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Recently, the interest in the influence of emotion on pain

Recently, the interest in the influence of emotion on pain
Recently, the interest in the influence of emotion on pain

Emotional pain modulation: an effect of emotion, attention or empathy for pain?

Lieke J.F. Asma

University of Twente, Behavioral Sciences,

Cognitive Psychology and Ergonomics

Enschede, December 4, 2008

Dr. Rob H.J. van der Lubbe, University of Twente

Dr. Marijtje L.A. Jongsma, Radboud University

Abstract

In this study it was explored whether pain perception is influenced by emotion, attention and / or empathy for pain using somatosensory-evoked potentials (SEPs). It was expected that valence effects will be found on the early negative peak of the SEP (N1) and attention effects were found on the later positive peak (P2). Furthermore, effects of arousal and empathy for pain can be expected, but the temporal characteristics of arousal and empathy for pain were not clear. Two stimulus intensities, painful and nonpainful, and three emotional conditions, pain-related, neutral and pleasant, were used. Nineteen students participated in the experiment (ten males, mean age 20.8). Emotional and neutral pictures (in total 120) of the IAPS and pain-related pictures from previous experiments were used. For N1, significant main effects of intensity and electrode were found. For P2, significant main effects of emotion and intensity were found, with highest amplitudes for neutral pictures. For both N1 and P2, activity was larger for painful stimuli. Electrophysiological source analysis shows that activity is found in SI/SII, multisensory cortex and ACC, with highest activation for painful conditions. This experiment showed that emotional pictures captured attention and therefore less attention was focused on the pain.

Introduction

Recently, the interest in the influence of emotion on pain is growing. Since the introduction of the gate control theory of pain (Melzack & Wall, 1965), the focus has changed from a one-to-one relationship between stimulus characteristics and pain perception to the multidimensional experience pain is (Melzack, 1999; 2001). The definition of pain also clarifies that pain is more than just potential tissue damage. The International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP) defines pain as: ‘an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage’ (Tracey & Mantyh, 2007). The ‘objective’ presence or potential for, tissue damage is defined as nociception (Rainville, 2002). Because of the subjectivity of pain, it can be expected that pain perception is modulated by many factors within the brain. For example, the effects of emotion and attention on pain were extensively studied (de Wied & Verbaten, 2001; Kenntner-Mabiala, Andreatta, Wieser, Muhlberger & Pauli, 2008; Villemure & Bushnell, 2002).

Although there has been published a number of papers with respect to modulation of pain experiences, Electroencephalographic (EEG) papers with respect to this topic are rare. EEG studies revealed information about the temporal characteristics of pain perception in the cortex. In most studies, the activation in different brain regions evoked by stimulation was used to study pain. These somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) bring out the direct change in activation after stimulation. Studies showed that the waveform of pain SEPs consists of a negative peak at 100-240 ms (N1 / N2) and a positive peak at 200-390 ms (P2 / P3) (Christmann, Koeppe, Braus, Ruf & Flor, 2007; Kakigi, Watanabe & Yamasaki, 2000; Kanda et al., 2002; Zaslansky, Sprecher, Katz, Rozenberger, Hemli & Yarnitsky, 1996a; Zaslansky, Sprecher, Tenke, Hemli & Yarnitsky, 1996b). These characteristics were not found when the stimulation was not painful and it can therefore be stated that these brain activations are related to pain (Kakigi et al., 2000). The early negative peak is thought to be mainly influenced by stimulus intensity (Christmann et al., 2007), while the later positive peak is thought to be influenced by emotional-motivational aspects of pain (Chen, 2001; Zaslansky et al., 1996a). Imaging techniques such as functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) increased the knowledge about brain regions involved in pain perception and have mapped the so-called ‘ pain matrix’ in the brain. According to Chen (2001), Peyron, Laurent & Garcia-Larrea (2000), Rainville (2002) and Schnitzler and Proner (2000) the most important brain regions involved the processing of pain are the primary somatosensory

cortex (SI), the secondary somatosensory cortex (SII), the insula, the thalamus and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). SI and SII are thought to be involved in the sensory-discriminative dimension of pain (Chen, 2001; Peyron et al., 2000; Rainville, 2002; Schnitzler et al., 2000; Treede, Kenshalo, Gracely & Jones, 1999), whereas affective, cognitive and motivational elements of pain are thought to be processed in ACC and thalamus (Chen, 2001; Petrovic & Ingvar, 2002; Peyron et al., 2000; Price, 2000; Rainville, 2002; Schnitzler et al., 2000; Tracey, 2005; Treede et al., 1999). The insula is stated to have a wide variety of functions in both the sensory-discriminative and affective-motivational dimension of pain (Peyron et al., 2000; Schnitzler et al., 2000; Tracey, 2005; Treede et al., 1999). Research also shows a relationship between SEPs and brain regions involved in pain. Christmann et al. (2007) found that BOLD effects in SI, SII and ACC corresponded with the SEP components found. Other researchers used source analysis and found the following relationships between SEPs and brain locations: early activation originated from SI (< 110 ms post stimulus) and SII ( < 160 ms) and a late source was located in the cingulated region (200 – 300 ms) (Bromm & Chen, 1995; Tarkka & Treede, 1993). In this study, the effect of emotional modulation on pain processing in the brain was examined using somatosensory-evoked potentials (SEPs). Literature shows four possible explanations for the emotional modulation of pain: an influence of valence, arousal, attention and empathy for pain. In the section below, the different explanations are examined and hypotheses for the present study are presented.

Research shows that emotion influences pain processing (Villemure et al., 2002). In the last decade, the emotion-pain research focused mostly on the emotional priming theory (Lang, 1995). According to this theory, two emotional systems can be active: the appetitive and the aversive system. Activation of one of the two is influenced by valence (pleasant/appetitive –unpleasant/aversive) and the level of activation is influenced by the degree of arousal: the higher the degree of arousal, the higher the level of activation of the brain and the body. According to Barry, Clarke, McCarthy, Selikowitz & Rushby (2005) arousal is defined as: ‘the current energetic level of the organism’. If one of these systems is activated (through emotional pictures, odors, films, etc), processing of a subsequent similarly valenced stimulus is processed more thoroughly. This means that evoked negative emotions lead to a more thorough processing of painful stimulation. The International Affective Picture System (IAPS) (Lang, Bradley &

Cuthbert, 2005) is convenient for this type of research. The IAPS consists of a standardized set of pictures systematically varied on the two major dimensions of emotion: valence and arousal (Lang, 1995). Most of the pain research in recent years supported the emotional priming theory: overall, negative emotions lead to lower pain thresholds and positive emotions lead to higher pain thresholds (de Wied et al., 2001; Kenntner-Mabiala & Pauli, 2005; Meagher, Arnau & Rhudy, 2001; Rainville, Bao & Chrétien, 2005; Rhudy, McCabe & Williams, 2007; Rhudy, Williams, McCabe, Rambo & Russell, 2006; Zelman, Howland, Nichols & Cleeland, 1991). Previous SEP research on pain and emotion showed that the negative valence leads to higher amplitudes for painful stimulation on N1 of the SEP (Kenntner-Mabiala et al., 2005). According to Tarkka et al. (1993), Bromm et al. (1995) and Christmann et al. (2007), activation is associated with activity in SI and SII. Not only valence, but also arousal contributes to pain perception. According to the emotional priming theory and research on emotional modulation of pain, the level of arousal only influences the magnitude of effect for the negative or positive state someone is in (Lang, 1995; Rhudy, Williams, McCabe, Russell & Maynard, 2008).

Previous research on the influence of emotion on pain perception showed that also arousal can have a distinct effect on pain perception (Kenntner-Mabiala, Gorges, Alpers, Lehmann & Pauli, 2007). In this study, the effect of music on pain perception was examined. Fast music was found to be more arousing and higher pain ratings were found for fast music; no significant effects of the emotional valence the music induced were found. This research showed that higher levels of arousal independently can lead to lower pain thresholds.

Although valence and arousal are the two dimensions of emotion and are most likely to influence pain perception through emotional modulation, emotion can also influence pain perception because of the distracting properties of emotional materials (Meagher et al., 2001; Rhudy & Meagher, 2000, 2003). Previous studies showed that emotional pictures (unpleasant or pleasant and scoring high on arousal) were processed more thoroughly than neutral pictures (low in arousal) (Cuthbert, Schupp, Bradley, Birbaumer & Lang, 2000; Lang, 1995; Schupp, Cuthbert, Bradley, Hillman, Hamm & Lang, 2004). According to Keil, Bradley, Hauk, Rockstroh, Elbert & Lang (2002) and Schupp et al. (2004), emotional pictures are motivationally relevant and therefore automatically demand attention. Kenntner-Mabiala et al. (2005) found that the P260 amplitudes were diminished for positive and negative pictures, showing the largest amplitude for neutral pictures. Most experiments showed an effect of attention on later positive components (>

200 ms) (Yamasaki, Kakigi, Watanabe & Hoshiyama, 2000), indicating a change in activation for ACC (Kenntner-Mabiala et al., 2005; Legrain, Guérit, Bruyer & Plaghki, 2002). Kenntner-Mabiala et al. (2008) state that this effect was caused by the level of arousal of the pictures.

Two experiments by de Wied et al. (2001) showed the content of the emotional cue can also have an influence on pain processing. Participants seeing pictures of people in pain had low pain thresholds; in contrast, negative pictures without a painful element seemed to have the same effect on pain thresholds as neutral pictures. According to Preston and de Waal (2002), perception of emotion activates the neural mechanisms that are responsible for the generation of emotions, described as the perception action model. This can also be the case for observing pain or ‘empathy for pain’ (Fan & Han, 2008; Singer, Seymour, O’Doherty, Kaube, Dolan & Frith, 2004; Ushida et al., 2008). The recent growing neuroscientific research on empathy for pain contributes to the knowledge about the effects of observed pain on brain areas involved in actual pain. From research on empathy for pain, it is clear that seeing someone else in pain activates the brain regions involved in the emotional-motivational aspects of pain: the ACC, insula and thalamus (Botvinick, Jha, Bylsma, Fabian, Solomon & Prkachin, 2005; Fan et al., 2008; Jackson, Brunet, Meltzoff & Decety, 2006; Jackson, Meltzoff and Decety, 2005; Morrison & Downing, 2007; Morrison, Lloyd, di Pellegrino & Roberts, 2004; Singer et al., 2004). But, researchers also found activation in the SI during processing of pain of others (Bufalari, Aprile, Avenanti, Di Russo & Aglioti, 2007). Not many researchers have examined the effects of empathy for pain on pain processing yet. Godinho, Magnin, Perchet and Garcia-Larrea (2006) found that pictures showing physical pain content enhanced SEP amplitudes in comparison to unpleasant pictures without reference towards pain. The effect was found later than 270 ms. Valeriani et al (2008) showed that observation of needle penetration reduced the N1/P1 component of the SEP, indicating effects of empathy for pain on SI and SII. The effects were explained by the competitive influence of the observed pain stimuli and painful stimulation. So, both Godinho et al. (2006) and Valeriani et al. (2008) found effects of empathy for pain on SEPs, but the temporal characteristics remain a topic for discussion.

In this study, SEPs were used to examine the effects of valence, arousal, attention and empathy for pain on the cortical processing of pain. Emotional pictures were varied on valence, arousal and pain-related content. Three emotional picture conditions were used: pain-related (unpleasant),

neutral and pleasant. In contrast to other studies on emotional modulation of pain (Godinho et al., 2006; Kenntner-Mabiala et al., 2005; 2008), also pain-related and pleasant pictures varied significantly on arousal. According to Kanda et al. (2002), it is important to randomize stimulus intensities for reliable pain research. Therefore in this study, nonpainful and painful electrical stimuli were used. Furthermore, it is interesting to examine if the effects of emotion only influence painful stimuli or also nonpainful stimuli. Kenntner-Mabiala et al. (2005; 2008) used the same paradigm and found larger amplitudes for painful stimuli on both N1 and P2. Furthermore, in both studies, an effect of emotion on N1 is only found for painful stimuli.

Figure 1. The four hypotheses in diagrams.

In figure 1, the four hypotheses are displayed. If pain perception is influenced by valence, effects were expected on N1 with highest amplitudes for pain-related pictures and lowest for pleasant pictures, which is associated with activation from SI and SII. For attention, effects were expected on P2 with highest amplitudes for neutral pictures and lowest for pain-related pictures, associated with activation in ACC (Christmann et al., 2007; Kenntner-Mabiala et al., 2005; 2008). The literature was ambiguous on the effects of arousal and empathy for pain. In the case of arousal,

highest amplitudes were expected for pain-related pictures and lowest amplitudes for neutral pictures. If empathy for pain has an influence on pain perception, highest amplitudes were expected for pain-related pictures and low amplitudes are expected for neutral and pleasant pictures. Finally, if pain processing is not modulated by emotion, attention or empathy for pain, SEP amplitudes were expected to be the same for the different emotional conditions. It was hypothesized that only painful stimulation was modulated on N1. Previous studies by Kenntner-Mabiala et al. (2005; 2008) showed that the attention effects on P2 were present for both painful and nonpainful stimuli.

Methods

Participants

Twenty students of the University of Twente participated in the study. One participant was excluded because of knowledge of the pictures used in the experiment. Of the other nineteen participants ten were male. The mean age was 20.8 (range 18 to 25 years). The participants were recruited on the University of Twente. Most of the students were first- and second year Social Science students and they received credits for participation; seven subjects participated voluntarily. None of the participants had a neurological or psychiatric history or recent symptoms. Furthermore, they had normal or corrected-to-normal vision, were free of pain and used no pain medication at the time of the experiment. The study was approved by the ethics committee of the Radboud University (Nijmegen) and the University of Twente. All the participants were right-handed.

Visual stimuli

In total, 120 pictures were used in the experiment, of which 40 had a neutral content, 40 were pleasant and 40 were used in the pain-related category. 84 of the pictures were selected from the International Affective Picture System. The IAPS does not consist of sufficient pictures consisting physical pain, therefore 36 pictures from other researchers were used. Nine were used from the study of Ogino, Nemoto, Inui, Saito, Kakigi and Goto (2006), which are pictures consisting arms and hands pricked with needles. Also, 27 pictures from a study of Jackson, et al. (2006) were used. These pictures present right hands and feet in painful situations (i.e. foot in glass, foot in fire, hand between car door, etc.). The 36 pictures from other experiments were first validated in two pretests to establish valence and arousal levels and pain-relatedness.

After picture selection, two sets of 120 pictures were validated in a pilot experiment. Each set consisted of 40 pain-related pictures, 40 pleasant pictures and 40 neutral pictures selected from the IAPS (Lang et al., 2005) and pictures from previous experiments by Jackson et al. (2006) and Ogino et al. (2006). In total, 204 participants (62 male, mean age 20.7 years (SD = 3.7)) participated in the second pretest. A group of 100 participants evaluated the first picture set and 104 participants rated the second picture set on valence and arousal. In this experiment, the pictures were only rated on one scale by a participant to overcome interscale effects. Furthermore, some participants rated the pictures on inverted scales. The second picture set was

chosen because the three subsets differ more on valence and arousal. Below, the mean scores for the used picture set are presented.

Table 1. Mean scores and standard deviations for the three subsets.

Figure 2. Diagram of the picture set; mean scores for the subsets are shown.

The three emotional picture conditions vary significantly on both valence (pain and neutral: t = 31.9, p < 0.001; pain and pleasant: t = -40.5, p < 0.001; neutral and pleasant: t =-15.9, p < 0.001) and arousal (pain and neutral: t = -39.4, p < 0.001; pain and pleasant: t = 14.4, p < 0.001; neutral and pleasant: t =-13.9, p < 0.001).

Electrical stimuli

The Constant Current Stimulus Generator (2005.101) from the Radboud University in Nijmegen was used to generate electrical stimuli. During the experiment, two types of electrical stimuli were used: nonpainful (below pain threshold) and painful (above pain threshold). Nonpainful and painful stimuli differed in number of pulses: in the nonpainful condition 1 pulse was used and in

the painful condition the same pulse was sent out 5 times. Pulse duration for both conditions was 2 ms and time between pulses for the painful condition was 5 ms. Before the experiment, the value used in the experiment was decided using the five electrical stimuli and the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) scale. A series of stimuli were presented, starting with 0.1 mA and heightened in steps of 0.1 mA until pain tolerance level (VAS 10) was reached. Sensation level (mean: 0.5 mA), pain threshold (mean: 1.0mA) and pain tolerance level (mean: 4.2 mA) were established for every participant. The value used during the experiment was set on 75% between the pain threshold and pain tolerance level. The mean electrical strength used in the experiment is 3.6 mA which participants rated 7.5 on VAS; well above pain threshold. On average, the nonpainful stimulus used in the experiment was rated 4.1 on VAS; below pain threshold. After the experiment, the painful stimulus was rated 6.9 on VAS and the nonpainful stimulus was rated 3.0 on VAS. Clearly, the electrical stimuli used in the experiment were respectively below and above pain threshold.

Task and procedure

After arrival in the experiment room, the participant received information about the experiment and signed the informed consent. The participant was asked about medicine use or recent pain experience. Participants experiencing pain or using pain medicine would be excluded from the study. After that, the participant filled in the Annett Handedness Inventory (Annett, 1970) and the Thayer mood scale. Before determination of the sensation level, pain threshold and pain tolerance level, the participant was informed about the EEG measurement and the Constant Current Stimulus Generator. The skin of the left forearm was smoothed and cleaned to reduce impedance. The electrodes for the electrical stimuli were filled with conducting gel and attached to the arm using tape (impedance levels were below 30 kOhm). Then, pain levels were established and the EEG electrodes were attached. After that, the experiment was started in Presentation. In figure 3, the sequence of events on every trial is presented. The interstimulus interval (ISI) was varied, to avoid anticipation as much as possible.

Figure 3. At the beginning of each trial, a fixation cross appeared on the middle of the screen for 5000ms. Then, the picture (S1) was presented. After that, between 3000ms and 3500ms, the electrical stimulus (S2) was given. In the mean time, the picture stayed on the screen, for another 3000ms. After the picture, the VAS was presented and the participants had to rate the pain intensity. Then, the next trial started and the fixation cross was presented again.

Table 2. The six conditions of the experiment.

Electrical stimuli

Emotional pictures

Painful Nonpainful Pain-related Pain-pain Pain-nonpain Neutral Neutral-pain Neutral-nonpain Pleasant Pleasant-pain Pleasant-nonpain

The 120 pictures were presented in four blocks of 30 pictures and 30 electrical stimuli. The electrical stimuli were equally divided over the different emotional pictures. For each of the six conditions, 20 trials were presented. In every block, 15 of the electrical stimuli were above pain

threshold and 15 were below pain threshold. After each block, the participant had a three minute break and impedance was checked. In total, the experiment took about two hours; over 1 hour of preparation and determination of pain values, 30 minutes for the actual experiment and 20 minutes of breaks and impedance checks. After the experiment, the pain levels were checked again and another Thayer mood scale was filled in. The participants were asked how they experienced the experiment; problems and other information were logged.

Data acquisition

A Pentium IV 3.00 Ghz computer was used with 1 G

B RAM and 128MB video memory. The screen had a resolution of 1024 x 768, 32 bit, 70 Hz and 96 dpi. The subjects sat at about 63 cm from the screen.

Continuous EEG was recorded from an electrode cap. Impedance at all recording electrodes was less than 10 kOhm. For the EEG measures, 61 channels were placed according to the international 10-20 system. In addition, three bipolar channels were used to record heart rate, horizontal and vertical eye movements. To measure vertical EOG, the electrodes were placed above and below the left eye; horizontal EOG was measured with electrodes placed to the left and right external canthus. The ground electrode was located on the forehead. EEG was measured with a sampling rate of 500Hz. Signals higher than 200Hz were cutoff and were not recorded. For each stimulus, visual and electrical, a digital code was sent to the continuous EEG, allowing offline segmentation and averaging of the raw EEG data.

Data analysis

Electrophysiological data

Data were processed using Brain Vision Analyzer (version 1.05). Epochs were created from the continuous EEG from 100 ms prior to the electrical stimulus and 500 ms poststimulus and were baseline corrected with reference to the mean baseline interval (-100 to 0 ms). Furthermore, trials were excluded using automatic (maximal allowed voltage step: 100 μV, minimal and maximal allowed amplitude: 120 μV, lowest allowed activity 0.5 μV, interval length: 100 ms) and ocular correction (vertical EOG: 120 μV, horizontal EOG: 60 μV). No participant was excluded on the basis of these corrections. For the nineteen participants, 7.24 % of the trials were excluded. After exclusion of trials, the data was averaged across each condition for each participant. Time

windows of 40 ms (+- 20 ms) of the Grand Averages were centered on the maxima of effects. Electrodes for further analysis were selected using previous literature on pain SEPs (Chen, 2001; Godinho et al., 2006; Kenntner-Mabiala et al., 2005, 2008; Zaslansky, 1996a, 1996b) and by visual inspection. For N1, the average amplitude of the time window 120-160 ms was used in the analysis. Furthermore, the average amplitude of the time window of 260-300 ms for P2 was selected. Both time windows were also found in previous studies (Chen, 2001; Kenntner-Mabiala et al., 2005, 2008; Zaslansky et al., 1996a, 1996b). It was decided to include the electrodes FCz, Cz, C3, C4 and PCz in the analysis. Three-way repeated measures ANOVA (intensity x emotion x electrode) was used; the electrodes with largest amplitudes on N1 and P2 were used for further analysis on emotion and intensity effects. An alpha level of .05 was used for all the statistical tests.

Electrophysiological source analysis

After the creation of grand averages for the six different conditions, the data were exported to Brain Electrical Source Analysis (BESA) to determine the contribution and level of activation of different brain areas for different time windows. Also, an overall grand average including all the six conditions was created to find an overall solution for the data. The global field power (GFP), a measure of changes in electric field strength, was used to identify the different processes contributing to the signal. Furthermore, previous research was used to support the locations found (Beauchamp, Argall, Bodurka, Duyn & Martin, 2004; Chen, 2001; Peyron et al., 2000; Rainville, 2002; Schnitzler et al., 2000). For every identified process two symmetrical dipoles were placed. The first time window was set on 62-92 ms, the second selected time window was 128-154 ms and the third time window was set on 182-202 ms. In the time window from 62 to 300 ms (including P2), the model explained 99.1% of the activation for all the conditions together. This model is applied to the six conditions to examine the amount of activation from the found locations for every condition. Principal component analysis was used to examine if the contribution of the different processes is the same for the six conditions.

Results

Electrophysiological data

A three-way repeated measures ANOVA was used to examine the effects of intensity (painful, nonpainful), emotion (pain-related, neutral, pleasant) and electrode (FCz, C3, Cz, C4, PCz) on cortical SEP amplitudes for N1 (120-160 ms) and P2 (260 – 300 ms). Figure 2 shows the Grand Average for painful and nonpainful stimuli. For the N1, highest amplitudes were found at C4. In figure 4, the mean amplitudes at C4 for painful and nonpainful are shown. For further analysis, C3 and C4 were included to examine effects of intensity, emotion and hemisphere. P2 had the highest amplitudes at the central sites: Cz, FCz and CPz; amplitude at Cz was highest and was used for further analysis. In figure 4 and 5, mean amplitudes at Cz for painful and nonpainful stimuli are displayed.

Figure 4. Mean amplitudes and CSD Figure 5. Mean amplitudes and CSD map at Cz on 280 ms for painful map at C4 on 140 ms for painful (black) (black) and nonpainful (red) stimuli.

and nonpainful (red) stimuli.

In the sections below, the effects for N1 at C3 and C4 and the effects for P2 at Cz are summed.

N1

The N1 amplitudes were higher for painful than for nonpainful stimuli, F (1, 19) = 9.3, p < 0.007. An effect of hemisphere was found, F (1, 19) = 5.2, p < 0.035, with the highest negative peak at C4 (p < 0.004). Effects of emotion were not significant F (2, 38) = 3.1, p < 0.061, but showed a

tendency towards higher amplitudes for the pain-related condition and lower for the pleasant condition. No interaction effects of emotion and intensity were found F (2, 38) = 0.6, p < 0.515. In figure 6 and 7, the amplitudes at C4 for painful and nonpainful stimuli for the three emotional conditions are displayed.

Figure 6. Grand Averages at C4 for painful Figure 7. Grand Averages at C4 for nonpainful

stimuli for the three emotional conditions: stimuli for the three emotional conditions:

pain-related (red), neutral (black) and pain-related (red), neutral (black) and

pleasant (green). pleasant (green).

P2

For P2 amplitudes, an effect of intensity was found, F (1, 19) = 62.1, p < 0.001, with higher amplitudes for painful than for nonpainful stimuli. Furthermore, an effect of emotion was found, F (2, 38) = 6.1, p < 0.009, with larger amplitudes for the neutral condition in comparison with the pleasant (p <0.001) and pain-related condition (p < 0.023). In figure 8 and 9, the Grand Averages for the three emotional conditions in the painful and nonpainful condition are displayed. In figure 10, the mean P2 amplitudes for the three emotional conditions are shown. No intensity x emotion effects were found, F (2, 38) = 0.3, p < 0.683.

Figure 8. Grand Averages at Cz for painful stimuli for the three emotional conditions: pain-related (red), neutral (black) and pleasant (green).

Figure 9. Grand Averages at Cz for nonpainful stimuli for the three emotional conditions: pain-related (red), neutral (black) and pleasant (green).

Figure 10. Mean P2 amplitude at Cz for painful and nonpainful stimuli for the three emotional conditions.

Electrophysiological source analysis

Grand Average SEPs were exported to BESA and an overall solution for the six conditions was established. The GFP was used to find the temporal characteristics of the different processes. Furthermore, the PCA were used to decide the number of processes and locations that contribute to the solution. In figure 11, the PCA for the six conditions from -100 ms to 500 ms is displayed. Three main sources were found, which means that three pairs of sources can explain the largest part of activation.

Figure 11. Principal component

Figure 12. Regional sources found for the six conditions analysis (PCA) for the six conditions together.

together. The red and (dark) blue locations represent SI/SII, Three main sources were found. the pink and green locations represent the multisensory cortex

and the brown and light blue locations represent the ACC. The solution found for the overall grand average consisted of three pairs of symmetrical locations. For the first time window (62-92 ms), the location was identified on the somatosensory cortices; a combination of activation in SI and SII. Activation was found to be higher for the right hemisphere, because of stimulation of the left forearm. In the second time window (128-154 ms), activity emerging from the multi-sensory cortex was found. In the last time window (182-202 ms), activation emerged from central/frontal sites indicating activation from ACC. The model explains 99.1% of the variance for the time window from 62 to 300 ms. In figure 12, the regional sources are displayed.

Figure 13. Source waveforms for all the conditions.

In figure 13, the source waveforms are displayed. As can be seen, activity on N1 was mainly from SI/SII and the multisensory cortex. The amplitude of P2 consisted of activation from all three sources: SI/SII, multisensory cortex and ACC.

The solution described above and presented in figures 11, 12 and 13 was used for the six different conditions. In order to compare the results found for the different conditions, it is important that the PCA is stable for the conditions; the number of components and the contribution of the different components should be the same. For this solution, that was the case. Three components were found and the contribution of the different components was comparable for the conditions: first component 89.3 - 91.0 %, second component 4.8 - 6.4 % and the third

component 2.5 - 3.4 %

2020初中开学第一课主题班会教案

2020初中开学第一课主题班会教案 教学目标: 1、了解校园安全隐患。 2、掌握安全知识,培养学生"珍爱生命,安全第一"的意识。 3、进行预防灾害,预防突发事情的教育。 教学重点:掌握安全知识,培养学生"珍爱生命,安全第一"的意识。 教学过程: 一、校园中存在的安全隐患。(请学生列举一些现象) 1、学生集会、集体活动、课间活动的安全隐患。 2、学生饮食、就餐的安全隐患。 3、学生交通安全隐患。 4、校园隐性伤害的隐患。 二、学生集会、集体活动、课间活动中应该注意的安全事项。 1、上下楼梯要注意什么? ①不要因为赶时间而奔跑。②在人多的地方一定要扶好栏杆。③整队下楼时要与同学保持一定距离。④上下楼时不要将手放在兜里。⑤不要在楼道内弯腰拾东西、系鞋带。⑥上下楼靠右行。 2、集体活动中要一切行动听指挥,遵守时间,遵守纪律,遵守秩序,语言文明。 3、课间活动应当注意什么? ①室外空气新鲜,课间活动应当尽量在室外,但不要远离教室,以免耽误下面的课程。 ②活动的强度要适当,不要做剧烈的活动,以保证继续上课时不疲劳、精力集中、精神饱满。 ③活动的方式要简便易行,如做做操等。 ④活动要注意安全,切忌猛追猛打,要避免发生扭伤、碰伤等危险。 三、学生饮食、就餐的安全注意事项。 不吃过期、腐烂食品,有毒的药物(如杀虫剂、鼠药等)要放在安全的地方。

禁止购买用竹签串起的食物:油反复使用,竹签容易伤人,食品卫生得不到保证,油炸食品有致癌物质。 四、交通安全注意事项。 1、行人靠右走,过马路要走斑马线,注意观察来往车辆,红灯停,绿灯行,遵守交通规则。 2、乘坐公交车注意事项: ①车停稳后,方能上下车,上下车时注意秩序,不要拥挤。 ②乘车时,要站稳扶牢,不要把身体任何部位伸出窗外,人多时,应该注意看管好自身物品,谨防扒手。 ③注意公共场所礼仪,不要大声喧哗,保持环境卫生,主动为老弱病残让座等。 五、其他校园安全的注意事项: 1、如何正确对待老师的批评,甚至误解? 敢于自我反省,认真反思。如果真是老师误解,应该和老师好好交流。切忌偏激,甚至做出什么过激的行动。 2、你与同学发生矛盾怎么办? 自己的所作所为也要有安全意识。青少年时期容易冲动,容易感情用事,因此,在同学间遇到矛盾时,一定要冷静,要理智,切忌用拳头代替说理,给自己和同学带来不良的后果。 3、如何加强教室安全? 要注意教室的安全。上课离开本班教室一定要关好门窗,要将钱和贵重物品带在身上,不能给小偷有可之机;不要把球带到教学楼,在教室楼的走廓上踢,这种行为既违反了校规,又存在着很大的安全隐患,试想一想,若把玻璃窗踢碎,玻璃片飞入哪一位同学的眼中,那后果是不堪设想的。 4、为什么不能提前到校? 校门没开,一些学生在校外发生矛盾,无人调解会造成不必要的伤害。 在校门外拥挤,会造成意外伤害。 5、当自己感到身体不适时,怎么办? 及时告知班主任或任课教师,与家长取得联系。

(完整版)初中主题班会教案

主题班会:我们携手走向明天 第一周星期一 一、组织目的: 1.在形成新集体时,同学之间难以融合,唯我独尊的现象严重,且同学之间还存在互不服气,相互排斥的不友好现象。针对此现象,按照校政教处的要求,组织以“我和我的集体”为中心的主题班会——《我们携手走向明天》,旨在增强集体凝聚力,唤起学生对集体的热爱、对同学的友爱之情。 2.力争通过此次班会,调动尽可能多的同学参与到建设一个积极向上、团结协作的集体中来。并在班会中发现同学们的特长,增进彼此的了解,促进友谊的发展。 二、准备步骤: 1.召开班委会,讲明以上目的。调动班委的积极性,出谋划策,着手准备。 2.主要负责人班长、宣委构思班会内容,注意从本班现实中搜集素材。 3.找班内有号召力的同学谈心,激发其参与活动的热情,并引导其在某些方面作表态。 4.审查班长、宣委的组织稿件。 5.审查有关人员的发言稿, 引导其从积极、正面的角度调动同学们爱集体、尊重他人的热情。 6.安排擅长绘画、书法的同学布置教室。 三、班会的具体步骤、安排: 1.班长致开幕词,提出第一个议题:“个人与集体有什么关系?当个人利益与集体利益发生冲突时你如何解决?” 2.提出第二个议题:“那么集体能不能改变个人,个人能不能改变集体呢?”——设计让持不同观点的人形成正、反方进行辩论。----做为此议题的总结发言。 3.设计几个小情景,引发全体同学参与讨论: (1)同桌在考试时传给你纸条,并问你题。 让学生各抒己见。 (2)一位同学上课写其他科作业被你发现,他对你说上次你犯错误他没告诉老师,并塞给你一块糖,李益尧的话做出结论:“宁可让他告诉老师我的错误,也要告诉老师他的错误,因为只有这样,我们才能同时改正错误,共同进步。” 4.又一个议题:“怎样和同学搞好关系,和睦相处”? 某同学:“首先,同学之间应互相谦让,不要小肚鸡肠,如果同学有不足,你要自己先做好,然后再友善地提出。” 5.“那么我们应怎样看待别人的优缺点呢?”张达送给大家几句话,‘有则改之,无则加勉’,‘择其善者而从之,其不善者而改之’,‘忠言逆耳利于行’,一定要虚心对待别人给自己指出的缺点。”-----班长不断提出议题,讨论进入高潮。 6.班主任谈感想:“……我们应统一思想,要牢记集体利益高于个人利益,……为了使我们共同进步,在对待别人缺点时,要勇敢指出他人缺点,当别人的优点受表扬时,应为他感到高兴,而且我们要团结,人人从自己做起,不应排斥别人,而应接纳别人,采纳别人的长处……

初中开学第一课主题班会活动教案

初中开学第一课主题班会活动教案 暑假过去,新的学期到来了,一个开学主题班会是很有必要举行的,下面由为大家的初中开学第一课主题班会活动教案,希望可以帮到大家! 一、班会目的: 1)初三面临着升学,学习是学生的天职,在新学期到来之时,让同学们进一步认识到应该以新的姿态、饱满的精神投入到新学期,努力去完成学习任务,在新学期中,展现自我,超越自我。最后以自己满意的成绩向社会回报,向学校回报,向父母回报。 2)新学期新开始,本学期无论在规范做人、纪律、还是融入集体等方面都要严格要求自己,把握新的起点,开始新的进步! 二、班会准备 1)每位同学写一份新学期新打算的演讲稿。(营销方案策划书) 2)班委会与全班同学一起讨论完善班级管理制度---《自拟班规》。 3)班委会代表发言, 学生代表发言, 学生自由发言。 三、班会活动过程: 班主任: 今天我们又迎来了一个新学期。这也是我们初中生活的最后一个学期,在这个新学期里,每个同学一定都有自己的计划和奋斗目标。

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操作性强,方法多样,体现了新课改理念,作业批改较及时认真,个别同志有 针对性评语,对学生进行详细评价,具有很大的促进作用。但也有个别同志教案过 于简单,不能完全体现新课改要求,设计不十分合理,需要大力改进。 理化生组: 大多数教师多为详案,书写认真,结构完整,节节有反思。作业有批有改,极 个别教师部分教案书写有点简单,内容空洞。 通过各组反馈情况,总结如下: 好的方面 1(总体检查情况良好,绝大多数老师能根据所任学科教材及班级实际备课、编 写教案,课时教案目标突出,渗透了新课程理念,以人为本,面向全体,积极倡导 自主、合作、探究的教学模式,有一定教学准备,过程清晰。 2(大部分老师的教案具有内容规范、项目填写齐全、突出重难点等优点,还体 现了学习方法、课后练习具有实效性,学习形式多样性的特点。 3(多数老师能根据教学对象和所教科目的不同、科学设计教案、能根据不同年龄、不同层次的学生,采取不同的内容和进度。 4(教学反思有一定的量,大部分老师课后发现有更好的上课思路、方法,能及 时写的备课本上,补上去或修改 2 / 12 精品文档 好,使下次备课更加完美,较有效地达到了反思的目的。 5多数教师能够认真对待作业的布置及批改这一环节;批改及时、认真,对于作业完成出色或有进步的学生能够给出激励性的评语,调动了学生的积极性;模块测试,单词测试,课文背诵检查到位及时. 存在的问题

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初中德育主题班会教案 学校德育是指教育者按照一定的社会或阶级要求,有目的、有计划、有系 统地对受教育者施加思想、政治和道德等方面的影响,小编收集了初中德育主 题班会教案,欢迎阅读。 初中德育主题班会教案【一】活动背景: 在当今的青少年学生中,不少人对应有的礼仪不重视,礼仪观念淡薄,导 致思想品德滑坡。一些人在学校里,不会尊重他人,不会礼让,不讲礼貌;在 社会上不懂怎样称呼他人,甚至随心所欲,满口粗言烂语;在家里不懂孝敬长辈,唯我独尊,为所欲为等形象屡见不鲜,这些现象不得不引起我们的深思。 青少年学习”礼仪”,要以学会尊重他人为起点,礼仪本身就是尊重人的外在表 现形式,”礼仪”从话里来,话从心中来,只有从内心尊重人,才会有得体的礼 仪言行,尊重他人是人与人接触的必要和首要态度。 活动目的: 1、通过看录像、听录音、阅读材料、讨论等系列活动,使学生懂得我们中华民族是世界闻名的”礼仪之邦”,讲文明礼貌是中华民族的优良传统,是做人的美德,更是一个现代文明人必须具备的美德。 2、通过主题班会活动,使学生继承优良传统美德,增强爱国情感,从小养成良好的行为习惯,初步树立社会责任感。2、把礼仪常规贯穿到歌谣、小品、朗诵等各种表演形式之中,让学生受到情趣的熏陶和思想品德的教育,懂得礼 仪对于每个学生成长的重要性。 活动准备: 1、开班会前,我们班开展一系列教育活动作为班会的前期铺垫:搜集中华文明礼仪的故事等资料;调查争做文明学生的做法。 2、关于学生礼仪的音像、文字材料。 3、环境布置(黑板、场地等)。 4、组织学生准备有关节目。

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