Ellis_1990 naturalistic language acquisition and classroom language learning

第二语言习得理论阅读书目1. Ellis．R. The Study of Second Language Acquisition［M］．Oxford Univ．Press，1994．2. Ellis．R．Understanding Second Language Acquisition［M］．Oxford Univ．Press，1985．3.Krashen.S. & T.Terrell., The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom[M],Oxford:Pergamon,1983.4.Krashen.S. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition[M], New York: PPergamon Press[M],, 1982.5. Brown. H. D. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Prentice Hall, Inc[M],1987.6.Cook. V. Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. Beijing: Foreign LanguageTeaching and Research Press[M], 2000.rsen-Freeman，D．and M．Long．An Introduction to Second Language AcquisitionResearch. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press[M], 2000.8.Littlewood.W. Foreign and Second Language Learning. Beijing: Foreign Language Teachingand Research Press[M], 2000.9.O’Malley.J & Chamot. A. U. Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. CambridgeCambridge University Press[M], 1990.10.Ramirez.A. Creating Contexts for Second Language Acquisition. New York: LongmanPublishers[M], 1995.11.Seliger.H. & Shohamy.E. Second Language Research Methods. Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress[M], 1989.12.12. Stern. H. Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress[M], 1983.13.蒋祖康，第二语言习得研究，北京：外语教学与研究出版社[M]，1999。

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Theory当代句法理论通览Chomsky，N Knowledge of Language：Its Nature，Origin，and Use语言知识：其性质、来源及使用Cook．V Chomsky's Universal Grammar：An Introduction Second edition乔姆斯基的普遍语法教程Ouhalla，J Introducing Transformational Grammar：From Principles and Parameters to Minimalism Second edition转换生成语法导论：从原则参数到最简方案Radford．A Syntax：A Minimalist Introduction句法学：最简方案导论Radford．A Transformational Grammar：A First Course转换生成语法教程Smith．N Chomsky：Ideas and Ideals乔姆斯基：思想与理想Semantics语义学Lappin，S．(ed) The Handbook of Contemporary Semantic Theory当代语义理论指南Lyons,J Linguistic Semantics An Introduction语义学引论Saeed，J．I Semantics语义学Morphology 形态学Matthews．P．H．Morphology Second edition形态学Packard，J．L The Morphology of Chinese：A Linguistic and Cognitive Approach 汉语形态学：语言认知研究法Pragmatics 语用学Mey，J．L． Pragmatic：An Introduction Second edition语用学引论Levinson．S．C Pragmatics语用学Peccei，J．S Pragmatics语用学Sperber，D．et al Relevance：Communication and Cognition Second edition关联性：交际与认知Verschueren，J Understanding Pragmatics语用学新解Discourse Analysis话语分析Brown．G．et al Discourse Analysis话语分析Gee，J．P An Introduction to Discourse Analysis: Theory & Method话语分析入门：理论与方法Philosophy 0f Language语言哲学Austin，J．L How to Do Things with Words Second edition如何以言行事Grice．H．P Studies in the Way of Words言辞用法研究Searle，J．R Speech Acts：An Essay in the Philosophy of Language言语行为：语言哲学论Searle，J．R Expression and Meaning：Studies in the Theory of Speech Acts 表述和意义：言语行为研究Language 0rigin语言起源Aitchison，J． The Seeds of Speech：Language Origin and Evolution言语的萌发：语言起源与进化History of Linguistics语言学史Robins，R．H． A Short History of Linguistics Fourth edition语言学简史Lexicography词典学Bej 0int，H Modern Lexicography：An Introduction现代词典学入门Cowie．A．P English Dictionaries for Foreign Learners：A History英语学习词典史Hartmann．R．R．K．et al Dictionary of Lexicography词典学词典Stylistics文体学Leech．G．N A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry英诗学习指南：语言学的分析方法Leech．G．N．et al Style in Fiction：A Linguistic Introduction to EnglishFictional Prose小说文体论：英语小说的语言学入门Thomborrow，J．et al Patterns in Language：Stylistics for Students of Languageand Literature语言模式：文体学入门Wright，L．et al Stylistics：A Practical Coursebook 实用文体学教程Typology语言类型学Croft．W． Typology and Universals语言类型学与普遍语法特征Anthropological Linguistics人类语言学Foley，W． An Anthropological Linguistics: An Introduction人类语言学入门Sociolinguistics 社会语言学Coulmas，F．(ed) The Handbook of Sociolinguistics社会语言学通览Crystal．D English as a Global Language英语：全球通用语Fasold．R The Sociolinguistics of Language社会语言学Hudson．R．A Sociolinguistics Second edition社会语言学教程Wardhaugh，R Introduction to Sociolinguistics Third edition社会语言学引论Psycholinguistics心理语言学Aitchison，J The Articulate Mammal：An Introduction to PsycholinguisticsFourth edition 会说话的哺乳动物：心理语言学入门Carroll．D．W Psychology of Language Third edition语言心理学Intercultural Communication文化交际Samovar．L．A．et al Communication Between Cultures Second edition跨文化交际Scollon．R．et aI． Intercultural Communication：A Discourse Analysis跨文化交际：语篇分析法Translatology 翻译学Taylor Baker．M． In Other Words：A Coursebook on Translation换言之：翻译教程Bell．R．T Translation and Translating：Theory and Practice翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践Cognitive Linguistics认知语言学Taylor，J．R Linguistic Categorization：Prototypes in Linguistic TheorySecond edition 语言的范畴化：语言学理论中的类典型Ungerer，F．et al An Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics认知语言学入门Functional Linguistics功能语言学Bloor．T．et al The Functional Analysis of English：A Hallidayan Approach英语的功能分析：韩礼德模式Halliday，M．A．K An Introduction to functional Grammar Second edition功能语法导论Leech．G．N Halliday，M．A．K Language as Social Semiotic：The Social Interpretationof Language and Meaning作为社会符号的语言：从社会角度诠释语言与意义Halliday，M．A．K．et al Cohesive English英语的衔接Thompson．G Introducing Functional Grammar功能语法入门Historical Linguistics历史语言学Lehmann，W．P． Historical Linguistics：An Introduction Third edition历史语言学导论Trask．R．L Historical Linguistics历史语言学Corpus Linguistics语料库语言学Biber．D．et a1． Corpus Linguistics 语料库语言学Kennedv，G． An Introduction to Corpus Linguistics语料库语言学入门Statistics in Linguistics语言统计学Woods．A．et al． Statistics in Language Studies 语言研究中的统计学History of the English Language 英语史Baugh．A．C．et al A History of the English Language Fourth Edition英语史Freeborn．D From old EnglishtoStandard Englishecond edition英语史：从古代英语到标准英语First Language Acquisition 第一语言习得Foster-Cohen，S．H． An Introduction to Child Language Development儿童语言发展引论Goodluck．H． Language Acquisition：A Linguistic Introduction从语言学的角度看语言习得Peccel，J．S． Child Language New edition 儿童语言Second Language Acquisition第二语言习得Cohen．A．D Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language学习和运用第二语言的策略Cook．V Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition语言学和第二语言习得Cook．V Second Language Learning and Language Teaching Second edition 第二语言学习与教学James，C Errors in Language Learning and Use：Exploring Error Analysis 语言学习和语言使用中的错误：错误分析探讨Larsen-Freeman．D．et a1 An Introduction Second Language Acquisition Research第二语言习得研究概况Nunan．D Second Language Teaching and Learning第二语言教与学Reid，J．M Learning Styles in the ESL／EFL Classroom ESL／EFL英语课堂上的学习风格Richards，J．C．et al Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms第二语言课堂教学反思Language Education语言教育Brown．H．D Principles of Language Learning and Teaching Third edition语言学习和语言教学的原则Brown．H．D Teaching by Principles： An Interactive Approach to LanguagePedagogy 根据原理教学：交互式语言教学Brown，J．D The Elements of Language Curriculum: A Systematic Approach to Program Development语言教学大纲要素：课程设计系统法Harmer，J How to Teach English怎样教英语Hatch，E．et a1 Vocabulary, Semantics and Language Education词汇、语义学和语言教育Johnson，K An Introduction to Foreign Language Learning and Teaching外语学习与教学导论Richards，J．et a1 Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching语言教学的流派Trudgill，P．et al International English Third edition英语：国际通用语Ur．P A Course in Language Teaching：Practice and Theory语言教学教程：实践与理论Research Method研究方法McDonotlgh，J．et al Research Methods for English Language Teachers英语教学科研方法Slade．C Form and Style：Research Papers，Reports，Theses Tenth edition如何写研究论文与学术报告Thomas，J．et al. (eds) Using Corpora，for Language Research用语料库研究语言Wray，A．et al Projects in Linguistics：A Practical Guide to Researching Language 语言学课题：语言研究实用指南Testing测试学Alderson，J．C．et al Language Test Construction and Evolution语言测试的设计与评估Bachman，L．F．et al Interfaces between Second Language Acquisition and LanguageTesting Research 第二语言习得与语言测试研究的接口Davies。

SLA 期末考试提纲Week 9Chapter 1 Introducing Second Language AcquisitionChapter 2 Foundations of Second Language AcquisitionPART ONE: Definition:1.Second Language Acquisition (SLA): a term that refers both to the study of individuals and groups who are learning a language subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language.2.Formal L2 learning: instructed learning that takes place in classrooms.rmal L2 learning: SLA that takes place in naturalistic contexts.4.First language/native language/mother tongue (L1): A language that is acquired naturally in early childhood, usually because it is the primary language of a child’s family. A child who grows up in a multilingual setting may have more than one “first” language.5.Second language (L2): In its general sense, this term refers to any language that is acquired after the first language has been established. In its specific sense, this term typically refers to an additional language which is learned within a context where it is societally dominant and needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes. The more specific sense contrasts with foreign language, library language, auxiliary (帮助的，辅助的) language, and language for specific purposes.6.Target language: The language that is the aim or goal of learning.7.Foreign language: A second language that is not widely used in the learners’ immediate social context, but rather one that might be used for future travel or other cross-cultural communication situations, or one that might be studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school with no immediate or necessary practical application.8.Library language: A second language that functions as a tool for further learning, especially when books and journals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learner’s L1.9.Auxiliary language: A second language that learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate sociopolitical setting. Or that they will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives.10.Linguistic competence: The underlying knowledge that speakers/hearers have of a language. Chomsky distinguishes this from linguistic performance.11.Linguistic performance: The use of language knowledge in actual production.municative competence: A basic tenet (原则、信条、教条) of sociolinguistics defined as “what a speaker needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particular language community” (Saville-Troike 2003)13.Pragmatic competence: Knowledge that people must have in order to interpret and convey meaning within communicative situations.14.Multilingualism: The ability to use more than one language.15.Monolingualism: The ability to use only one language.16.Simultaneous multilingualism: Ability to use more than one language that were acquired during early childhood.17.Sequential multilingualism: Ability to use one or more languages that were learned after L1 had already been established.18.Innate capacity: A natural ability, usually referring to children’s natural ability to learn or acquire language.19.Child grammar: Grammar of children at different maturational levels that is systematic in terms of production and comprehension.20.Initial state: The starting point for language acquisition; it is thought to include the underlying knowledge about language structures and principles that are in learners’ heads at the very start of L1 or L2 acquisition.21.Intermediate state: It includes the maturational changes which take place in “child grammar”, and the L2 developmental sequence which is known as learner language.22.Final state: The outcome of L1 and L2 leaning, also known as the stable state of adult grammar.23.Positive transfer: Appropriate incorporation of an L1 structure or rule in L2 structure.24.Negative transfer: Inappropriate influence of an L1 structure or rule on L2 use. Also called interference.25.Poverty-of-the-stimulus: The argument that because language input to children is impoverished and they still acquire L1, there must be an innate capacity for L1 acquisition.26.Structuralism: The dominant linguistic model of the 1950s, which emphasized the description of different levels of production in speech.27.Phonology: The sound systems of different languages and the study of such systems generally.28.Syntax: The linguistic system of grammatical relationships of words within sentences, such as ordering and agreement.29.Semantics: The linguistic study of meaning.30.Lexicon: The component of language that is concerned with words and their meanings.31.Behaviorism: The most influential cognitive framework applied to language learning in the 1950s. It claims that learning is the result of habit formation.32.Audiolingual method: An approach to language teaching that emphasizes repetition and habit formation. This approach was widely practiced in much of the world until at least the 1980s.33.Transformational-Generative Grammar: The first linguistic framework with an internal focus, which revolutionized linguistic theory and had profound effect on both the study of first and second languages. Chomsky arguedeffectively that the behaviorist theory of language acquisition is wrong because it cannot explain the creative aspects of linguistic ability. Instead, humans must have some innate capacity for language.34.Principles and Parameters (model): The internally focused linguistic framework that followed Chomsky’s Transformational-Generative Grammar. It revised specifications of what constitutes innate capacity to include more abstract notions of general principles and constraints common to human language as part of a Universal Grammar.35.Minimalist program: The internally focused linguistic framework that followed Chomsky’s Principles and Parameters model.This framework adds distinctions between lexical and functional category development, as well as more emphasis on the acquisition of feature specification as a part of lexical knowledge.36.Functionalism: A linguistic framework with an external focus that dates back to the early twentieth century and has its roots in the Prague School (布拉格学派) of Eastern Europe. It emphasizes the information content of utterances and considers language primarily as a system of communication. Functionalist approaches have largely dominated European study of SLA and are widely followed elsewhere in the world.37.Neurolinguistics: The study of the location and representation of language in the brain, of interest to biologists and psychologists since the nineteenth century and one of the first fields to influence cognitive perspectives on SLA when systematic study began in 1960s.38.Critical period: The limited number of years during which normal L1 acquisition is possible.39.Critical Period Hypothesis: The claim that children have only a limited number of years during which they can acquire their L1 flawlessly; if they suffered brain damage to the language areas, brain plasticity in childhood would allow other areas of the brain to take over the language functions of the damaged areas, but beyond a certain age, normal language development would not be possible. This concept is commonly extended to SLA as well, in the claim that only children are likely to achieve native or near-native proficiency in L2.rmation processing (IP): A cognitive framework which assumes that SLA (like learning of other complex domains) proceeds from controlled to automatic processing and involves progressive reorganization of knowledge.41.Connectionism: A cognitive framework for explaining learning processes, beginning in the 1980s and becoming increasingly influential. It assumes that SLA results from increasing strength of associations between stimuli and responses.42.Variation theory: A microsocial framework applied to SLA that explores systematic differences in learner production which depend on contexts of use.43.Accommodation theory: A framework for study of SLA that is based on the notion that speakers usually unconsciously change their pronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to.44.Sociocultural theory (SCT): An approach established by Vygotsky which claims that interaction not only facilitates language learning but is a causative force in acquisition. Further, all of learning is seen as essentially a social process which is grounded in sociocultural settings.45.Ethnography(人种论、民族志) of communication: A framework for analysis of language and its functions that was established by Hymes(1966). It relates language use to broader social and cultural contexts, and applies ethnographic methods of data collection and interpretation to study of language acquisition and use.46.Acculturation(文化适应): Learning the culture of the L2 community and adapting to those values and behavior patterns.47.Acculturation Model/Theory: Schumann’s (1978) theory that identifies group factors such as identity and status which determine social and psychological distance between learner and target language populations. He claims these influence outcomes of SLA.48.Social psychology: A societal approach in research and theory that allows exploration of issues such as how identity, status, and values influence L2 outcomes and why. It has disciplinary ties to both psychological and social perspectives. PART TWO: Short & Long answers:Chapter 11.What are the similarities and differences between linguists, psycholinguist, sociolinguists and social psycholinguists? P3（1）Linguists emphasize the characteristics of the differences and similarities in the languages that are being learned, and thelinguistic competence (underlying knowledge) and linguistic performance (actual production) of learners at various stages of acquisition.（2）Psychologists emphasize the mental or cognitive processes involved in acquisition, and the representation of languages in the brain.（3）Sociolinguists emphasize variability in learner linguistic performance, and extend the scope of study to communicative competence(underlying knowledge that additionally accounts for language use, or pragmatic competence).（4）Social psychologists emphasize group-related phenomena, such as identity and social motivation, and the interactional and larger social contexts of learning.2.What are the differences between second language, foreign language, library language and auxiliary language? P4（1）A second language is typically an official or societally dominant language needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes. It is often acquired by minority group members or immigrants who speak another language natively. In this more restricted sense, the term is contrasted with other terms in this list.（2）A foreign language is one not widely used in the learners' immediate social context which might be used for future travel or other cross-cultural communication situations, or studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school, but with no immediate or necessary practical application.（3）A library language is one which functions primarily as a tool for future learning through reading, especially when books or journals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learners' native tongue.（4）An auxiliary language is one which learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate political setting, or will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives.3.Why are some learners more (or less) successful than other? P5The intriguing question of why some L2 learners are more successful than others requires us to unpack the broad label “learners” for some dimensions of discussion. Linguistics may distinguish categories of learners defined by the identity and relationship of their L1 and L2; psycholinguists may make distinctions based on individual aptitude for L2 learning, personality factors, types and strength of motivation, and different learning strategies; sociolinguists may distinguish among learners with regard to social, economic, and political differences and learner experiences in negotiated interaction; and social psychologists may categorize learners according to aspects of their group identity and attitudes toward targetlanguage speakers or toward L2 learning itself.Chapter21.List at least five possible motivations for learning a second language at an older age. P10The motivation may arise from a variety of conditions, including the following:Invasion or conquest of one’s country by speakers of another language;A need or desire to contact speakers of other languages ineconomic or other specific domains;Immigration to a country where use of a language other than one's L1 is required;Adoption of religious beliefs and practices which involve use of another language;A need or desire to pursue educational experienceswhere access requires proficiency in another language;A desire for occupational or social advancement whichis furthered by knowledge of another language;An interest in knowing more about peoples of other cultures and having access to their technologies or literatures.2.What are the two main factors that influence the language learning? P13（1）The role of natural ability: Humans are born with a natural ability or innate capacity to learn language.（2）The role of social experience: Not all of L1 acquisition can be attributed to innate ability, for language-specific learning also plays a crucial role. Even if the universal properties of language are preprogrammed in children, they must learn all of those features which distinguish their L1 from all other possible human languages. Children will never acquire such language-specific knowledge unless that language is used with them and around them, and they will learn to use only the language(s) used around them, no matter what their linguistic heritage. American-born children of Korean or Greek ancestry will never learn the language of their grandparents if only English surrounds them, for instance, and they will find their ancestral language just as hard to learn as any other English speakers do if they attempt to learn it as an adult. Appropriate social experience, including L1 input and interaction, is thus a necessary condition for acquisition.3.What is the initial state of language development for L1 and L2 respectively? P17-18The initial state of L1 learning is composed solely of an innate capacity for language acquisition which may or may not continue to be available for L2, or may be available only in some limited ways. The initial state for L2 learning, on the other hand, has resources of L1 competence, world knowledge, and established skills for interaction, which can be both an asset and an impediment.4.How does intermediate states process? P18-19The cross-linguistic influence, or transfer of prior knowledge from L1 to L2, is one of the processes that is involved ininterlanguage development. Two major types of transfer which occur are: (1) positive transfer, when an L1 structure or rule is used in an L2 utterance and that use is appropriate or “correct” in the L2; and (2) negative transfer (or interference), when an L1 structure or rule is used in an L2 utterance and that use is inappropriate and considered an “error”.5.What is a necessary condition for language learning (L1 or L2)? P20Language input to the learner is absolutely necessary for either L1 or L2 learning to take place. Children additionally require interaction with other people for L1 learning to occur. It is possible for some individuals to reach a fairly high level of proficiency in L2 even if they have input only from such generally non-reciprocal sources as radio, television, or written text.6.What is a facilitating condition for language learning? P20While L1 learning by children occurs without instruction, and while the rate of L1 development is not significantly influenced by correction of immature forms or by degree of motivation to speak, both rate and ultimate level of development in L2 can be facilitated or inhabited by many social and individual factors, such as (1) feedback, including correction of L2 learners' errors; (2) aptitude, including memory capacity and analytic ability; (3) motivation, or need and desire to learn; (4) instruction, or explicit teaching in school settings.7.Give at least 2 reasons that many scientists believe in someinnate capacity for language. P21-24The notion that innate linguistic knowledge must underlie （指原则、理由构成某学说...的基础，潜在于...之下)language acquisition was prominently espoused (采纳或支持事业理念)by Noam Chomsky. This view has been supported by arguments such as the following:(1)Children’s knowledge of language goes beyond what could be learned from the input they receive: Children often hear incomplete or ungrammatical utterances along with grammatical input, and yet they are somehow able to filter the language they hear so that the ungrammatical input is not incorporated into their L1 system. Further, children are commonly recipients of simplified input from adults, which does not include data for all of the complexities which are within their linguistic competence. In addition, children hear only a finite subset of possible grammatical sentences, and yet they are able to abstract general principles and constraints which allow them to interpret and produce an infinite number of sentences which they have never heard before.(2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned: Children’s access to general constraints and principles which govern language could account for the relatively short time ittakes for the L1 grammar to emerge, and for the fact that it does so systematically and without any “wild” divergences. This could be so because innate principles lead children to organize the input they receive only in certain ways and not others. In addition to the lack of negative evidence , constraints and principles cannot be learnt in part because children acquire a first language at an age when such abstractions are beyond their comprehension; constraints and principles are thus outside the realm of learning process which are related to general intelligence.(3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained by language-specific input: In spite of the surface differences in input, there are similar patterns in child acquisition of any language in the world. The extent of this similarity suggests that language universals are not only constructs derived from sophisticated theories and analyses by linguists, but also innate representations in every young child’s mind.8.Linguists have taken an internal and/or external focus to the study of language acquisition. What is the difference between the two? P25-26Internal focus emphasizes that children begin with an innate capacity which is biologically endowed, as well as the acquisition of feature specification as a part of lexical knowledge; while external focus emphasizes the information content of utterances, and considers language primarily as a system of communication.9.What are the two main factors for learning process in the study of SLA from a psychological perspective? P26-27(1) Information Processing, which assumes that L2 is a highly complex skill, and that learning L2 is not essentially unlike learning other highly complex skills. Processing itself is believed to cause learning;(2) Connectionism, which does not consider language learning to involve either innate knowledge or abstraction of rules and principles, but rather to result from increasing strength of associations (connections) between stimuli and responses.10.What are the two foci for the study of SLA from the social perspective? P27(1) Microsocial focus: the concerns within the microsocial focus relate to language acquisition and use in immediate social contexts of production, interpretation, and interaction. (2) Macrosocial focus: the concerns of the macrosocial focus relate language acquisition and use to broader ecological contexts, including cultural, political, and educational settings.Week10Chapter 5 Social contexts of Second Language AcquisitionPART ONE: Definitionmunicative competence: A basic tenet of sociolinguistics defined as “what a speaker needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particular language community”(Saville-Troike 2003)nguage community: A group of people who share knowledge of a common language to at least some extent.3.Foreigner talk: Speech from L1 speakers addressed to L2 learners that differs in systematic ways from language addressed to native or very fluent speakers.4.Direct Correction: Explicit statements about incorrect language use.5.Indirect correction: Implicit feedback about inappropriate language use, such as clarification requests when the listener has actually understood an utterance.6.Interaction Hypothesis: The claim that modifications and collaborative efforts which take place in social interation facilitate SLA because they contribute to the accessibility of input for mental processing.7.Symbolic mediation: A link between a person’s current mental state and higher order functions that is provided primarily by language; considered the usual route to learning (oflanguage, and of learning in general). Part of Vygosky’s Sociocultural Theory.8.Variable features: Multiple linguistic forms (vocabulary, phonology, morphology, syntax, discourse) that are systematically or predictably used by different speakers of a language, or by the same speakers at different times, with the same meaning or function.9.Linguistic context: Elements of language form and function associated with the variable element.10.Psychological context: factors associated with the amount of attention which is being given to language form during production, the level of automaticity versus control in processing, or the intellectual demands of a particular task.11.Microsocial context: features of setting/situation and interaction which relate to communicative events within which language is being produced, interpreted, and negotiated.12.Accommodation theory: A framework for study of SLA that is based on the notion that speakers usually unconsciously change their pronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to .13.ZPD: Zone of Proximal Development, an area ofpotential development where the learner can only achieve that potential with assistance. Part of Vygosky’s Soci ocultural Theory.14.Scaffolding: Verbal guidance which an expert provides to help a learner perform any specific task, or the verbal collaboration of peers to perform a task which would be too difficult for any one of them in individual performance.15.Intrapersonal interaction: communication that occurs within an individual's own mind, viewed by Vygosky as a sociocultural phenomen.16.Interpersonal interaction: Communicative events and situations that occur between people.17.Social institutions:The systems which are established by law, custom, or practice to regulate and organize the life of people in public domains: e.g. politics, religion, and education.18.Acculturation: learning the culture of the L2 community and adapting to those values and behavioral patterns.19.Additive bilingualism: The result of SLA in social contexts where members of a dominant group learn the language of a minority without threat to their L1 competence or to their ethnic identity.20.Subtractive bilingualism: The result of SLA in socialcontexts where members of a minority group learn the dominant language as L2 and are more likely to experience some loss of ethnic identity and attrition of L1 skills—especially if they are children.21.Formal L2 learning: formal/instructed learning generally takes place in schools, which are social institutions that are established in accord with the needs, beliefs, values, and customs of their cultural settings.rmal L2 learning: informal/naturalistic learning generally takes place in settings where people contact—and need to interact with—speakers of another language.PART TWO: Short & Long answers1.what is the difference between monolingual and multilingual communicative competence?Differencese between monolingual and multilingual communicative competence are due in part to the different social functions of first and second language learning, and to the differences between learning language and learning culture.The differences of the competence between native speakers and nonative speakers include structural differences in the linguisitc system, different rules for usage in writing or conversation, andeven somewhat divergent meanings for the “same” lexical forms. Further, a multilingual speaker’s total communicative competence differs from that of a monolingual in including knowledge of rules for the appropriate choice of language and for switching between languages, given a particular social context and communicative purpose.2.what are the microsocial factors that affect SLA? P101-102a) L2 variation b) input and interaction c) interaction as the genesis of language3.What is the difference between linguistic & communicative competence (CC)?Linguistic competence- It was defined in 1965 by Chomsky as a speaker's underlying ability to produce grammatically correct expressions. Linguistic competence refers to knowledge of language. Theoretical linguistics primarily studies linguistic competence: knowledge of a language possessed by “an ideal speak-listener”.Communicative competence- It is a term in linguistics which refers to “what a speaker needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particular language community”, such as alanguage user's grammatical knowledge of syntax , morphology , phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.4.Why is CC in L1 different from L2?L1 learning for children is an integral part of their sociolization into their native language community. L2 learning may be part of second culture learning and adaptation, but the relationship of SLA to social and cultural learning differs greatly with circumstances.5.What is Accommodation Theory? How does this explain L2 variation?Accommodation theory: Speakers (usually unconsciously) change their pronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to. This accounts in part for why native speakers tend to simply their language when they are talking to a L2 learner who is not fluent, and why L2 learners may acquire somewhat different varieties of the target language when they have different friends.6.Discuss the importance of input & interaction for L2 learning. How could this affect the feedback provided to students?ⅰ. a) From the perspective of linguistic approaches: (1) behaviorist: they consider input to form the necessary stimuli and feedback which learners respond to and imitate; (2) Universal Grammar: they consider exposure to input a necessary trigger for activating internal mechanisms; (3) Monitor Model: consider comprehensible input not only necessary but sufficient in itself to account for SLA;b) From the perspective of psychological approaches: (1) IP framework: consider input which is attended to as essential data for all stages of language processing; (2) connectionist framework: consider the quantity or frequency of input structures to largely determine acquisitional sequencing;c) From the perspective of social approaches: interaction is generally seen as essential in providing learners with the quantity and quality of external linguistic input which is required for internal processing.ⅱ. Other types of interaction which can enhance SLA include feedback from NSs which makes NNs aware that their usage is not acceptable in some way, and which provides a model for “correctness”. While children rarely receive such negative evidence。

Bio data:Chair, Graduate School of Education; Professor, Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages; Applied Language studies and Linguistics dept.Professor Ellis, a renowed linguist, received his Doctorate from the University of London and his Master of Education from the University of Bristol. A former Professor at Temple University both in Japan and the US. Prof. Ellis has taught in numerous positions in England, Japan, the US, Zambia and New Zealand. Dr. Ellis who is known as the “Father of Second Language Acquisition”, has served as the Director of the Institute of Language Teaching and Learning at the University of Auckland. Author of numerous student and teacher training textbooks for Prentice Hall and Oxford University Press, Prof. Ellis’s textbooks on Second Language Acquisition and Grammar are core textbooks in TESOL and Linguistics programs around the world.From a paper Principles of Instructed Language Learning（待查）Rod ELLIS新西兰奥克兰大学教授Prof.of University of Auckland, New ZealandRod Ellis is currently Professor in the Department of Applied Language Studies and Linguistics, University of Auckland, where he teaches postgraduate courses on second language acquisition, individual differences in language learning and task-based teaching. His published work includes articles and books on second language acquisition, language teaching and teacher education. His books include Understanding Second Language Acquisition (BAAL Prize 1986) and The Study of Second Language Acquisition (Duke of Edinburgh prize 1995). More recently, Task-Based Learning and Teaching early (2003) and (with Gary Barkhuizen) Analyzing Learner Language in (2005) ), were published by Oxford University Press. He has also published several English language textbooks, including Impact Grammar (Pearson: Longman). He is also currently editor of the journal Language Teaching Research. In addition to his current position in New Zealand, he has worked in schools in Spain and Zambia and in universities in the United Kingdom, Japan and the United States. He has also conducted numerous consultancies and seminars throughout the world. Rod Ellis ，上海外国语大学，受聘为国家教育部第八批“长江学者奖励计划讲座教授”，聘任岗位：外国语言文学。

第二语言习得概论Rod Ellis 全书汉语翻译引言写这本书的目的是为了全面的解释第二语言习得，我们尽可能的描述理论，而不是提出理论，所以，本书不会有意识地凸显任何一种二语习得的方法或理论作为已经被认可的看法。

其实，现在做到这一点是不可能的，因为二语习得研究还处于初期阶段，仍有许多问题需要解决，当然，我们不可能完全把描述和解说隔裂开来，所以，对于我所选择描述的理论解释时，不可避免地带有我自己的观点倾向。

这本书写给两类读者，一类是二语习得课程的初学者，他们想整体了解二语研究的现状。

二是想明白学习者怎么学习第二语言的教师。

因为是二语习得的初级教程，第一章列出了有关第二语言习得的主要理论观点。

接下来的几章各自阐述一方面的理论观点，然后第10章汇总所有理论以对二语习得的不同理论进行全面研究。

每章后面提供可进一步阅读的参考建议，这可以指引学生进入二语研究快速发展的前沿领域。

但是，应该想到许多读者是第二语言或外语老师，所以本书也应该让他们对课内和课外的二语习得是怎么发生的有一个清楚的认识。

按传统，是教师决定课堂上学生学习什么和按什么顺序学习。

例如，语言教科书就把既定的内容顺序强加给学生学习，这些课本设想书中设计的语言特征出现的顺序和学生能够接受并习得的顺序相同。

同样，教师在制定教学计划时也会这样做，他们认为精选学习内容和把教学内容排序将有利于教学。

但是除非我们确定教师教学计划和学生的习得顺序相符，不然我们不能确定教学内容可以直接有利于学生学习。

教师不仅决定教学的内容和结构，他们也决定第二语言怎么教，他们决定教学法，他们决定是否操练，操练多少，是否纠错和什么时间纠错以及纠到什么程度，教师们根据他们所选择的教学法来处理语言学习过程。

但是，又一次，我们不能确保教师选择的教学法规则和学习者学习语言的进程是相符的，例如，教师可能决定关注语法的正确性，而学习者可能只关注自己的意思是否被理解，不在乎语法是否正确，教师可能关注操练灌输一个一个语言点，而学生却可能整体上把握语言问题，逐渐的掌握在某一相同的时间处理各种语言点的能力，学生所进行的学习可能不是教师的教学法所设想的。

The published works of M. A. K. Halliday I. Included in The Collected Works of M. A. K. Halliday(Continuum Books), edited by Jonathan J. Webster.Volume One: On Grammar (2002)1. Halliday, M. A. K. (1957) ‘Some aspects of systematic description and compari-son in grammatical analysis’, Studies in Linguistic Analysis, Special V olume of the Philological Society. Blackwell, 54–67.2. Halliday, M. A. K. (1961) ‘Categories of the theory of grammar’, Word, 17.3.,241–92.3. Halliday, M. A. K. (1963) ‘Class in relation to the axes of chain and choice inlanguage’, Linguistics, 2., 5–15.4. Halliday, M. A. K. (1966) ‘Lexis as a linguistic level’. In C. E. Bazell et al. (eds)In Memory of J. R. Firth. Longman, 148–62.5. Halliday, M. A. K. (1966) ‘Some notes on ‘deep’ grammar’, Journal ofLinguistics, 2.1., 57–67.6. Halliday, M. A. K. (1966) ‘The concept of rank: a reply’, Journal of Linguistics,2.1., 110–118.7. Halliday, M. A. K. (1970) ‘Language structure and language function’. In JohnLyons (ed.) New Horizons in Linguistics. Penguin, 140–165.8. Halliday, M. A. K. (1979) ‘Modes of meaning and modes of expression: typesof grammatical structure and their determination by different semantic func-tions’. In D. J. Allerton et al. (eds) Function and Context in Linguistic Analysis.Cambridge University Press, 57–79.9. Halliday, M. A. K. (1981) ‘Text semantics and clause grammar: some patternsof realization’. In James E. Copeland and Philip W. Davies (eds) The Seventh LACUS Forum 1980. Linguistic Association of Canada and the United States, 31–59.10. Halliday, M. A. K. (1982) ‘How is a text like a clause?’ In Sture Allen (ed.)Text Processing: text analysis and generation, text typology and attrition(Proceedings of Nobel Symposium 51). Almqvist and Wiksell, 209–47.11. Halliday, M. A. K. (1984) ‘On the ineffability of grammatical categories’. InAlan Manning, et al. (eds) The Tenth LACUS Forum. John Benjamins, 3–18. 12. Halliday, M. A. K. (1985) ‘Dimensions of discourse analysis: grammar’, TheHandbook of Discourse Analysis, Vol. 2: Dimensions of Discourse. Academic Press, 29–56.13. Halliday, M. A. K. (1987) ‘Spoken and written modes of meaning’,Comprehending Oral and Written Language. Academic Press, 55–82.14. Halliday, M. A. K. (1992) ‘How do you mean?’. In Martin Davies and LouiseRavelli (eds) Advances in Systemic Linguistics: Recent Theory and Practice.Pinter, 20–35.1028Continuing Discourse on Language15. Halliday, M. A. K. (1996) ‘On grammar and grammatics’. In Ruqaiya Hasan, etal. (eds) Functional Descriptions: Theory in Practice. John Benjamins, 1–38. 16. Halliday, M. A. K. (1998) ‘Grammar and daily life: concurrence and comple-mentarity’. In Tuen A. van Dijk (ed.) Functional Approaches to Language,Culture and Cognition. John Benjamins, 221–37.17. Halliday, M. A. K. (2002) ‘Introduction: a personal perspective’. In JonathanJ. Webster (ed.) Collected Works of M. A. K. Halliday, Vol. 1, On Grammar.Continuum, 1–16.Volume Two: Linguistic Studies of Text and Discourse (2002)18. Halliday, M. A. K. (1964) ‘Descriptive linguistics in literary studies’. In AlanDuthie (ed.) English Studies Today: Third Series. Edinburgh University Press, 23–39.19. Halliday, M. A. K. (1964) ‘The linguistic study of literary texts’. In Horace Lunt(ed.) Proceedings of the Ninth International Congress of Linguists, Cambridge, MA, 1962. Mouton, 302–307.20. Halliday, M. A. K. (1971) ‘Linguistic function and literary style: an inquiry intothe language of William Golding’s The Inheritors’. In Seymour Chatman (ed.) Literary Style: a Symposium. Oxford University Press, 330–68.21. Halliday, M. A. K. (1977) ‘Text as semantic choice in social context’. In TeunA. van Dijk and János S. Petöfi (ed.) Grammars and Descriptions. Walter deGruyter, 176–226.22. Halliday, M. A. K. (1982) ‘The de-automatization of grammar: from Priestley’sAn Inspector Calls’. In John M. Anderson (ed.) Language Form and Linguistic Variation: Papers Dedicated to Angus McIntosh. John Benjamins, 129–59.23. Halliday, M. A. K. (1987) ‘Poetry as scientifi c discourse: the nuclear sectionsof Tennyson’s In Memoriam’. In David Birch and Michael O’Toole (eds)Functions of Style. Pinter, 31–44.24. Halliday, M. A. K. (1990) ‘The construction of knowledge and value in thegrammar of scientifi c discourse: with reference to Charles Darwin’s The Origin of Species’. In Clotilde de Stasio, et al. (eds) La Rappresentazione Verbalee Iconica: Valori Estetici E Funzionali. Atti del XI Congresso Nazionaledell’Associazzione Italiana di Anglistica, Bergamo, 24 e 25 Ottobre 1988.Guerini Studio (Milan), 57–80.25. Halliday, M. A. K. (1992) ‘Some lexicogrammatical features of the ZeroPopulation Growth text’. In William C. Mann and Sandra A. Thompson (eds) Discourse Description: Diverse Linguistic Analysis of a Fund-raising Text. John Benjamins, 327–58.26. Halliday, M. A. K. (1994) ‘So you say ‘pass’… thank you three muchly’. InAllen D. Grimshaw (ed.) What’s Going on Here? Complementary Studies of Professional Talk. Ablex, 175–229.Volume Three: On Language and Linguistics (2003)27. Halliday, M. A. K. (1964) ‘Syntax and the consumer’. In C. I. J. M. StuartReport of the Fifteenth Annual (First International) Round Table Meetingon Linguistics and Language Studies, Monograph Series on Languages andLinguistics 17. Georgetown University Press, 11–24.The published works of M.A.K. Halliday 1029 28. Halliday, M. A. K. (1967) Grammar, Society and the Noun, lecture given atUniversity College London on 24 November 1966. H. K. Lewis (for University College London).29. Halliday, M. A. K. (1969) ‘A brief sketch of systemic grammar’, LaGrammatica; La Lessicologia. Bulzoni Editore.30. Halliday, M. A. K. (1972) ‘Towards a Sociological Semantics’, Working Papersand Prepublications C014. Centro Internazionale di Semiotica e Linguistica, University di Urbino.31. Halliday, M. A. K. (1973) ‘The functional basis of language’. In Basil Bernstein(ed.) Applied Studies towards a Sociology of Language, Vol. 2, Class, Codes and Control. Routledge and Kegan Paul, 343–66.32. Halliday, M. A. K. (1975) ‘The context of linguistics’. In Francis P. Dinneen(ed.) Report of the Twenty-fi fth Annual Round Table Meeting on Linguisticsand Language Studies, Monograph Series on Language and Linguistics 17.Georgetown University Press.33. Halliday, M. A. K. (1977) ‘Ideas about language’, Occasional Papers, 1., 32–55.34. Halliday, M. A. K. (1985) ‘Systemic background’. In James D. Benson andWilliam S. Greaves (eds) Systemic Perspective on Discourse, Vol. 1: Selected Theoretical Papers from the Ninth International Systemic Workshop, Advances in Discourse Processes 15. Ablex Publishing, 1–15.35. Halliday, M. A. K. (1987) ‘Language and the order of nature’. In N. Fabb, et al.(eds) The Linguistics of Writing: Arguments between Language and Literature.Manchester University Press, 135–54.36. Halliday, M. A. K. (1990) ‘New ways of meaning: the challenge to appliedlinguistics’, Journal of Applied Linguistics, 6, Ninth World Congress of Applied Linguistics Special Issue. The Greek Applied Linguistics Association (GALA) (Thessaloniki), 7–36.37. Halliday, M. A. K. (1992) ‘Systemic grammar and the concept of a ‘science oflanguage’’, Waiguoyu (Journal of Foreign Languages), No. 2 (General Serial No. 78), 1–9.38. Halliday, M. A. K. (1992) ‘The act of meaning’. In James E. Alatis (ed.)Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics: Language, Communication and Social Meaning. Georgetown University Press, 7–21.39. Halliday, M. A. K. (1992) ‘The history of a sentence’. In Vita Fortunati (ed.) laCultura Italiana e le Letterature Straniere Moderne, V ol. 30. A. Longo Editore (Ravenna), 29–45.40. Halliday, M. A. K. (1993) ‘Language in a changing world’, Occasional Papers,13.41. Halliday, M. A. K. (1994) ‘On language in relation to the evolution of humanconsciousness’. In Sture Allen (ed.) Of Thoughts and Words (Proceedings ofNobel Symposium 92: the Relation between Language and Mind). ImperialCollege Press.42. Halliday, M. A. K. (1994) ‘Systemic theory’. In R. E. Asher (ed.) Encyclopediaof Language and Linguistics, V ol. 8. Pergamon Press.1030Continuing Discourse on Language43. Halliday, M. A. K. (1995) ‘A recent view of ‘missteps’ in linguistic theory’,Functions of Language, 2.2. John Benjamins Publishing Co., 249–67.44. Halliday, M. A. K. (1997) ‘Linguistics as metaphor’. In Anne-Marie Simon-Vandenbergen, et al. (eds) Reconnecting Language: Morphology and Syntax in Functional Perspectives. John Benjamins Publishing Co., 3–27.45. Halliday, M. A. K. (2001) ‘Is the grammar neutral? Is the grammarian neutral?’.In Jessica de Villiers and Robert J. Stainton (eds) Communication in Linguistics: Papers in Honour of Michael Gregory. Editions duGref (Toronto).46. Halliday, M. A. K. (2003) ‘On the ‘architecture’ of human language’. InJonathan J. Webster (ed.) Collected Works of M. A. K. Halliday, Vol. 3, OnLanguage and Linguistics. Continuum, 1–32.Volume Four: The Language of Early Childhood (2003)47. Halliday, M. A. K. (1969) ‘Relevant models of language’, The State ofLanguage, Educational Review, University of Birmingham, 22.1. CarfaxPublishing, 26–37.48. Halliday, M. A. K. (1974) ‘A sociosemiotic perspective on language develop-ment’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies (W. H. Whiteley Memorial Volume), 37.1. The School of Oriental and African Studies, 98–118. 49. Halliday, M. A. K. (1975) ‘Into the adult language’, Learning how to Mean:Explorations in the Development of Language, in the series Explorations in the study of Language. Edward Arnold, 82–119.50. Halliday, M. A. K. (1975) ‘Learning how to mean’. In Eric Lennebergand Elizabeth Lennebery (eds) Foundations of Language Development: aMultidisciplinary Perspective. Academic Press, 239–65.51. Halliday, M. A. K. (1975) ‘The social context of language development’,Learning how to Mean: Explorations in the Development of Language, in the series Explorations in the study of Language. Edward Arnold, 120–45.52. Halliday, M. A. K. (1976) ‘Early language learning: a sociolinguistic approach’.In William C. McCormack and Stephen A. Wurm (eds) Language and Man,Anthropological Issues. Mouton de Gruyter, 97–124.53. Halliday, M. A. K. (1978) ‘Meaning and the construction of reality in earlychildhood’. In Herbert L. Pick, et al. (eds) Modes of Perceiving and Processing of Information. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 67–96.54. Halliday, M. A. K. (1979) ‘On the development of texture in child language’. InTerry Myers (ed.) The Development of Conversation and Discourse. Edinburgh University Press, 72–87.55. Halliday, M. A. K. (1979) ‘One child’s protolanguage’. In Margaret Bullowa(ed.) Before Speech: the Beginnings of Interpersonal Communication.Cambridge University Press, 171–90.56. Halliday, M. A. K. (1979) ‘The ontogenesis of dialogue’. In Wolfgang U.Dressler (ed.) Proceedings of the Twelfth International Congress of Linguists, Innsbruck, 1978. Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Aprachwissenschaft, 539–44.57. Halliday, M. A. K. (1980) ‘The contribution of developmental linguistics to theinterpretation of language as a system’, The Nordic Languages and ModernThe published works of M.A.K. Halliday 1031 Linguistics: Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference of Nordic andGeneral Linguistics, Oslo, 1980, 1–18.58. Halliday, M. A. K. (1980) ‘Three aspects of children’s language development:learning language, learning through language, learning about language’. InYetta M. Goodman, et al. (eds) Oral and Written Language Development:Impact on Schools, Proceedings from the 1979 and 1980 IMPACT Conferences.International Reading Association (Newark), 7–19.59. Halliday, M. A. K. (1983) ‘On the transition from child tongue to mothertongue’, Australian Journal of Linguistics, 3.2. The Australian LinguisticSociety, 201–16.60. Halliday, M. A. K. (1984) ‘Language as code and language as behaviour: asystemic-functional interpretation of the nature and ontogenesis of dialogue’.In R. P. Fawcett, et al. (eds) The Semiotics of Culture and Language, Vol. 1,Language As Social Semiotic. Frances Pinter Publishers Ltd, 3–35.61. Halliday, M. A. K. (1991) ‘The place of dialogue in children’s constructionof meaning’. In SorIn Stati, et al. (eds) Dialoganalyse III: Referate der 3,Arbeitstgung. Max Niemeyer Verlag GmbH, 417–30.62. Halliday, M. A. K. (1993) ‘Towards a language-based theory of learning’,Linguistics and Education, 5.2. Elsevier Science, 93–116.63. Halliday, M. A. K. (1998) ‘Representing the child as a semiotic being’, paperpresented at the conference ‘Representing the Child’, Monash University, 2–3 October 1998.64. Halliday, M. A. K. (1999) ‘Grammar and the construction of educationalknowledge’. In Barry Asker, et al. (eds) Language Analysis Description andPedagogy. Language Centre, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, 70–87.Volume Five: The Language of Science (2004)65. Halliday, M. A. K. (1988) ‘On the language of physical science’. In MohsenGhadessy Registers of Written English: Situational Factors and LinguisticFeatures. Pinter.66. Halliday, M. A. K. (1989) ‘Some grammatical problems in scientifi c English’,Symposium in Education. Society of Pakistani English Language Teachers,Karachi: SPELT.67. Halliday, M. A. K. and Martin, James. (1993) ‘Writing science: literacyand discursive power’, Writing Science: Literacy and Discursive Power.RoutledgeFlamer.68. Halliday, M. A. K. (1995) ‘Language and the reshaping of human experience’,from the International Symposium of Critical Discourse Analysis, Athens,15–16 December 1995. Speech delivered at the offi cial ceremony for M.A.K.Halliday at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Doctor Honoris Causa of the Faculty of English Studies, School of Philosophy, on 14 December 1995. Also appears in Offi cial Speeches, No. 44 in V ol. 31 (Athens, 2002),(period 1 September 1995–31 August 1997) Part A, 1995–6, pp. 1261–76.. 69. Halliday, M. A. K. (1997) ‘On the grammar of scientifi c English’. In CarolTaylor Torsello (ed.) Grammatica: Studi interlinguistici. Unipress (Padova).1032Continuing Discourse on Language70. Halliday, M. A. K. (1998) ‘Things and relations: regrammaticizing experienceas technical knowledge’. In James R. Martin and Robert Veel (eds) ReadingScience: Critical and Functional Perspectives on Discourse of Science.Routledge.71. Halliday, M. A. K. (1998) ‘Language and knowledge: the ‘unpacking’ of text’.In Desmond Allison, et al. (eds) Text in Education and Society. SingaporeUniversity Press and World Scientifi c (Singapore).72. Halliday, M. A. K. (1999) ‘The grammatical construction of scientifi c knowl-edge: the framing of the English clause’. In Rema Rossini Favretti, et al.(eds) Incommensurability and Translation: Kuhnian Perspectives on Scientifi c Communication and Theory Change. Edward Elgar (Cheltenham).73. Halliday, M. A. K. (2004) ‘How big is a language? On the power of language’.In Jonathan J. Webster (ed.) Collected Works of M. A. K. Halliday, Vol. 5, The Language of Science. Continuum.Volume Six: Computational and Quantitative Studies (2005)74. Halliday, M. A. K. (1956) ‘The linguistic basis of a mechanical thesaurus, andits application to English preposition classifi cation’, Machine Translation, 3:3, December 1956. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 81–88.75. Halliday, M. A. K. (1962) ‘Linguistics and machine translation’, Zeitschrift FürPhonetik Sprachwissenschaft Und Kommunikationsforschung, 15.1/2., 145–158.76. Halliday, M. A. K. (1991) ‘Corpus studies and probabilistic grammar’. InKarin Aijmer and Bengt Altenberg (eds) English Corpus Linguistics: Studies in Honour of Jan Svartvik. Longman.77. Halliday, M. A. K. (1991) ‘Language as system and language as instance:the corpus and a theoretical concept’, Directions in Corpus Linguistics:Proceedings of Nobel Symposium 82. Mouton de Gruyter.78. Halliday, M. A. K. (1991) ‘Towards probabilistic interpretations’. In EijaVentola (ed.) Trends in Linguistics: Functional and Systemic Linguistics:Approaches and Uses. Mouton de Gruyter.79. Halliday, M. A. K. and James, X. L. (1993) ‘A quantitative study of polarity andprimary tense in the English fi nite clause’. In John M. Sinclair (eds) Techniques of Description: Spoken and Written Discourse. Routledge.80. Halliday, M. A. K. (1993) ‘Quantitative studies and probabilities in gram-mar’. In Michael Hoey (ed.) Data, Description and Discourse: Papers on the English Language in Honour of John M. Sinclair on his Sixtieth Birthday.HarperCollins.81. Halliday, M. A. K. (1995) ‘Fuzzy grammatics: a systemic functional approachto fuzziness in natural language’, Proceedings of 1996 IEEE InternationalConference on Fuzzy Systems, The International Joint Conference of the Fourth IEEE International Conference on Fuzzy System and the Second International Fuzzy Engineering Symposium. IEEE: Piscataway NJ.82. Halliday, M. A. K. (1995) ‘On language in relation to fuzzy logic and intelligentcomputing’, Proceedings of 1995 IEEE International Conference on FuzzySystems, The International Joint Conference of the Fourth IEEE International Conference on Fuzzy System and the Second International Fuzzy Engineering Symposium. IEEE: Piscataway NJ.The published works of M.A.K. Halliday 1033 83. Halliday, M. A. K. (1995) ‘Computing meanings: some refl ections on past expe-rience and present prospects’, presented as plenary address at PACLING 95. 84. Halliday, M. A. K. (2002) ‘The spoken language corpus’. In Karin Aijmer andBengt Altenberg (eds) Proceedings of ICAME 2002: the Theory and Use ofCorpora, Göteborg, 22–26 May 2002. Editions Rodopi (Amsterdam).Volume Seven: Studies in English Language (2005)85. Halliday, M. A. K. (1963) ‘Intonation in English grammar’, Transactions of thePhilological Society. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 143–169.86. Halliday, M. A. K. (1963) ‘The tones of English’, Archivum Linguisticum, 15.1.The Continuum International Publishing Company Ltd, 1–28.87. Halliday, M. A. K. (1966) ‘Notes on transitivity and theme in English, part 1’,Journal of Linguistics, 3.1, 1966. Cambridge University Press, 37–81.88. Halliday, M. A. K. (1967) ‘Notes on transitivity and theme in English, part 2’,Journal of Linguistics, 3, 1967. Cambridge University Press, 199–244.89. Halliday, M. A. K. (1968) ‘Notes on transitivity and theme in English, part 3’,Journal of Linguistics, 4.2, 1968. Cambridge University Press, 179–215.90. Halliday, M. A. K. (1969) ‘Options and functions in the English clause’, BrnoStudies in English, 8., 81–88.91. Halliday, M. A. K. (1970) ‘Functional diversity in language, as seen from aconsideration of modality and mood in English’, Foundations of Language:International Journal of Language and Philosophy, 6.3., 322–361.92. Halliday, M. A. K. (1976) ‘The teacher taught the student English: an essayin applied linguistics’. In Peter A. Reich (ed.) Second LACUS Forum 1975.Hornbeam Press (Columbia, S. C.), 334–9.93. Halliday, M. A. K. (1980) ‘On being teaching’. In Sidney Greenbaum, et al.(eds) Studies in English Linguistics: for Randolph Quirk. Longman.94. Halliday, M. A. K. (1985) ‘English intonation as a resource for discourse’,Festschrift in Honour of Arthur Delbridge: Beiträge Zur Phonetic andLinguistik, 48. Helmut Buske Publishers (Hamburg), 111–17.95. Halliday, M. A. K. (1985) ‘It’s a fi xed word order language is English’, ITLReview of Applied Linguistics, 67–8. K. U. Leuven, Department of Linguistics, 91–116.96. Halliday, M. A. K. (1998) ‘On the grammar of pain’, Functions of Language, 5,1. John Benjamins Publishing Co., 1–32.97. Halliday, M. A. K. (2005) ‘Towards an applicable description of the grammar ofa language’. In Jonathan J. Webster (ed.) Collected Works of M. A. K. Halliday,Vol. 7, Studies in English Language. Continuum.Volume Eight: Studies in Chinese Language (in press)98. Halliday, M. A. K. (1959) the Language of the Chinese ‘Secret History of theMongols’, Publications of the Philological Society 17. Blackwell.99. Ellis, J. O. and Halliday, M. A. K. (unpublished ms.) ‘Temporal categories in themodern Chinese verb’.1034Continuing Discourse on Language100. H alliday, M. A. K. (unpublished ms.) ‘Some lexicogrammatical features of the dialects of the Pearl River Delta’.101. H alliday, M. A. K. (1980) ‘The origin and early development of Chinese pho-nological theory’. In R. E. Asher and Eugenie J. A. Henderson (eds) Towards a History of Phonetics. Edinburgh University Press, 123–139.102. H alliday, M. A. K. (1984) ‘Grammatical metaphor in English and Chinese’. In Beverly Hong (ed.) New Papers in Chinese Language Use, Contemporary China Papers 180. Australian National University Contemporary China Centre, 9–18. 103. H alliday, M. A. K. (1992) ‘A systemic interpretation of Peking syllable fi nal’. In Paul Tench (ed.) Studies in Systemic Phonology. Pinter Publishers, 100–123. 104. H alliday, M. A. K. (1993) ‘Analysis of scientifi c texts in English and Chinese’.In Kegi Hao (eds) Proceedings of the International Conference on Texts andLanguage Research, 29–31 March 1989. Xi’an Jiaotong University Press,90–97.105. H alliday, M. A. K. (1996) ‘Grammatical categories in modern Chinese’, Transactions of the Philological Society, 177–224.106. H alliday, M. A. K. (2001) ‘On the grammatical foundations of discourse’.In Ren Shaozeng, et al. (eds) Grammar and Discourse: Proceedings ofthe International Conference on Discourse Analysis. University of MacauPublications Centre, 47–58.Volume Nine: Language and Education (forthcoming)107. H alliday, M. A. K. and McIntosh, Angus. (1966) ‘General linguistics and its application to language teaching’, Patterns of Language: Papers in General,Descriptive and Applied Linguistics. Longman (Longmans Linguistics Library). 108. H alliday, M. A. K. (1967) ‘Linguistic and the teaching of English’. In James N.Britton (ed.) Talking and Writing: a Handbook of the Thematic Organization of the English Clause. Methuen (London), 80–90.109. H alliday, M. A. K. (1971) ‘A ‘linguistic approach’ to the teaching of the mother tongue?’ The English Quarterly, Canadian Council of Teachers of English, 4.2., 13–24.110. H alliday, M. A. K. (1972) ‘National language and language planning in a multi-lingual society’, East African Journal.111. H alliday, M. A. K. (1977) ‘Some thoughts on language in the middle school years’, English in Australia, 42., 3–16.112. H alliday, M. A. K. (1978) ‘Is learning a second language like learning a fi rst language all over again?’. In D. E. Ingram and T. J. Quinn (eds) LanguageLearning in Australian Society: Proceedings of the 1976 Congress of theApplied Linguistics Association of Australia. Australian International Press and Publications Pty Ltd, 3–19.113. H alliday, M. A. K. (1979) ‘Differences between spoken and written lan-guage: some implications for literacy teaching’. In Glenda Page, et al. (eds)Communication through Reading: Proceedings of the Fourth AustralianReading Conference. Australian Reading Association, 37–52.114. H alliday, M. A. K. (1979) ‘Some refl ections on language education in multi-lingual societies, as seen from the standpoint of linguistics’. In Madge CalxtonThe published works of M.A.K. Halliday 1035 (ed.) Report of the 1977 Seminar on Language Education in MultilingualSocieties. Regional Language Centre (RELC) (Singapore).115. H alliday, M. A. K. (1981) ‘A response to some questions on the language issue’, The English Magazine: The Language Issue. T he English Centre (Magazine) (London).116. H alliday, M. A. K. (1986) ‘Language across the culture’. In Makhan L. Tickoo (ed.) Language in Learning: Selected Papers From the RELC Seminar on‘Language across the Curriculum’, Singapore, 22–26 April 1985, Anthology Series 16. SEAMEO Regional Language Centre (Singapore), 14–29.117. H alliday, M. A. K. (1986) Learning Asian Languages. University of Sydney Centre for Asian Studies.118. H alliday, M. A. K. (1988) ‘Language and socialization: home and school’.In Linda Gerot, et al. (eds) Language and Socialization, Home and School:Proceedings from the Working Conference on Language in Education,Macquarie University, 17–21 November 1986. Macquarie University, 1–14. 119. H alliday, M. A. K. (1988) ‘Some basic concepts of educational linguistics’. In Verner Bickley (ed.) Languages in Education in a Bi-lingual or Multi-lingual Setting. Institute of Language in Education (Hong Kong), 5–17.120. H alliday, M. A. K. (1990) ‘On the concept of ‘educational linguistics’’. In Rod Giblett and John O’Carroll (eds) Discipline – Dialogue – Difference:Proceedings of the Language in Education Conference, Murdoch University, December 1989. 4D Duration Publications (Murdoch), 23–42.121. H alliday, M. A. K. (1991) ‘The notion of ‘context in language education’’. In Thao Le and Mike McCausland (eds) Language Education: interaction andDevelopment, Proceedings of the International Conference, Vietnam, April1991. University of Tasmania (Launceston), 1–26.122. H alliday, M. A. K. 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Chapter 10 Language Acquisition(Ⅲ)第二语言习得一、第二语言习得及其学科性质与属性什么是第二语言习得学科性质或属性什么是第二语言习得第二语言习得Second Language Acquisition(SLA)研究始于20世纪60年代末或70年代初，Corder于1967年发表其经典论文The Significance of Learners’Errors开始。

“第二”是指掌握母语后再学的另一门或二门、三门的语言，它同外语的学习是两个概念。

S o m e b a s i c t e r m s●S e c o n d L a n g u a g e A c q u i s i t i o n(S L A):r e f e r s t o t h e s y s t e m a t i c s t u d y o f h o wo n e p e r s o n a c q u i r e s a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e s u b s e q u e n t t o h i s n a t i v e l a n g u a g e.●T a r g e t l a n g u a g e(T L)(目的语):t h e l a n g u a g e w h i c h a p e r s o n i s l e a r n i n g,i nc o n t r a s t t o a f i r s t l a n g u a g e o r m o t h e r t o n g u e.S o m e b a s i c t e r m s●S e c o n d l a n g u a g e(L2):a l a n g u a g e w h i c h i s n o t a n a t i v e l a n g u a g eb u t i s w i d e l y u s e d a s a m e d i u m o fc o m m u n i c a t i o n a nd i s u se d a l o n gw i t h a n o t h e r l a n g u a g e o r l a n g u a g e s.●e.g.E n g l i s h u s e d i n S i n g a p o r e●F o r e i g n l a n g u a g e(F L):a l a n g u a g e w h i c h i s n o t a n a t i v e l a n g u a g e i na c o u n t r y,a n d i s a l w a y s t a u g h t i n s c h o o l s a n d n o t u s e d t oc o m m u n i c a t e w i t h i n a c o u n t r y.●e.g.E n g l i s h i n C h i n a,J a p a n,e t c.Second Language:●In narrow sense, second language refers to the language that one learns orpicks up after his (or her) mother tongue;●In broad sense, second languagerefers to all languages (including foreign languages) that one learns or picksup after his (or her) mother tongueQ u e s t i o n s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d●D o e s a n a d u l t l e a r n a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e t h e w a y a c h i l d l e a r n s a f i r s t l a n g u a g e?●I f n o t,w h a t h a p p e n e d t o t h e L A D?●I s t h e r e a c r i t i c a l p e r i o d f o r L2a c q u i s i t i o n?●W h i c h i s b e t t e r…c l a s s r o o m l e a r n i n g o r i m m e r s i o n e x p e r i e n c e?C o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n L1a c q u i s i t i o n a n d L2a c q u i s i t i o n●I n t h e o r y,t h e n e w f i n d i n g s a n d a d v a n c e s i n L1a c q u i s i t i o n a r e e n l i g h t e n i n gi n u n d e r s t a n d i n g L2a c q u i s i t i o n.●T h e f i r s t l a n g u a g e s t u d y h a s s e r v e d a s a b a c k c l o t h f o r p e r c e i v i n g a n du n d e r s t a n d i n g n e w f a c t s a b o u t s e c o n d l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g(L i t t l e w o o d,1986).D i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n L1a n d L2a c q u i s i t i o n●T h e f i r s t l a n g u a g e i s a c q u i r e d s u b c o n s c i o u s l y,w h i l e t h e s e c o n d(o r f o r e i g n)l a n g u a g e i s l e a r n e d c o n s c i o u s l y.●I n a c q u i r i n g t h e f i r s t l a n g u a g e,c h i l d r e n a l w a y s c o n c e n t r a t e o n m e a n i n g,n o to n p a t t e r n,i.e.s t r u c t u r e,w h i l e t h e L2l e a r n i n g c o n c e n t r a t e s o n r u l e s,i.e.t h e s y s t e m o f t h e t h o u g h t(t h e g r a m m a t i c a l r u l e s).D i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n L1a n d L2a c q u i s i t i o n●O n e l e a r n s h i s f i r s t l a n g u a g e d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e r e a l i t y,w h i l e t h e s e c o n dl a n g u a g e i s l e a r n t i n m a n a g e a b l e s e q u e n c e,i.e.s y l l a b u s a n d c o u r s e b o o k s.●I n L1a c q u i s i t i o n c h i l d r e n a p p l y t h e r u l e s s u b c o n s c i o u s l y,w h i l e t h e L2l e a r n e r s a r e a b l e t o v e r b a l i z e t h e r u l e s a f t e r a p e r i o d o f t r a i n i n g.Second language learningpainstakingunsuccessfulFirst language acquisitionunconscioussuccessful●first language- mother tongue●second language（bilingual or multilingual social context )●foreign language (monolingual social context )学科性质或属性性质：二语习得研究不是一门单一的学科，它从众多相关学科中吸取营养，但又并非这些学科的简单综合，它具有跨学科的特点。