of English 英语历史发展的主要阶段 a)Old English (450-1100) 古英语阶段 b)Middle English (1100-1500) 中古英语阶段 c)Modern English (1500-今) 现代英语阶段 Most Modern English speakers find Middle English only partially comprehensible, and Old English simply unintelligible, just like a foreign language hardly recognizable as the native language they speak. 大多数现代英语的使用者发现,对于他们来说,中古英语只能部分地被理解,古英语则如外语一般,简直不可理解。 Old English dates back to the mid-fifth century when Anglo-Saxons invaded the British Isles from northern Europe. Middle English began with the arrival of the Norman French invaders in England. Middle English had been deeply influenced by Norman French in vocabulary and grammar. Modern English is separated with Middle English with European renaissance movement.

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3. 微观语言学 3.1. 语音学 3.2. 音系学 3.3. 形态学 3.4. 句法学 3.5. 语义学 3.6. 语用学 4. 宏观语言学 4.1. 心理语言学 4.2. 社会语言学 4.3. 应用语言学 4.4. 计算语言学 4.5. 神经语言学 5. 重要概念及其区分 5.1. 描写式&规定式 5.2. 共时&历时 5.3. 语言&言语 5.4. 语言能力&语言应用 5.5. 唯素的&唯位的 5.6. 传统语法&现代语法 5.7. 语言潜势&实际语言行为 Chapter 2 Speech Sounds

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语言学概论笔记 第一章:语言和语言学 一、识记内容。 1口语:语言的客观存在形式首先是有声的口头语言。 2、书面语:文字出现以后,语言的第二种客观存在形式。 3、符号:指的是根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的这种实体和意义的结合体。 4、能指:语言符号的物质实体能够指称某种意义的成分。 5、所指:也就是“能指成分”,即特定的物质实体,所指的意义内容。 6、聚合关系:在同一个位置上可以互相替换出现的各个语言单位处在互相可以联想起来的关系之中,因而聚合成为一个类。 7、组合关系:组合关系体现为一个语言单位和前一个语言单位或后一个语言单位,或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系,也体现了部分与整体之间的关系。 8、语言学:是研究语言的科学。 9、普通语言学:语言学界把研究人类社会的语言这种社会现象的一般理论。 10、理论语言学:把研究某种具体语言的语言学称为汉语语言学或英语语言学等等,把侧重理论探讨的称为理论语言学。 11、应用语言学:把侧重语言学理论和成果的实际应用。 12传统语言学:一般泛指20世纪以前的语言学,特别是指索绪尔开创的结构主义语言学以前的语言学。13结构主义语言学:索绪尔创立的语言学可以称为“结构主义语言学”,至于我国内常说的“结构主义语言学”、“结构主义语法”,往往只是指在国外影响较大并且我国语言学界比较熟悉的美国结构主义描写语言学,那只是当代结构主义语言学的一个流派,并不等于受索绪尔影响的整个结构主义语言学。 二、领会内容(不用识记,大体知道即可)

1、言语交际是一个编码和解码的过程。 答:人要说话所需要的因素:生活经历、社会环境、当前处理的问题、社会问题、文化问题、哲学问题、逻辑问题。人要接受语言所需要的因素:组织与分析的能力、心理、生理问题;发音、听音的器官和神经网络及机制和能力;复杂的生理和物理问题。总之一句话,言语交际是通过许多因素对语言进行编码和解码的过程,言者编码,听者解码。“码”即所谓的言语。 2、书面语和口语的主要差别。 答:书面语比口语多了一些成分,是那些口语所特有的面部表情、手势和体态,还有口气和语调用书面的文字语言来描述出来的成分,也就是书面语补上的某些省略以后影响理解的成分。用二者的一致性来分析可以用公式理解:口语的基本语言成分=书面语的基本语言成分+用书面描写的口语非语言成分。 3、书面语的产生具有重大的社会历史意义。 答:书面语克服了人和人之间进行交际、传递信息和交流思想感情在空间和时间方面的限制,极大地加快了人类社会经验和知识积累的速度和传播的范围,从而大大加快了社会发展的步伐。 4、语言和种族的关系。 答:二者没有必然的联系,根本原因是:语言能力和生理因素、心理因素有关,但是语言是一种社会现象,完全是在一定的语言环境中后天获得的,所以语言和种族没有必然联系。 5、语言与各个领域的社会活动都有着密切的联系,在这种情况下,语言学必须明确自己的研究对象,才能成为一门现代意义上的科学。 答:语言客观存在形式是极其多样化的,可以从各个不同的角度,根据不同的需要,去研究客观存在的语言的各个不同的方面。要形成一门现代意义上的科学首先要有明确的研究对象,然后才有可能形成自己完整的理论体系和方法论体系,那样才能成为一门现代意义上的科学。如果研究对象长期不确定、不明确,或者研究对象太杂,范围太宽,研究就不可能深入,就不可能形成自己的理论体系和方法论体系。 6、语言和言语的区别。

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