语言学课程简介
现代语言学课程是我院外语系英语专业本科阶段的一门专业限选课。
现代语言学研究始于20世纪初，其目的是要揭示人类语言的本质及其深层结构，对语言和语交际做出客观、科学的描述。语言学作为一门社会科学，在国外是20世纪50年代以来发展最快、变化最大的学科之一。在过去的五、六十年中，西方国家在语言学领域新说纷呈，建树颇多，其影响遍及哲学、心理学、社会学、教育学、人类学、考古学、通信技术、人工智能等学科。语言学家对语言的研究从语言的物质外壳——语音开始，进而对它的结构和意义加以研究，从语言的抽象意义进而研究语言在交际中体现的具体意义，从而形成了语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系列分支学科；语言学研究和社会学、心理学等人文学科的结合逐步形成了社会语言学和心理语言学这样的交叉学科；对语言理论在语言教学中的应用所进行的研究又导致了应用语言学的产生，语言和文化关系密切，对语言的研究不可避免地导致对文化以及对语言和文化两者相互关系的研究，等等。因此语言学实际上是一个研究面十分宽广的领域，多年来世界各国语言学家的共同努力为这一领域带来了丰硕的成果，积累了大量文献。
在我们国家，虽然像王力、高铭恺等前辈从四、五十年代起就对西方的语言理论有所介绍，但由于种种原因，这门学科的意义直到10年动乱后才引起语言学界的足够重视，于是自1980年以来，国内各院校的英语专业相继开设了以英语讲授的各种语言学课程，最普遍的首推“普通语言学”和“语言学导论”。
我院外语系自1989起在英语专业本科四年级开设语言学课程，定为专业限选课。对于主修语言的学生而言，对人类语言具备一定的理性认识，懂得一些语言学的知识和语言理论是完全有必要的，因此，我院外语系一直以来都十分重视语言学这门课程的建设，课程改革。由于这门课程基本上是一门知识性的课程，需要学生记忆的内容比较多，所以强调在学习过程中要注意抓重点，着重掌握有关的基本概念和基本理论，在理解、消化的基础上记忆，不要死记硬背。目前语言学这门课程也越来越受到学生的重视，因参加研究生考试的学生正在逐年增加。
我院外语系语言学这门课程所教授的对象是英语专业的学生，因此我们在
讲解过程中基本全部采用英语的例子。这些例子有助于学生们理解理论阐述，得到启发。反过来，我们要求学生应能结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来解释有关理论，以达到理论与实践相结合，全面提高学生的外语能力，以期为学生本科毕业后继续深造或者从事英语教学奠定坚实的基础。
课堂讨论资料：
I. Linguistic:
1.What do you think about the importance of studying linguistics?
2.What is language? What are the differences between human language and the
system of animal communication?
3.What are the differences between language and parole , competence and
performance?
4.How, in your opinion, can we distinguish compounds from free phrases?
5.How to define morphemes? How many kinds of morphemes can be classified?
And what are the differences between free and bound morphemes, inflexional and derivational morphemes, root and stern?
6.What is ICA ? What are its advantages and disadvantages?
7.What is the semantic triangle?
8.How, in your opinion, can we distinguish the complete homonyms from the
polysemic words?
9.What is a conversational implication? How, in your opinion, can we infer what
the speaker intends from what he says?
10.How does a language undergo semantic change?
II. Phonetics:
1.What is the role of phonetics in modern science?
2.What are the main branches of phonetics? What aspects of speech sounds do they
study?
3.What are the differences between phonetics and phonology?
4.What are the main sources of human speech sounds?
5.How, in your opinion, can we distinguish vowels from consonants ? Do you agree
with the air stream theory? Why?
6.How are consonants and vowel classified?
7.What are phone, phoneme and allophone? What are the difference?
8.What are the differences of the function of pitch in English between that in
Chinese?
9.What are suprasegmental phonemes? What are their functions in English?
10.State some rules in phonology.
《英语语言学》教学大纲
一、教学目标
主要以英语为例，全面地向学生介绍语言学的基础知识，从而使学生系统
地了解语言（特别是英语）的语音、文字、词汇、语法、语义等主要方面，把握语言与语境、语言与文化、语言与文学、语言与教学等各种关系，并
提高对语言的重要性的认识。
二、教学要求
通过本课程的教学，要求学生基本掌握语言学及其分支学科的基本观点、理论和方法，不仅了解语音学、音系学、词法学、句法学、语义学、语用学等核心分支的内容，而且还要熟悉社会语言学、心理语言学及语言与文
化、文字、计算机及外语教学的关系，形成对语言和语言学的系统认识。
三、教学内容
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics
Teaching aims:let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.
Teaching difficulties:design features of language ; some important
distinctions in linguistics
Teaching procedures
https://www.doczj.com/doc/a815656197.html,nguage
What is language?
design features of language 语言的结构特征
func tions of language
2.linguistics
What is linguistics?
2.2Main branches (scope) of linguistics
phonetics 语音学----the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.
phonology 音系学（音位学）
morphology 词法学
syntax 句法学
semantics 语义学
pragmatics 语用学
Impo rtant distinctions in linguistics
a.Descriptive vs. prescriptive “描写式”和“规定式”
They represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.
b.Synchronic vs. diachronic “共时”和“历时”
The description of a language at some point of time in history is
a synchronic study; the description of language as it changes
through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/a815656197.html,ngue & parole “语言”和“言语”
The distinction was made by the Swiss linguist Saussure in the early 20th century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.
What linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, i. e.
to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/a815656197.html,petence and performance 语言能力和语言运用
The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.
Competence----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.
Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in
linguistic communication.
e.Traditional grammar and modern linguistics
Modern linguistics started with the publication of F. de Saussure’s book “Course in General Linguistics”in the early 20th century.
So Saussure is often described as “father of modern linguistics”.
The general approach traditionally formed to the study of language before that is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.”They differ in several basic ways:
Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. A linguist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of “correctness”.
Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tend to emphasize, may be over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.
Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. To modern linguists ,it is unthinkable to judge one language by standards of another. They are trying to set up a universal framework, but that would be based on the features shared by most of the languages used by mankind.
Homework
Questions and Exercises1,4,6,12
Self-study guide
Read “A New Concise Course On Linguistics For Students Of
English”
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about phonetics and phonology.
Focal points: description of consonants and vowels; basic knowledge about phonology
Teaching difficulties: phoneme; allophone; minimal pair; complementary distribution
Teaching procedure
1. Phonetics
1.1 Speech production and perception
3 sub-branches of phonetics:
Articulator phonetics----the study of the production of speech sounds Acoustic phonetics----the study of the physical properties of the sounds
produced in speech
Auditory phonetics----the study of the perception of speech sounds 1.2 Speech organs (vocal organs)
refers to the parts of the human body involved in the production of speech.
The articulator apparatus of a human being contains 3 important areas: the pharynx (the throat), the oral cavity (the mouth), and the nasal cavity (the nose). The air- stream coming from the lungs is modified in various ways in these cavities, resulting in the production of various sounds.
·The pharyngeal cavity
Speech sounds are produced with an air-stream as their source of energy. The air-stream comes from the lungs and then passes bronchi into trachea. At the top of the trachea is the larynx, the front of which is the Adam’s apple. This is the first place where sound modification might occur (lying across glottis), The larynx contains two pairs of structure; one of which is vocal folds (vocal cords). Vocal cords are two membranes, the vibration of which gives the quality of voicing to the sounds produced.
●When the vocal cords are apart, the air can pass through easily and
the sound produced is said to be voiceless. Consonants [p, s, t ] are produced in this way
●When they are close together, the airstreams causes them to vibrate
and produces voiced sounds. e.g. [b, z, d]
●When they are totally closed, no air can pass between them, then
produce the glottal stop [?]
The oral cavity
The oral cavity provides the greatest source of modification. The main places evolved are the tongue, the uvula, the soft palate, the teeth ridge, the teeth and the lips .of all these, the tongue is the most flexible. Various obstructions created within the oral cavity lead to the production of various sounder [p] [b]; [s] [z]; [k] [g]
The nasal cavity
The nasal cavity is connected to the oral cavity at the back of the mouth .The soft part of the roof of the mouth, the velum, (soft palate) can be draw back to close the passage so that the air can only go through the mouth and produce vowels and most consonants. The passage can also be left open to allow air to exit through the nose and produce nasal consonants [m] [n] [g]
1.3 phonetic transcription
a method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way.
● I PA (International phonetic Alphabet)
The idea was first proposed by the Danish grammarian Jespersen in 1886. The first version of IPA was published in August 1888.
The latest version was devised in 1993 and corrected in 1996.
With minor modifications, phoneticians and linguists now still use IPA. The basic principle of IPA is using a different letter for each distinguishable speech sound
●Two ways to transcribe speech sounds
Broad transcription: transcription with letter-symbols only.
It’s normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks.
Narrow transcription: transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacrtics. This is the transcription required and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.
Diacritics: A set of symbols added to the letter-symbols to show that it has a sound value different from that of the same letter without the mark.
1.4 English speech sounds
● Classification
The English speech sounds can first of all be classified into vowels and consonants. The basic difference between them is that in the production of the former, the airstreams meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it’s somehow obstructed.
Semi-vowels ( semi-consonants) : the sounds produced with little obstruction.(also called glides or transition sounds) e.g. yet wet hot
●Consonants (P44)
. 3 parameters to identify a consonant:
①place of articulation: place in the mouth where obstruction occurs
②manners of articulation: ways in which articulation can be accomplished
③state of vocal cords: voiced VS. voiceless
?Vowels (P45)
the quality of vowels depend on position of tongue and the shape of lips.
4.criteria (parameters) of vowel description
①the position of highest part of the tinge :front, central, back
②the height of tongue raising: high, middle, low
③the shape of the lips (the degree of lip-rounding ) : rounded, unrounded
④the length or tenseness of the vowel : tense vs. lax or long vs. short
pure vowels (monophthong)—vowels where the quality remains constant throughout the articulation
vowel glides----vowels where there is an audible change of quality diphthongs—a single movement of the tongue is involved
triphthongs—a double movement
2.phonology
2.1 phonology and phonetics
Phonetics and phonology are the two disciplines dealing with speech sounds. While both are related to the study of sounds, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetic studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and received. Phonology, on the other hand, is the study of sound systems of language. It’s concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds, it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
e.g. tea too the sound [t] here is a nondistinctive sound (it do
not cause meaning difference)
phoneticians are concerned with how these two [t]’s differed in the way they are pronounced while phonologies are interested in the patterning of such sounds and rules that underlie such variants.
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which form meaningful utterance, to recognize a foreign accent, to make up new words.
2.2 phonemes, allophones
? phone: the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. It’s a phonetic unit or segment ( any linguistic unit which can be isolated from the rest).
If we pronounce the words feel, leaf, top, stop, the speech sounds involved are [f][i:] [f][l][t][p][s][t], All these sounds are phones. Conventionally, phones are placed within square brackets “[ ]” (phonetic transcription)
Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning. Usually phones of
different phonemes distinguish meaning.
? phoneme: a n abstract unit that is of distinctive value. It’s a basic unit in phonological analysis. It is not any particular sound,.but rather it’s represented or realized by a certain phone in a certai n phonetic context.
P honemes are placed in slashes “/ / ” (phonemic transcription) A phoneme is the smallest meaning-distinguishing unit.
Neither the sound [p] in pit or the sound [b] in bit is a phoneme. They are phones; they are the phonetic realization of the phoneme /p/ and /b/. In actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone.
?allophone: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme
For example, [1] in English words “let, play, tell” are pronounced differently, and the substitution of [1] for [] would not make a different word, though native speakers may find pronunciation a bit strange so[1] and [f] are allophones of phoneme[1]
One phoneme may have several allophones, but the choice of an allophone is rule-governed.
?distinctive features: the features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features. Distinctive features are language-specific. What doesn’t distinguish meaning in one language may probably do in another language. e.g. aspiration does not distinguish meaning in English, but it does in Chinese.e.g.
“b a” (爸) “p a”(怕)
In Chinese, these two sounds are distinguished by aspiration ,while in English they are distinguished by “voicing”
2.3 The phoneme theory
The phoneme is the basic unit in phonological analysis. ?Complementary distribution and Minimal pairs.
Phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. If they are two distinctive phoneme, they might form a contrast; e.g. /p/and /b/ in [pit] and [bit]; If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they don’t distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic context.
Strictly speaking, every sound is different from every other sounds. But in phonology some of the difference may be ignored
A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another result in a change of meaning. 1.Minimal pairs (最小对立体)
When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound
combinations are said to form a minimal pair.
three requirements for a minimal pair:
?same number of segment
?one phon etic difference in the same place
?different meaning
e.g. a minimal pair : lit-lip; phone-tone; pill-bill
a minimal set: beat, bit, bet, boot, but, bite
2. Complementary distribution
Not all speech sounds occur in the same environment, when the two sounds never occur in the same environment they are said to be in complementary distribution. For example, in English, [p=,ph] are two different sounds. They never occur in the same context, [p=] always occur after /s/ while [ph] always occur in other places.
Not all phones in complementary distribution are considered to be allophones of the same phoneme. They must be phonetically similar and in complementary distribution.
3.free variation
A phone may sometimes has free variants. If two sounds occurring in
the same environment do not contrast, that is, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, then the two sounds are in free variation.
Homework
Questions and Exercises 1,3,5
Self-study guide
Read “Modern Linguistics” by He Zhao-xiong
Chapter 2 Phonology
Chapter 3 Lexicon
Teaching aims: let the students have a brief knowledge about morphemes and the basic word-formation methods
Focal points:definition and classification of morphemes; major word-formation methods
Teaching procedure
1.Word
lexicon, lexeme, vocabulary
lexicon
In its most general sense, lexicon is synonymous with vocabulary. In its technical sense, it deals with the analysis and creation of words. ? vocabulary
It usually refers to all the words or lexical items a person has acquired about technical or un-technical things. It is also used to mean world list or glossary.
? lexeme: p 77
Word
? Definition of “word”
A unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. ? Three senses of “word”
a.a physical definable unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters
between two pause or blank
b.the common factor underlying a set of forms
c.a grammatical unit
e.g. It is kind of you ,Miss Hou.
Every word plays a grammatical part in the sentence.
? Classification of word
a.Variable and invariable words
b.Grammatical words vs. lexical words
c.Closed-class words vs. open-class words
2.Morpheme
Morphology and morpheme
Types of morphemes
? Free morpheme: those which may constitute words by themselves ? Bound morpheme: those which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form words
Inflectional morpheme: manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case.
E.g.
walks, walking, walked ; John’s; children; biggest Derivational morpheme: prefix: change meaning dis-; un-; mis- suffix: change part of speech -ly; -ness;
-tion
Word formation
Compounding: F+F
blackboard godfather baby-sit
Derivation: B+F or F+B
Blending (join two parts of words together): smog; motel; brunch Clipping
Shortening or abbreviation
Initialism: VOA BBC WTO
Acronym: UNCESO APEC SAR
Back-formation
Borrowing
Homework
Questions and Exercises 1,2,3,5
Self-study guide
Further reading
Adams,V. 1973. An Introduction to Modern English Word-Formation.
Dai Wei-dong, 2002 A New Concise Course On Linguistics For Students Of
English
Chapter 3 Morphology
Chapter 4 Syntax
Teaching aims: enable the students to understand and describe the internal structures of sentences
Focal points: different treatment of sentence structure by different linguistic schools
Teaching difficulties: IC analysis, deep structure, surface structure, tree diagram
Teaching procedure
Syntax is the study of how words combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences. Since sentence is usually regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language, syntax has long been the center of grammatical study. In this chapter, we introduce some of the representative approaches to syntax.
1. The traditional approach
Lexical categories: words are organized into groups of lexical categories, commonly knows as part of speech e.g.: n, v, adj, determiner etc. Syntactic categories: words and phrases are organized according to the syntactic
categories they belong to. Syntactic categories usually refers to a word or a phrase that performs a particular grammatical functions.
e.g. subject, predicate, object etc.
2.The structural approach
Started by the Swiss linguist Saussure.
Try to describe each language as a self-contained structural system.
The structural approach regards linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure or a system..
2.1 Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations
?Syntagmatic relations 组合关系 horizontal relation chain relation
a relation between one item and others in a sequence (the sequential arrangement of words in a language.)
It is also called horizontal relation or chain relation
There are syntactic and semantic conditions the words in a syntagmatic relation must meet.
?Paradigmatic relation 纵聚合关系vertical relation \choice relation Relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure.
It is also called vertical relation or choice relation
E.g.: The smiles.
man
boy
He went there .
yesterday
last week
after he finished the exam
All these words are said to be in a paradigmatic relation. They can substitute for each other without violating syntactic rules, because they share the same syntactic features.
聚合关系和组合关系一起共同确立一个语言单位在语言系统中的特征。
2.2 Immediate constituent analysis (IC analysis)直接成分分析法
proposed by the American linguist Leonard Bloomfield ?Constituent: component elements in a construction.
?Immediate constituents: constituents immediately, directly, below the level of construction.
?construction: any linguistic form which is composed of constituents and is able to be segmented.
A construction may be a sentence , a word group or a word. In other words, a construction is a relationship between constituents ?Ultimate constituent: the smallest grammatical unit obtained through segmentation.
E.g.: poor ,John, ran, away.
?How to do it?
Any sentence can be divided into two parts, then continue until the smallest unit.
The immediate constituent analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets or be more easily shown with a tree diagram.
Endocentric and exocentric constructions
3.The generative approach
Originated with American linguist Noam Chomsky
3.1 Deep and surface structures
a notion proposed by Chomsky
According to Chomsky, every sentence has two levels of structures: ?Deep structure: the underlying level of structural organization displaying all the factors that govern.
?Surface structure: the syntactic structure of a sentence we actually articulate or hear. It is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a sentence.
This distinction is used to explain the alternative interpretations of sentences which have the same surface structure but are related to different deep structures.
3.2 PS-rules and T-rules
Homework
Questions and Exercises1, 2, 5, 9
Self-study guide
Further reading
Chomsky, N. (1957) Syntactic Structures
He Zhao-xiong (1999) Modern Linguistics Chapter 4 Syntax
Chapter 5 Meaning
Teaching aims: enable the students to have a better understanding of semantics and wording meaning.
Focal points: Leech’s seven classifications of meaning, semantic triangle, sense relations between words and sentences
Teaching difficulties: sense relations between sentences, different types of antonymy
Teaching procedure
The subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics. In this chapter,we will study another branch of linguistics-----semantics. 1. What’s semantics?
1.1Definition
A study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.
In linguistics, compared with other branches we have discussed, semantics is very young and new. It has only a history of over 100 years. But dating from Plato, the study of meaning has a long history. Philosophers, psychologists, and sociologists all claim a deep interest in the study of meaning, although they differ in their focus of interest. Philosophers: the relation between linguistic expression and what they refer to in the real world and evaluation of the truth value
of it.
Psychologists: understanding the working of human mind through language. So you many find several books bearing the title “semantics” but talking about different things. Here we just focus on linguistic semantics.
“Cinderella of linguistics” (Kempson)
1.2 A short history
1893 French linguist Breal coined “semantique”
1897 Breal first use it as the science of meaning.
1900 its English version came out
1980s semantics began to be introduced into China
2. What’s meaning? (Meanings of “meaning”) P158
?Denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world.
?Connotation: some additional, esp. emotive meaning.
?Some views concerning the study of meaning
contextualism: Meaning should se studied in terms of situation, use, context.
Firth (leading British linguist) “we shall know a word by the
company it keeps”.
Behaviorism: Bloomfield
attempt to define the meaning of a language form as the
“situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it
calls forth in the hearer.
3. The referential theory
Relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stand for.
3.1 Semantic triangle
proposed by Ogden & Richards in their “The Meaning of Meaning”. They saw the relationship between the word and the thing it refers to as a triangle.
In this diagram, the symbol or form refers to linguistic elements (words, phrases), the referent refers to the things in the real world, and thought or reference refers to “concept”. They argued that the relation bet ween a word and a thing it refers to is not direct. It’s mediated by concept. e.g. The dog over there looks unfriendly.
The word “dog” is directly associated with a certain concept in our mind, i.e. what a “dog” is like, but it is not directly linked to t he referent (the particular dog) in this particular case. Thus, the symbol of a word signifies thing by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the mind of the speaker of a language, and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.
3.2 Sense & reference
Sense-----the literal meaning of a word or an expression independent of situational context. It’s the aspect of meaning dictionary
compilers are interested in intra-linguistic relations. It’s
abstract and de-contextualized.
Reference-----What a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world;
It deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements
and the non-linguistic world of experience.
For example, the word “dog” is given the definition “a c ommon domestic animal kept by human beings for work, hunting etc or as a pet”. This doesn’t refer to any particular dog that exists in the real world, but applies to any animal that meets the features described in the definition, so this is the sense of th e word “dog”. But if we say “The dog is barking”, we must be talking about a certain dog existent in the situation, the word “dog” refers to a dog known to both the speaker and the hearer. This is the reference of the word “dog” in this particular situation.
To some extent, we can say every word has a sense, i.e. some conceptual content. But not every word has a reference e.g. grammatical words like but, if etc, don’t refer to anything.
Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.
e.g. I was one bitten by a dog.
Mind you. There is a dog over there.
Here the two “dog” bear the same sense, but have two different
reference in the two utterance. Sometimes linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense e.g. “morning star” and “ evening star” can refer to the same star “Venus”
4. Sense relations between words
Words are in different sense relations with each other
There are generally 3 kinds of sense relations: sameness relation, oppositeness relation and inclusiveness relation
4.1. synonymy
refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.
4.2 Antonymy
is used for oppositeness of meaning words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms. Opposite ness can be found on different dimensions. ?Gradable antonymy (mainly adj.)
good/ bad, long /short, narrow/ wide
They may be seen in terms of degrees of the quality involved. They can be modified by “very”.The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other.
?Complementary antonymy
alive/ dead, male/ female, present/ absent, pass/ fail , boy/ girl They are characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pain implies the assertion of the other and the assertion of one means the denial of the other.
In other words, it is not a matter of degree between two extreme, but a matter of either one or the other.
?Converse antonymy (relational opposites)
buy/ sell, lend/ borrow, before /after, teacher/ student, above /below
The members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities. ?Hyponymy ( a matter of class membership)
cow/ animal, rose/ flower, honesty/ virtue
refers to the sense relation between two words in which the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another word.
The word which is more general in meaning is called the super-ordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same super-ordinate are co-hyponyms to each other.
4.Sense relations between sentences
sense relationships also exist between sentences
4.1 A entails B ( A is an entailment of B )
A: He has been to France.
B: He has been to Europe.
A: John picked a tulip.
B: John picked a flower.
Entailment is a relation of inclusion if x entails y, the meaning of x is included in y.
In term of truth value: If x is true, y is necessarily true; If x is false, y may be true or false; If y is true, x may be true or false, If Y is false, x is false.
In formula: A→B
-B→-A
4.2 Presupposition (A presupposes B)
A: The queen of England is old.
B: England has a queen.
A: Is your father at home?
B: You have a father.
It refers to the kind of meaning which the speaker doesn’t assert but assumes the hearer can identify form the sentence.
In term of truth value: If A is true, B must be true. If A is false, B is still true; If B is true, A is either true or false. If B is false, no truth value can be said about A.
In formula: A→B
-A→B
4.3 A is inconsistent with B
A: John is married
B: John is a bachelor
In term of truth value: If A is true, B is false and if A is false, B is true.
4.4 A is synonymous with B
A: The boy killed the dog.
B: The dog was killed by the boy.
4.5 A is a contradiction
My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.
4.6 A is semantically anomalous
The table has bad intentions.
5. Componential analysis
Componential analysis refers to an approach adopted by structural semanticists in describing the meaning of words or phrases. This approach is based on the belief that the total meaning of a word can be analyzed in terms of a number of distinct elements or meaning components (called semantic features)
The study of meaning in any language shows that lexical items overlap in meaning and share common properties e.g. Lions and tigers both contain an element of “wild animal ness”. Calf puppy and baby can be considered as all sharing an element of non adultness, while cow, woman and tigress all containing an element of “femaleness, But because of other pro perties each word contains, none of them will be said as being synonymous to any one of the others.
One attempt to account for this phenomenon is to assume that lexical items, like phonemes are made up out of a number of component parts. Componential analysis is often seen as a process aiming at breaking down the meaning of a word into its minimal distinctive features or properties, which are also called components by some linguists. One way of describing the components of a word is to use feature symbols, which are usually written in capitalized letters, with “+” “-“ before them, plus sign indicates the presence of a certain property, and minus sign indicates the absence of it. e.g.
man : + HUMAN+ ADULT+ MALE
woman: + HUMAN+ ADULT- MALE
boy: + HUMAN- ADULT+ MALE
girl: + HUMAN- ADULT- MALE
words like father, mother, daughter and son, which involves a relation between two entities, may be shown as follows:
father = PARENT (X,Y) & MALE (X)
mother = PARENT (X,Y) & MALE (X)
verbs can also be analyzed in this way, for example
take = CAUSE (X, (HAVE (X,Y))
give= CAUSE (X, (HAVE (X,Y)))
?Advantages: by specifying the semantic features of certain words, we may better account for sense relations,
Synonymy ---- having the same semantic components
Antonymy ----- having a contrasting component
Hyponymy-----having all semantic components of another. ?Disadvantages: It would be senseless to analyze the meaning of every word by breaking it into its meaning components.
6. Sentence meaning
The defining of sentence meaning has turned out to be a more complicated issue than the defining of the meanings of individual lexical items. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all it components.
The meaning of a sentence is a product of both lexical and grammatical meaning. There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning.
Homework
Exercises: Identify the relations between the following pairs of sentences:
A: Tom’s wife is pregnant.
B: Tom has a wife.
A: My sister will soon be divorced.
B: My sister is a married woman.
A: He likes swimming.
B: He likes sports.
A: John is an orphan.
B: John has no father.
Self-study guide
Read Chapter 5 Semantics in “Modern Linguistics”by He Zhao-xiong
Chapter 6 Language in Use
Teaching aims: enable the students to have a better understanding of pragmatics and its two important theories.
Focal points: Speech act theory, the theory of conversational implicature Teaching difficulties: Speech act theory, the cooperative principle and its four maxims
Teaching procedure
1. An introduction to pragmatics
1.1Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning
1.2Pragmatics
The study of language in use or the study of meaning of language in context
Pragmatics is a comparatively new branch of study in the area of linguistics. It developed in the 1960s and 1970s.
Morris first proposed the word “pragmatics”in his “Foundations of the Theory of Signs”. He said that the study of semiotics includes three parts: syntax (sign---sign); semantics (sign---word); pragmatics (sign---its user).
1977 Journal of Pragmatics published in Holland signified the start of pragmatics.
2. Speech act theory
2.1. Performatives and constatives
Performatives: In speech act theory proposed by John Austin, it’s an utterance which performs an acts, such as
I name this ship Titanic.
I declare the meeting open.
2.2. A theory of the illocutionary act
A speaker is in most cases performing 3 acts simultaneously while making an utterance.
Locutionary act: the act of saying sth. which is meaningful and can be understood
an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
Illocutionary act : the act of using a sentence to perform a function such as command, request, etc.
Perlocutionary act: the results or effects that are produced by means of saying sth.
Illocutionary force: the intention or purpose underlying the act of saying sth. (speaker’s meaning)
e.g. You have left the door wide open
locutionary: utterance of all the word
illocutionary: expressed his intention of speaking i.e. asking sb.
to close the door. “or making a complaint perlocutionary: the hearer close the door or his refusal to comply with the request
2.3. S earle’s classification of speech acts
Speech acts theory aroused great interest among scholars in the 1960’s and 1970’s. One of those who made notable contribution to it is the American philosopher linguist John Searle. He made classification of illocutionary acts. According to Searle, speech acts fall into five general categories.
Representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true
The film is moving.
I have never seen the man before.
Directives: trying to get the hearer to do sth,
You’d better go to the clinic
Open the window!
Commisives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action
I promise to come here at 7:00
Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.
It’s very kind of you to help me.
I’m sorry for the mess I have made
Declarations: bring about immediate changes by saying sth.
I appoint you monitor of the class.
I now declare the meeting open
All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their force or strength. E.g.
Close the door
Will you close the door
Do you mind closing the door?
I would be very grateful if you could
Close the door!
The door is open!
The door please!
Whatever act we perform with language can be categorized into one of these 5 kinds.
3. The theory of conversational implicature
As the objective of pragmatic study is to explain how language is used to effect successful communication, conversation, as the most common and natural form of communication, has drawn the attention of many scholars. The theory was proposed by another Oxford philosopher H. P. Grice. in his lectures under the title of “Logic and conversation”.
3.1. The co-operative principle (CP )
Grice noticed that in daily conversation people do not usually say things directly but turn tend to imply them. He coined the term “implicature” to refer to such implied meaning. And he explored the question how people manage to convey implicature, which is not explicitly expressed.
According to Grice, in making conversation, the participant must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the task. These general principle is called the cooperative Principle, abbreviated as cp.
To specify the CP further, Grice introduced four categories of maxims. (conversational maxims)
It’s interesting and important to no te that those maxims are not always strictly observed. Rather, for various reasons they are of ten violated or “flouted”, to use Grice’s term. Some of these violations give rise to “conversational implicatuses”,
3.2. Violation of the maxims
a. quality (tell lie; rhetoric device)
e.g. Paul is made of iron. (metaphor)
[Paul has some properties similar to those of iron.]
You are the cream in my coffee.
b. quantity
--when is S usan’s farewell party?
--sometime next month
--we’ll all miss Bill and Agatha, won’t we?
--well, we’ll all miss BILL.
[we didn’t miss Agatha]
tautology e.g. War is war. [War is cruel.]
--Bob is really very mischievous.
--Children are children
c. relation
--How do you like my painting?
--I don’t have an eye for beauty, I’m afraid
[I don’t like it at all]
--what do you think of the lecture?
--I thought the lecture had was too big.
[The lecture was dull or boring.]
d. manner
--where is your mother?
--she’s either in the house or at the market.
[I don’t now exactly where]
3.3. Characteristics of implicature
3.4. Conclusion
“Co nv ersational implicature”, according to Paul Grice, refers to the extra meaning not contained in the utterance, understandable to the
《语言学概论》教学大纲 课程英文名称：General course of linguistics 课程编号： 总学时： 32 先修课程：英语精读、英语泛读、现代汉语、英美概况等 适用专业：英语专业本科学生 一、课程性质与任务 1．课程性质：本课程是英语专业的专业必修课。 2．课程任务：学习完本大纲规定的容后，应达到下列基本要求： 掌握英语语言学的基础知识、英语语言的性质、结构、特征和功能，以及它们与外 语教学的关系，从而加强英语语言的学习和英语教学法的研究，提高英语语言水平和英语语 言教学能力。了解语言在时空中的变异及其与社会、文化、语境、思维等外部因素的关系， 同时了解部分主要语言学流派。学生通过对该课程的学习，既能借助语言学理论整理和吸收 语言知识，又能运用正确的观点评价语言。 二、课程教学容、形式和结业标准 1. 教学容：本课程由7章构成 （1）导论：语言学的概念和意义，语言的区别性特征和语言学里一些重要区别性概念。 （2）语音学：语音学的概念和畴，辅音的发音方式和发音部位。了解发音器官和国际音标。 （3）音系学：音位学的定义，音素的区别性特征以及跟音素相关的几个重要概念。 超语段特征：音节、重音、音高等。 （4）形态学：形态学相关的基本概念和词素的类型，构词法种类。 （5）句法学：短语结构规则和转换生成规则；直接成分分析法，句法功能和畴。 （6）语义学：语义学的研究畴吗，各种意义关系以及意义分析的方法，历史上不同的意义观和研究语义学的方法。 （7）语用学：语用学的概念，意义和语境的关系、言语行为理论，会话合作原则，
了解会话含义，礼貌原则。 （8）语言和文化：语言、文化和社会的关系，语言的变体，Sapir-Whorf假说。 2. 教学形式：本课程采用课堂讲授与课后作业相结合的方式进行。 3. 结业标准：本课程采用闭卷考试方式进行考核，按平时成绩30%，期末考试70%比例计算，总评成绩60分（含）以上为合格。 三、课程教学学时分配 四、教材和参考书目 教材： 《新编语言学教程》，润清，文旭，外语教学与研究 参考书： 《新编简明英语语言学教程》，戴炜、何兆熊，外语教育2002年版。 《语言学教程》（修订版），胡壮麟，大学2001年版。 《语言学简明教程》（英文版），胡壮麟、战子，大学2004年版。
【二语习得】课程教学大纲 【课程代码】08024053 【课程类别】专业任选课 【学分】2 【总学时】34 【讲授学时】34 【实验学时】 【先修课程】《英语教师职业技能》 【适用专业】英语专业师范方向高年级学生 【教学目的】 通过本课程的学习，要求学生了解第二语言（外语）习得的性质、特点、内容、理论研究流派、研究热点、教学原则、教学内容与方法等。本课程采用多元视角，对二语习得与教学进行多学科、全方位的介绍与探讨，以便学生能够全面了解二语习得与教学全过程的诸方面，学习和研究二语习得与教学理论，从而加深对二语教学这一认知活动的理性认识，为进一步深入研究二语习得与教学打下基础，提高科研能力，提高运用理论探讨和解决英语教学问题的能力，力争成为积极、自觉的思考者和有独立解决问题能力的学习者、研究者。 【内容提要】 第一章【语言、语言学习和语言教学】 [基本要求] 了解语言教学中几个最基本的议题，即语言、语言学习和语言教学。 [重点难点] 使学生掌握语言学习和语言教学理论基础的全貌，并引导学生在此基础上，经过认真、审慎、理智、全面的思考，从中悟出自己的语言教学思路或理论。 [讲授学时] 2 学时 第一节 [语言、学习与语言教学] 语言 学习与教学 语言学与心理学的趋势 第二节 [语言教学理论与方法] 应用语言学 语言教学理论与方法 第二章【第一语言习得】
[基本要求] 要求学生了解第一语言习得是认识第二语言学习原理的基础、掌握第一语言习得所涉及的主要议题、概念和主流理论观点。 [重点难点] 使学生意识到虽然本章议题都尚无定论，但第一语言习得研究与第二语言习得研究关系密切相关，其导向和成果对第二语言习得研究颇具启示。 [讲授学时] 2 学时 第一节 [第一语言习得理论] 行为主义 内在论 功能主义 第二节 [第一语言习得中的主要问题] 能力与行为 理解与产出 先天本质与后天培养 普遍语法 系统性与变化性 语言与思维 模仿 实践 输入 语篇 第三章【第一语言习得与第二语言习得对比】 [基本要求] 要求学生了解第一语言习得与第二语言习得可做的三类对比及三类比较重涉及的6个议题（关键期假设；神经学的研究成果；精神运动协调方面的探讨；认知心理学的观点；情感因素的作用；语言发展的因素） [重点难点] 对本章所论述的因素进行综合思考，就任何一类比较形成自己的认识。 [讲授学时] 2 学时 第一节 [第一语言与第二语言的对比与对照] 对比与对照的类型 关键期假说 第二节 [对比与对照中的关键问题] 神经学问题
1、语言学的三大发源地 中国、印度、希腊—罗马。 最初的语言学是是为了给遗留下来的政治、哲学、历史、宗教、文学等古典文献作注解，而不是探索语言的规律。这时候的语言学还不是一门独立的学科。2、语言符号的特点 语言符号具有任意性和线条性的特点。 （1）任意性是指语言符号的声音形式和意义内容的结合是任意的，二者没有必然联系。比如：粤方言中读“人”，读作[zen]，新会话读作[ng? n]，开平话有的读作[ng? n] 、[ngin]，台山话读作[ngin]，闽南话读作[n^ng]，但是表达的意义是一样的。 （2）线条性指的是语言符号的能指在时间上呈线性排列。在交际过程中，语言符号只能一个跟着一个按时间顺序出现，形成延续的线性序列，绝不可能在同一时间说出两个符号。如：“庄”的语音形式就是由zh-u-a-ng四个音素依次出现而形成的。 3、组合关系和聚合关系 （1）组合关系是指构成线性序列的语言成分之间的结构关系。即两个或两个以上同一性质的结构单位（例如音位与音位、词与词等等），按照线性的顺序可以前后连接起来的横向关系。 （2）聚合关系是指同一结构内相同位置上可以互相替换的语言成分之间的纵向关系。即在语言的组合结构的某一个位置上能够互相替换的几个具有相同作用（组合能力）的单位符号之间的关系。 （3）不仅各级语言符号处在这两种根本的关系之中，构造符号的音位和意义同
样也处于这两种关系之中。 4、语音四要素 （1）音高：声音的高低，取决于发音体（人的发音体是声带）的振动频率。音高在语言中的作用：构成声调和语调。 （2）音强：声音的强弱，取决于发音体振幅的大小。对于语音而言，就是由发音时用力的大小决定的。音强在语言中的作用：构成语调、轻重音。 （3）音长：声音的长短，取决于发音体振动持续时间的长短。音长变化在许多语言中有区别意义的作用。音长在语言中的作用：构成长短音、轻音。如英语中的pool[pu:l]（水池）与pull[pul]（拖、拉）。 （4）音质：一种声音区别于其他声音的个性或特征。它决定于声波振动的形式。音质的不同主要与三个方面的因素有关：发音体、发音方法和共鸣器的形状有关。 5、音位、语流音变、音位变体 （1）一种语言中具有区别词的语音形式作用的最小的语音单位，是针对某种语言而言的。音位是从语音的社会属性的角度划分的单位。 （2）确立音位的原则 ①对立原则：凡是处于对立关系中并能区别词的语音形式的几个音素归纳为不同的音位。例如：在汉语普通话中：［p］［p‘］［t］［t‘］几个音素是对立关系确立的不同的音位； ②互补原则：处于互补关系的音素不能起到区别词的语音形式的作用，可以归纳为一个音位。例如：英语中的[p]和[p‘]，汉语中的[a][A][ɑ]等 ③相似原则：但并不是处于互补关系中的音素都可以归纳为一个音位，还要考虑语音相似原则：例如：在普通话中，[t]只出现在音节的开头，[?]只出现在音节末
《语言学概论》教学大纲 一、课程说明 1.课程代码：101012191。 2.课程中文名称：语言学概论。 3.课程英文名称：Introduction to Linguistics。 4.课程总学时数： 36 ，其中理论环节学时数： 28 ，实验实践环节学时数： 8 。 5.课程学分数： 2 。 6.授课对象：汉语言文学专业（师范类）四年制本科。 7.本课程的性质、地位和作用 《语言学概论》是汉语言文学专业（师范类）四年制本科的一门专业基础课。讲授关于人类语言的本质、结构、发展、分类以及记录语言的符号系统——文字等方面的基础理论、基本知识和基本方法，以提高学生的语言理论水平和语言分析能力，为今后从事语言教学和语言研究工作奠定必要的基础。 二、教学基本要求 学习本课程应达到的目标：通过学习，初步树立科学的语言观，掌握普通语言学的基本理论，提高分析语言现象的能力。为此，在教学中有以下几点基本要求： 1．在介绍语言学的基本理论和基础知识的基础上，着重拓宽知识面，同时进一步论证、阐述基础理论，并加以延伸、扩展。 2．要多用实例传授现代语言的分析方法，切实提高学生解决实际语言问题的能力。阐述概念和理论时要避免抽象的演绎。 3．本课程是一门理论性和实践性都很强的课程，学习中要以辩证唯物主义为指导，遵循理论联系实际的原则，紧密结合语言实际，多分析，多做思考练习题，以求透彻理解，掌握有关知识。 三、学时分配
四、课程主要内容 第一章语言与语言学 【本章教学目的、要求】： 一、了解动物的“语言”与人类的语言的区别； 二、正确认识语言的性质； 三、了解语言的社会功能和思维功能； 【本章教学重点、难点】： 一、语言和言语的区别及联系 二、语言的性质（符号性、系统性） 三、组合关系和聚合关系 【本章节主要教学要点】： 第一节语言是人类特有的 一、人类的语言和动物的“语言”的区别 1.功能开放 2.构造灵巧 3.习得 二、关于语言产生的假说
第一章语言学和语言 教学目的与要求： 通过本章的学习，了解语言学的研究对象和研究方法。 教学重点与难点： 语言学的概念；现代语言学的研究领域；语言研究中的一些重要对立；语言的概念 复习思考题： 1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language? 2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study 3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar? 4. How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance? 5. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language? 6. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system? 第二章音位学 教学目的与要求： 通过本章的学习，了解英语语音学和音位学的研究内容。 教学重点与难点： 语言的语音媒介，语音学的定义，发音器官，语音的记述，英语语音的分类，音位学，音位学和语音学的关系，音位和音位变体，音位对比、互补分布和最小对立体，音位规则，超语段音位特征。 复习思考题： 1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why? 2. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ? 3. How are the English consonants classified? 4. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels? 5. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? 6. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule and the deletion rule. 7. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English
语言学概论试题(1) 一、填空１５% 1、语言中最单纯、最常用、最原始和最能产的词是根词。 2、语言是人类最重要的交际工具，文字是最重要的辅助交际工具。 3、我国古代学者为读懂古书而建立的训诂学、文字学、音韵学组成了我国的语文学，通称为“小学”。 4、英语属于印欧语系的日耳曼语族的西部语支。 5、语音可以从生理角度分析它的产生方式，从物理角度分析它的表现形式（传递过程），从社会功能角度分析它的功能作用。 6、是否能够独立（自由）运用，是区分词和语素的根本特点。 7、现代大多数国家的拼音文字的字母，大多直接来源于拉丁字母。 8、具有不同功能的三种最基本的语法单位是语素、词、句子。 9、语言发展的主要特点是渐变性和不平衡性。 10、我国宪法（１９８２年）第１９条明确规定“国家推广全国通用的普通话”。 二、选择题１０% 1 、中国的传统语文学研究的薄弱环节是（D ） Ａ、文字学Ｂ、语音学Ｃ、词汇学Ｄ、语法学 2、汉语属于（B ） Ａ、屈折语Ｂ、词根语Ｃ、多式综合语Ｄ、粘着语 3、一种语言中数量最少的是（B ） Ａ、音素Ｂ、音位Ｃ、语素Ｄ、音节 4、文字的前身是（C ） Ａ、结绳记事Ｂ、手势Ｃ、图画记事Ｄ、实物记事 5、派生词中包含（B ） Ａ、词尾Ｂ、词根Ｃ、虚词Ｄ、根词 6、语音和语义结合的最小的语言单位是（C ） Ａ、音素Ｂ、义素Ｃ、语素Ｄ、音位 7、汉语单词“忽然”出现的位置是（C ） Ａ、主语位置Ｂ、谓语位置Ｃ、状语位置Ｄ、定语位置 8、以下各种语言变体中，属于社会方言的是 （D ） Ａ、土话Ｂ、客家话Ｃ、客套话Ｄ、黑话 9、下列语素中属于自由语素的是（C ） Ａ、初Ｂ、视Ｃ、人Ｄ、民 10、在语言结构的某一环节上能够互相替换，具有某种相同作用的各个单位之间所形成的关系叫（D ） Ａ、转换关系Ｂ、组合关系Ｃ、层级关系Ｄ、聚合关系 三、名词解释２０% 1、专语语言学: 以具体语言作为研究对象的语言学。 2、组合关系: 指两个以上相连续的语言符号组合而成的线性关系。 3、语流音变:语流中的某些音由于相互影响而发生临时性的变化，这种变化就叫语流音变。 4、语义场: 由具有某些共同义素的一群词类聚而成的场。 5、语法范畴: 把同一性质的语法意义综合和概括所形成的语法意义的类别 四、试以国际音标标出下列各词的读音１０% 1、优秀 2、维持 3、宏观 4、精神 5、离开 五、用义素分析法分析下列各组词9％ 瞻仰[+用眼+往一定方向+崇敬地] 1、｛
《语言学概论》课程教学大纲 （一）课程基本信息 1课程名称：语言学概论 2、课程性质：本科专业必修课 3、周学时/学分：2/2 4、授课对象：汉语言文学专业本科二年级学生 5、使用教材：《语言学纲要》（叶蜚声、徐通锵编著，北京大学出版社出版） 二、课程简介 《语言学概论》是汉语言文学专业的一门必修的专业基础课，本课程介绍有关人类语言的性质、结构规律、发展演变规律以及语言与文字的关系等方面的基础理论知识。 《语言学概论》是《普通语言学》（理论语言学）的基础课，它注重考察人类语言的共同规律和普遍特征，而不是学习研究某一具体语言。这是它与现代汉语、古代汉语和现代英语等具体语言课程的重要区别。它所介绍的是从具体的语言现象中总结、归纳出普遍的系统的理论和规律，并用这个理论指导各个具体语言的学习研究。它是一门语言学的基础理论课。 三、教学目的与基本要求： 教学目的： 《语言学概论》课程的教学目的是通过语言学基础理论和基本方法的阐释，培养学生运用语言学的科学方法考察语言现象的习惯，以提高学生的语言理论水平和语言分析能力，为学生学习其它语言课程提供必要的理论知识，为他们今后从事语言教学和语言研究工作奠定必要的基础。 教学要求： 语言学以人类的语言为研究对象，因而涉及的语言现象比较多。讲授语言学的基础知识和基本理论，涉及到语料分析的实例，以汉语、英语的语料分析为主；其它语言的实例，只在必要的时候作适当的引用，重在理解。教学中要讲清楚语言学的基本概念，使学生通过学习能比较系统地掌握语言学的基础知识，了解语言性质特点、语言的结构、语言的演变规律、文字的性质以及它与语言的关系等方面的内容。 学习语言学理论，需要学生有一定的具体语言知识为基础，这样才能便于理解有关问题。与本课程相关的课程有《现代汉语》、《古代汉语》、《汉语专题研究》、《英语》等。 四、教学进度表 章次题目教学时数
“语用学”课程教学大纲 教研室主任：唐建萍执笔人：唐建萍 一、课程基本信息 开课单位：外国语学院 课程名称：语用学 课程编号：043103 英文名称：Pragmatics 课程类型：专业方向限选课 总学时：18 理论学时：18实验学时： 学分：1 开设专业：英语 先修课程：语言学导论 二、课程任务目标 （一）课程任务 语用学是英语专业语言学方向的一门专业限选课。本课程主要通过语用学中两个重要的概念，即“言语行为”和“语境”使学生掌握其相互作用和构成在话语交际中的核心作用，通过对语用学中指示、预设、言语行为理论、会话合作原则、话语逻辑等若干论题的研究，使学生可以从说话者和听话者的角度，知晓语言行为是受各种社会规约制约的行为，并可以运用社会规约结合语用知识去解释某些语言现象。让语言研究变成“语言—使用者—语境”这样一个三位一体的立体研究，对语言的认识从必然性跨越到自由性，从静态到动态，从单向分析向整体扩展，凝结出跨文化交际行为适合性的精髓。 （二）课程目标 在学完本课程之后，学生能够： 1. 区分语用学与语义学和其它相关学科在研究意义上的差别； 2. 在了解英语语言的基本特征以后，从语言使用的各种情况解释语言使用的意义、规 则和条件，从而以更高、更广的视角了解语言的特征； 3. 了解近二、三十年来语用学的发展、目前最新的研究动态及趋势，增强外语教学与
学习中的语用观念。 三、教学内容和要求 第一章引论 使学生了解语用学的起源和发展，并初步了解语用学中的几个基本概念及语用学同其它交叉学科的关系与学习意义 第一节语用学的起源及发展 第二节语用学的定义 第二章指示现象 使学生从语用角度了解指示词语的功能，脱离结构主义对指示词语的狭义理解，把话语和周围的世界联系起来。 第一节指示语的定义、分类和特点 第二节人称指示 第三节时间指示和空间指示 第四节语篇指示和社交指示 第三章语用预设 使学生了解预设、前提的定义及前提的反射问题。培养学生对话语命题进行逻辑切分的能力和逻辑推理能力 第一节前提的定义 第二节前提的种类 第三节前提的映射问题 第四节前提与蕴涵的关系 第四章会话含义(I):合作原则 要求学生掌握会话合作原则，并能应用到话语交际中，在话语轮回中动态的判断信息量，信息的真实性、相关性及谈话方式，发现话语的隐含意义 第一节合作原则的四项准则 第二节违反合作原则产生的语用效果 第三节隐含意义的定义及分类
《语言学纲要》（叶蜚声、徐通锵版）复习资料 一、语言学纲要期末复习要注意的几个问题 复习语言学概论课程，总的要求是：弄清楚基本概念的准确含义，抓住重点，全面复习。“语言学概论”是语言学方面的一门基础课，重点讲授语言学的基本概念、基础知识和基本理论，是我们今后进一步学习本科阶段的其它语言类课程和撰写语言方向毕业论文的理论基础，在整个专业中具有非常重要的地位。现在这门课的学习即将结束，要进行复习考试，弄清楚基本概念的准确含义自然是一个最基本的要求；这一点做到了，基础知识和基本理论的掌握也就不会有什么大的障碍。复习的时候应抓住重点，就是要根据我们的考核说明规定的重点进行复习；但“抓住重点”不是“只学重点”，而是要通过重点问题的复习达到全面复习的目的，不要自己从主观愿望出发来划定复习范围。复习的总要求可以从以下几个方面来理解： 第一，吃透内容要点 复习不但要掌握比较重大的要点，弄清楚各个章节的框架结构，对各个重点内容的要点也要非常熟悉，每个要点要求都能展开阐述，比如基本词汇的特点，什么是全民常用，什么是稳固，什么是有构词能力，这些特点相互之间是怎样影响的，都必须能结合实例说出个所以然来。如果复习不全面不细致，理解问题不深入透彻，遇到这样的问题恐怕就只能是干巴巴的条款了，那样是很难取得优异成绩的，也不符合本课程掌握基础知识、基本概念、基本理论的“三基”的要求。 第二，掌握常用的名词概念 专门就名词概念提出复习要求，这是因为两个方面的原因：一方面，名词概念是一门学科体系的重要组成部分，是学科知识的基础部分，学科体系在很大程度上是通过一系列的名词概念串连起来的。另一方面，期末试题名词解释题目还是一个考核重点，而且还占有非常重的分量。不但如此，而且在填空、选择、问答题里都要涉及重要的名词概念，至于占试题主要内容的分析题，更是离不开名词概念，否则就无从下手分析。例如：合成词、词与词的组合方式、词组的层次分析等，都涉及到名词概念。 名词概念分两个层次要求：一个层次是对名词概念要求理解其内涵，能结合问题进行分析、解释，能举例说明；一个层次名词概念主要是一些涉及到下位概念的名词，要求理解其内涵，能结合语言实际进行类别分析辨认。我们在中央电大编辑部发行的《期末复习指导》中列出了一些重点名词，复习可参考这部分内容，我们今天也重点介绍一下。 第三，弄清基本理论知识并能灵活地加以运用。 本课程是一门理论性很强的课程，因此，复习首先要注意把基本理论吃透。所谓吃透，就是能理解其内容，能灵活运用理论来分析问题，而不是死记硬背。当然，我们强调灵活运用，不是反对有关的记忆，一些基本知识，课程内容的框架，还是应该搞清楚，这样才能做到成竹在胸，所以复习时对所学的知识还要进行必要的梳理，比如像国际音标和元音辅音的发音特点，就必须强化记忆。 第四，加强实践练习。 本课程理论性比较强，内容比较抽象，理解、把握起来也有一定难度。要真正吃透理论
课程教学大纲审核表
语言学概论 学时数：32 学分：2 适合范围：对外汉语专业 一、课程性质和教学目标 “语言学概论”是对外汉语专业的一门必修的专业基础课，研究语言的性质、结构规律、演变规律以及语言与文字的关系等方面的问题。学生通过本课程的学习，能比较系统地掌握语言学的基本概念、基本理论和基础知识，具备良好的语言表达能力、逻辑思维能力。本课程为提高学生的语言理论水平、进一步学习和深入研究其他语言课程奠定必要的语言理论基础。 二、课程教学内容及基本要求 1.导言 通过学习本章内容学生应了解语言学在科学体系中的重要地位,语言学的分类,语言学的流派；理解传统语文学与历史比较语言学的差别；掌握语言学的研究对象和任务,基本类别和主要功用。 2.语言的社会功能 通过学习本章内容学生应了解语言是一种特殊的社会现象,语言与思维的关系；理解语言是人类最重要的交际工具,语言是思维的最有效的工具；掌握语言的社会功能,语言和说话的关系。 3.语言是符号系统 通过学习本章内容学生应该了解什么是符号,符号的构成,人类的语言能力；理解语言符号特点的内涵,语言系统的二层性的组成规则,语言系统是人类所特有的；掌握语言符号的任意性和线条性特点,组合关系和聚合关系及其相互关系,人类语言和动物语言的本质区别。 4.语音 通过学习本章内容学生应了解语音的属性,国际音标的构成特点,,语音单位的分类,发音的基本原理,音位及与音素的区别联系,音位的区别特征,音节的构成；理解元音和辅音的区别及其特点,音素与音标的关系,语音不同音质的形成原因,语音的系统性特征；掌握语音的性质和属性,元音与辅音的区别,辅音的发音部位和发音方法,音位及音位的划分原则,音位变体与音位的关系,分析汉语音节结构。 5.语法 通过学习本章内容学生应了解语法的结构单位,语法在语言系统中的地位,语素组合成词的规则,词类的划分依据,句式变换的重要作用,人类语言的几种结构类型；理解语法的基本规则,语法意义、语法形式和语法手段及其关系,语
昆仑旅游学院课程教学大纲体例 《英语语言学》教学大纲 课程代码： 建议学时数：2 学分：2 课程类别：其他课本 先修课程：基本语言学知识 适用专业：英语专业
《英语语言学概论》教学大纲 课程编号： 学时数：72 (讲课：72 实验：0 实习：0) 学分数：4 适用专业：英语 开课学期：6 一、课程的性质和目的 1. 课程性质：普通语言学是英语专业的一门专业必修课。 2. 目的和任务：学生通过学习本大纲规定的内容，了解和掌握普通语言学有关语音、音系、词汇、句法、语义、语用、文体、语言与社会文化、语言与心理、语言与认知、语言与计算机、语言学与外语教学、语言学流派等基本理论和语言研究的基本方法。 二、课程教学内容及学时分配 第一章导论（6学时） 关于语言：语言的定义、起源、特征、功能。关于语言学：语言学的主要分支学科，宏观语言学。语言学中一些重要的基本概念：描写与规定、共时与历时、语言和言语、能力与表现。 第二章语音（6学时） 语音学：语音的发生与感知，发音器官，国际音标，辅音，元音，语音的描写，协同发音。音系学：音位理论和音位变体、音系规则，区别特征，音节，重音，语调，声调。 第三章词汇（4学时，学生自学为主，教师讲授为辅） 词汇概说：词的含义，词的识别，词的分类。形态学：词的构成，语素，屈折，派生，义素、音素和语素的关系。词的变化。 第四章句法（6学时） 句法关系：位置关系，替换关系，同现关系。语法结构：语法结构，直接成分，内向结构、外向结构，并列关系，从属关系。句法功能：主语，谓语，宾语，词类和功能的关系。语法范畴：数、性、格，一致关系。语句构成：短语，小句，语句。递归性：连接，嵌入。句法之外：句子的连接，衔接手段。 第五章语义学（6学时） 词汇语义学：“意义”的意义，指称论，涵义关系，成分分析。句子语义学：组合理论，逻辑语义学。 第六章语言与认知（6学时） 什么是认知？心理语言学：语言习得，语言理解，语言的产生。认知语言学：识解，范畴化，图式理论，隐喻，转喻，整合理论。 第七章语言、文化、社会（6学时）
《社会语言学》课程教学大纲 课程编码：50615001学分：2 总学时：36 说明 【课程性质】《社会语言学》为英语专业的专业必修课。 【教学目的】 《社会语言学》课程是四年制本科英语语言文学专业的必修课，是一门介绍语言与社会的关系的重要选修课程，开课时间为第四学年第一学期，其前期和同期相关课程为《语言学导论》。 【教学任务】 通过《社会语言学》这门课的学习，使学生了解到社会语言学是语言学中的重要研究领域分支之一，是一门研究语言与社会的关系的学问。加强学生在英语语言学方面的知识储备，有利于学生学好其它英语专业课程。 【教学容】 《西方语言学与应用语言学视野:社会语言学导论(第3版)》共16章节，具体容包括社会语言学家研究什么，多语社区中的语言选择，语言保持和语言转用，语言变体和多语国家，国家语言和语言规划。 【教学原则和方法】 教学原则：本教材使用主要体现以人为本的思路，采取启发式教育方法，鼓励学生积极思考，在学习过程中发现和解决问题。 教学方法：讲授与讨论实践相结合。 【先修课程要求】 语言学基本理论 【学时分配】
本课程在第八学期开设，共一学期，每周2学时，共36学时。 【教材及必要参考书】 教材: 《社会语言学导论》, Janet Holmes, 世界图书出版公司, 2011年, 第三版。 参考书: [1]《社会语言学引论》, Ronald Wardhaugh, 外语教学与研究版社，2000。 [2]Sociolinguistics, Hudson R.A.,Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press ,2000. [3]《社会语言学论文集》, 祝畹瑾，大学，1985。
1、语言学的三大发源地： 中国、印度、希腊—罗马 2、五个阶段： 编码—发送—传递—接收—解码 3、语言的功能： 社会功能、思维功能 4、怎样理解语言符号的系统系？ 答： 语言系统的结构： 层级体系二层装置。下层是音位，上层语素、词、句子。运转机制： 组合关系，聚合关系。 5、语言符号的特征： 任意性、线条性 6、掌握语言需要： 抽象思维能力和发音能力 7、语言的研究： 答： 从自然属性出发： 针对所有人类语言的语音研究，属于语音学研究。从社会属性出发，针对语音在某一个具体语言的系统中起什么作用的研究，属于音系学的研究， 8、"语言的四要素：
音高、音强、音长、音质 9、音位： 答：音位是从社会功能的角度划分出来的语音单位，它是特定的语言或方言中具有区别意义作用的最小语音单位。 音位变体答： 同属于一个音位的不同音素就叫做“音位变体”。音位变体又可分为“条件变体”和“自由变体”。条件变体是指出现的语音环境各不相同而又同属一个音位的两个或几个音素。自由变体是指可以在同一语音环境里出现而又不能区别意义的两个或几个音素。 1 0、"语法规则的表现形式： 组合规则、聚合规则 11、"语法单位的四级单位： 语素、词、词组、句子 12、"词缀与词根的位置关系： 答： 前缀： 粘附在词根前面的词缀。后缀： 粘附在词根后面的词缀。中缀： 插入词根中的词缀。例如： 第一中的“第“小刀子中的子 13、"组合的递归性和开放性？(简答题)
答： “递归”指的是相同的规则可以在一个结构里重复使用。语言中句子的格式和长度各不相同，而且抽象也不能使新的规则不断地衍生，这样就需要让一种规则多次起作用。语法规则实际上就是一种有限手段可以重复使用的规则。语法规则的这种递归性质，使它成为一种简明的规则，帮助人们学习语言和运用语言时举一反三，以繁驭简。 1 4、"形态的定义？ 答： 在有些语言中，词与词组合是形式要发生变化。同一个词与不同的词组合就有不同的变化。这些变化形成一个聚合。叫做形态。 1 5、"语法范畴概念？包括（性、数） 答： 根据某些语法意义的共同内容，把语法意义概括为几个基本类别，这种语法意义的类就叫做“语法范畴”。语法范畴可以分为“词法范畴”和“句法范畴”两大类。主要由词的变化形式表示的语法意义就属于词法范畴。词法范畴又分为“体词属性范畴”和“谓词属性范畴”两类。常见的体词属性范畴有： （1）性； （2）数； （3）格； （4）有定和无定。常见的谓词属性范畴有： （1）时； （2）体；
对外汉语专业《语言学概论》课程教学大纲 一、课程说明 ◆课程编码：010209 ◆课程总学时（理论总学时/实践总学时）：48 ◆周学时（理论学时/实验学时）：3 ◆学分：3分 ◆开课学期：第三学期。 二、课程性质： 《语言学概论》是高等院校汉语言文学专业本科的一门专业基础理论课程，是语言理论基础课。 它从理论上探讨人类语言的本质、结构和演变的规律。主要讲授语言的普遍特征和规律，以介绍语言的共性为主，不同于以专门或具体语言为研究对象的课程，如现代汉语、古代汉语等。 三、适用专业与学时分配： ◆适用于：对外汉语、汉语言文学专业 ◆课程教学总学时48学时，其中授课48学时，实验0学时。
四、课程教学目的与要求： 1.教学目的： 通过本课程的学习，要求学生能够树立科学的语言观，获得语言学的基础知识和基本理论，并且初步具备运用语言学的科学方法分析语言现象的能力，为进一步学习语言理论、进行语言研究奠定基础。 2.教学要求： ◆掌握：要求学生能够全面、深入地理解并熟练掌握所学内容，能够用其分析、设计和解答类 似问题，能举一反三。 ◆理解：要求学生能够较好地理解和掌握，并且能够进行简单分析和判断。 ◆了解：要求学生能一般地认知所学内容。 五、课程教学方法与手段： 理论教学：以教师讲授为主，力求贯彻理论联系实际的原则，结合练习、讨论和论文写作等方式，帮助学生系统掌握的语言学基础理论。 六、课程考试方法与要求： ◆课程考核方法为：平时考核与期末考核相结合的方法。本课程学期总成绩为：作业成绩占学 期成绩的20%，课堂练习占学期成绩的10%，期末考试成绩则占学期成绩的70%。 七、推荐教材及参考书： 课程教材：《语言学纲要》叶蜚声、徐通锵著1997年版北京大学出版社 参考书目：（1）邢福义等《语言学概论》，华中师范大学出版社2002年版。 （2）胡明扬《语言与语言学》，语文出版社2004年版。 （3）胡明扬《语言学概论》，语文出版社2000年版。 （4）[美]布龙菲尔德《语言论》，商务印书馆1985版； （5）[美]弗罗姆金、罗德曼《语言导论》，北京语言学院出版社1994版； （6）卫志《当代跨学科语言学》，北京语言学院出版社1992版； （7）邵敬敏、方经民《中国理论语言学史》，华东师范大学出版社1991版（1） （8）罗常陪等《普通语音学纲要》，商务印书馆1998年版。 （9）胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版中译本），北京大学出版社2002年版。 （10）彭泽润等《语言理论》，中南大学出版社2000年版。 （11）王刚《普通语言学基础》，湖南教育出版社1988年版。
语言学纲要讲义笔记 导言 一、语言的定义 语言是人类最重要的交际工具和思维工具、是由音义结合的词汇和语法构成的一种符号系统。 二、语言学的对象和任务 语言学是研究语言的科学。 要把语言学跟语文学区分开来 中国传统语文学——“小学” 小学是我国古代语文学的统称，由训诂学、文字学、音韵学三部分组成。 在古印度，公元前4世纪，著名学者潘尼尼在整理、注释婆罗门教经典《吠陀》时，写了一本《梵语语法》，提出3996条规则，被人们称为最完备的语法书。在古希腊，伯拉图和亚里斯多德是从哲学的角度来研究语言的，他们讨论了词为什么具有意义等内容。 三、语言学在科学体系中的地位 语言学既是一门古老的科学，又是一门年轻的科学。 1、与社会科学、自然科学的联系 语言研究的成果是哲学、历史学、考古学、文学、政治学、经济学、逻辑学、社会学、民族学、计算机科学等学科所必须利用的，可见语言研究在这些社会科学中已占重要地位。 语言学与其他学科相交叉产生社会语言学、心理语言学、计算语言学、生物语言学、模糊语言学、实验语音学等。如：运用语言传递信息的过程，可分为五个阶段： 编码——发送——传递——接收——解码 对这一具体过程的解释需要结合物理学、生理学、心理学等其他学科的知识。三、语言学的基本类别 总体上，根据研究对象的不同，语言学可以分为理论语言学和应用语言学两大类。（一）理论语言学可分为： 1、一般/普通语言学
2、个别/具体语言学 具体语言学 （1）历时语言学 （2）共时语言学 （二）应用语言学 1、社会语言学：研究语言与社会集团的关系。如地域方言、社会方言、语言的接触、语言规划等。 2、心理语言学：研究儿童语言习得、语言的接收和发生过程，等。 3、神经语言学 最近二十年才从心理语言学中分离出来的一门新的学科，主要研究语言和大脑结构的关系，中心是大脑如何生成语言。 此外，还有数理语言学、统计语言学、实验语音学等。 第一章语言的功能 第一节语言的社会功能 一、语言的信息传递功能 信息传递功能是语言的最基本的社会功能。 人类还借助语言之外的其他形式传递信息，它们是文字，旗语，信号灯，电报代码，数学符号，化学公式等等。 身势等伴随动作等是非语言的信息传递形式。 身势等非语言的形式多半是辅助语言来传递信息； 文字是建立在语言基础之上的最重要的再编码形式； 旗语之类是建立在语言或文字基础之上的再编码形式； 语言是人类社会信息传递第一性的、最基本的手段，是最重要的交际工具。二、语言的人际互动功能 语言的社会功能的另一个重要方面是建立或保持某种社会关联，这就是语言的人际互动功能。互动包括两个方面：一个是说话者在话语中表达自己的情感、态度、意图，另一方面这些又对受话者施加了影响，得到相应的语言或行动上的反馈，从而达到某种实际效果。
语言学概论课程教学大纲 大纲说明 一、课程的性质、教学目的和任务 语言学概论是汉语言文学专业的一门必修的专业基础课，研究语言的性质、结构规律、演变规律以及语言与文字的关系等方面的问题。学生通过本课程的学习，能比较系统地掌握语言学的基本概念、基本理论和基础知识，为提高语言理论水平、进一步学习和深入研究其他语言课程奠定必要的语言理论基础。 本课程课内学时为54，共3学分，开设一个学期。 二、教学内容及要求 本课程包括导言、语言的社会功能、语言是符号系统、语音、语法、词义、文字和书面语、语言随着社会的发展而发展、语言的接触、语言系统的发展十个部分，每个部分根据学习内容要求再分若干章节，循序渐进，便于学生学习掌握。 教学中要讲清楚语言学的基本概念，使学生通过学习能比较系统地掌握语言学的基础知识，了解语言与社会的关系、语言的结构、语言的演变规律、文字的性质以及它与语言的关系等方面的内容。 三、教学媒体的使用 (一)文字教材的使用 本课程以叶蜚声和徐通锵编写的《语言学纲要》为基本教材，另外有《语言学纲要学习指导书》作为配套的辅助教材。《纲要》是编制教学媒体、组织教学和复习考试的主要依据。《学习指导书》对主教材的重点、难点内容再作补充分析和阐释；另外还根据教材和课程教学的要求编拟了一套内容丰富、形式多样的综合练习。 (二)音像教材的使用 本课程录像课为重点辅导型，主要讲授学生难以理解的重点、难点问题，以及需要通过电视手段直观演示的内容，使学生通过电视课的直观教学加深对语言基础理论的认识。录像课为IP电视，学生可以通过互联网收看并下载存储。 (三)计算机课件 本课程计算机课件(CAI)为网络版，主要用于网上教学辅导。采用超文本手段，将文字、图形、图像、动画等多种信息组织在一起，并通过其独有的超级链接方式相互指向，构成一个具有立体感的整体教学系统，以方便学生阅读、浏览。本课程的教学是信息的集合，运用这种方式，学生解疑释难非常方便，因此课件网络版将是本课程最重要的辅导方式。学生学习这门课程，可以随时借助计算机网络课件解疑释难，解决自学中碰到的问题。 网络课件的主要内容由三部分构成：一是重点难点问题分析，二是各章综合练习题与自测，三是拓宽学生知识面的内容，介绍语言学流派和语言学名家名著，以使学生开启视野，扩展知识，提高水平。网络版课件内容逐级逐层链接，学生可以根据学习需要自由选择。 此外，通过电子邮件的方式对学生进行个别辅导。 四、教学建议 (一)主教材《语言学纲要》是以组合关系、聚合关系这两个概念为纲组织相关的内容，尽可能使复杂的语言现象条理化、系统化。因此教学中要紧扣这两个概念，使学生能以此为视角去观察语言的结构，掌握语言学的基础理论知识。 (二)学习普通语言学，需要学生有一定的具体语言学方面的知识为基础，这样才能便于理解有关问题。与本课程相关联的课程有：专科阶段的《现代汉语》、《古代汉语》，本科阶段的《汉语专题》、《语法研究》、《汉语倏学》、《英语》等。尤其是有关汉语的知识，学生必须具备，如果学生在专科阶段学的是非中文专业，一定要补修有关课程，否则很难学好本课程。
社会语言学教学大纲 课程名称：社会语言学 课程类别：专业选修课编号：学时：54 编者姓名：单位：人类学系职称：讲师 主审姓名：单位：人类学系职称：教授 授课对象：本科生专业：人类学年级：三年级 编写日期： 2007年1月 一、课程目的与教学基本要求 介绍社会语言学的理论、方法及应用。主要内容有：语言变异、言语交际、语言接触、双语以及语文规划等等。让学生掌握一定的社会语言学理论，并能结合社会语言现状（如我国的双语双言现象、语文规划政策等）思考、探讨社会中的语言现象。 二、课程主要内容及时间安排 一、社会语言学的兴起、研究范围、对象、途径、目标计2学时。 二、应用社会语言学的若干方面，语言与经济、政治、双语教学、语言与法律事务计4学时。 三、语言变体，语言与方言；地域方言和社会方言；标准变体和非标准变体；语体和语域计4学时。 四、言语共同体，交际能力计2学时。 五、语言变异，阶级、阶层与语言差异，性别与语言差异计4学时。 六、社会网络与语言差异计2学时。 七、言语交际，对称呼的研究计4学时。 语言区域与文化区域 八、对礼貌的研究，会话分析计2学时。 九、语言接触，双语和多语现象计4学时。 十、语码转换和语码混合，语言干扰计2学时。 十一、洋泾浜语和克里奥耳语计4学时。 十二、语言的扩散和海外体英语计2学时。 十三、语文规划，语文规划的特点和意义，语文规划的类别、步骤计4学时。
十四、我国语文规划的情况，汉语、汉文及少数民族语言和文字计2学时。 十五、语言变项的描写和研究，变项规则，定量研究计4学时。 十六、收集语料的方法和技术，语言变项的定义扩展计4学时。 十七、变项规则分析方法计2学时。 三、课程实习 拟于学期中安排一次。要求学生对家乡的语言构成、语言运用的特点，从多语、多言的角度进行观察，写成报告，并于课堂讨论。计入平时成绩。计2学时。 四、主要参考书目 1、社会语言学上海外教出版社 Spolsky 2000 2、社会语言学与语言教学上海外教出版社 Hornberger 2001 3、拉波夫语言自选集语言大学拉波夫 2001 4、社会语言学教程复旦大学游汝杰、邹嘉彦 2004 5、社会语言学概论湖南教育出版社祝畹瑾 1992 6、Hudson,R.A, Sociolinguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990
导言 一、填空题 1.语言学是研究语言的学科，语言是语言学的研究对象。语言学的基本任务是研究人类语言的规律，使人们懂得关于语言的理性知识。 2.中国、印度、希腊—罗马是语言学的三大发源地。 3.我国传统语言学包括文字学、音韵学、训诂学等三门分支学科，合称“小学”。 二、判断题 1.综合各种语言的基本研究的成果，归纳成语言的一般规律，这是具体语言学的任务。（错） 2.世界上有几千种语言，有些语言的研究已经比较深入，大部分语言的研究还很不够，甚至还没有人去研究。（对） 三、名词解释 1.普通语言学 以人类一般语言为研究对象，探究人类语言的起源、发展、本质。探究人类语言内部结构的共性及普遍规律的语言学门类。 2.应用语言学 狭义的应用语言学指语言教学、文字的创制和改革、正音正字、词典编纂等，广义的应用语言学还包括与计算机有关的及其翻译、情报检索、语音识别、自然语言处理等。 3.小学 在中国古代，小学先从教授字的形、音、义开始，就把研究文字、训诂、音韵方面的学问统称为小学。小学一直是经学的一部分，包括音韵学、训诂学、文字学三个分支学科。 第一章 一、填空题 1.从语言的社会功能上看，语言是人类独有的最重要的交际和思维的工具；从语言的内部结构上看，语言是一套音义结合的符号。 2.文字是建立在语言基础之上的最重要的辅助交际工具，旗语之类是建立在语言和文字基础上的特殊领域的辅助交际工具。 二、判断 1.从理论上来说，句子的长度是可以无限的。（对） 2.语言是文字基础上产生的人类最重要的交际工具。（错） 3.文字始终是从属于语言的。（错） 4.思维离不开语言，语言也离不开思维。（对） 5.语言和思维互相依存共同发展。（对） 6.在现代社会，文字比语言更加重要。（错） 7.文字也是人类最重要的交际工具。（错） 8.语言是组成社会的一个不可缺少的因素。（对） 9.会不会说话是人类和动物的根本区别之一。（对） 10．思维能力是全人类共同的，语言是各民族不同的。（对） 11.思维离不开语言，聋哑人不能掌握语言，所以聋哑人不能进行思维。（错） 三、单向选择题 1.下列说法只有（）正确。 A.语言是一种心理现象。 B.语言是一种具有阶级性的特殊社会现象。 C.没有语言，利用文字照样可以进行交际。 D.在语言的辅助交际工具中，文字是最重要的。