胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解(现代语言学理论与流派)【圣才出品】

语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第一章)Chapter I IntroductionI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics,hypotheses formed should be based on languagefacts and checked against the observed facts.5.General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6.General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas,studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methodsapplicable in any linguistic study. 7.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies thecombinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8.Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9.The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form wordsis called morphology.10. Syntax i s different from morphology in that the former not only studies themorphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and wordsinto sentences.11.The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12.Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13.Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaningnot in isolation, but in context.14.Social changes can often bring about language changes.15.Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16.Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17.Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18.A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some pointin time.19.Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the writtenlanguage.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F.de Saussure.II.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with theletter given:21. Chomsky defines“ competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rulesof his language.ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the membersof a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions andapplication of the rules.23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to thepheno 广告网址 n that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaninglessindividual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.nguage is a system of a_________ vocal symbolsused for human communication.25.The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26.Human capacity for language has a g____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27.P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems.The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.nguage is p___________in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.In other words,they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30.Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III.There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that canbest complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, itis said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB.analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34.In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because___________. A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of informationconveyed. C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquireshis mother tongueD. All of the above35.A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36.Saussure took a (n)__________view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological⋯psychologicalB. psychological⋯sociologicalC. applied⋯pragmaticD.semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Languagenguage is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between_________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideasnguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BIV. Define the following terms:41.Linguistics42.Phonology43.Syntax44.Pragmatics45. nguage 47.Phonetics48. Morphology49.Semantics50.Sociolinguistics51.Applied Linguistics 52.Arbitrariness53 Productivity54.Displacement55.Duality56.Design Features 57. Competence58 Performance59. Langue60 ParoleV.Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible.Give examples for illustration if necessary:nguage is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.62.What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63.How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary,not the written?66.What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67.How do you understand competence and performance ?68. Saussure’ s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?I.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.F 7.T8.F 9.T 10.F 11.T12.T 13.T 14.T15.T 16.F17.T 18.F 19.F20.FII.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the le tter given:21.knowledge22.abstract23.Duality24.arbitrary25.syntax2 6.genetic27.Parole28.applied 29.productive30.scientific(or systemati c)III. There are best complete fourthechoices followingstatement. 3l.Ceach32.Dstatement.33.C 34.DMark the35.Bchoice36.Athat37.Ccan38.B 39.A 40.DIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally definedas the scientific study of language.42. Phonology: The study of how soundsare put together and used in communication is called phonology.43. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is calledsyntax.44.Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is calledpragmatics.45. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference tothe workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.46. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.47. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication iscalled phonetics.48. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemesare arranged to form words is called morphology.49. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics.50. Sociolinguistics:The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.51.Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the applicationof linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially theteaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to theapplication of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such asthe recovery of speech ability.52. Arbitrariness: It is one of the designfeatures of language. It means that there is no logical connection betweenmeanings and sounds53. Productivity: Language is productive or creative inthat it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by itsusers.54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be usedto refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in thepast, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be usedto refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker55. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, whichconsists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other ofmeanings. 56. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication 57. Competence:Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language, 58. Performance: performance isthe actual realization of the knowl-edge of the rules in linguistic communication.ngue:Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community;Langue is the set of conventions and rule s which language users all have to follow;Langue is relatively stable,it does not change frequently60.Parole:Parole refers to the realization of lang ue in actual use;parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the appli cation of the rules;parole varies from person to person,and from situation t o situation.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible.Give exam ples for illustration if necessary:nguage is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Explain it in detail.First of all,language is a sys tem,because elements of language are combined according to rules.Secondl y, language is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning,or between the sign and what it stands for.Different language s have different words for the same object in the world.This fact is a good i llustration of the arbitrary nature of language.This also explains the symbolic nature of language:words are just symbols;they are associated with object s, actions,ideas,etc.by convention .Thirdly,language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages,no matter how well-developed t heir writing systems are.The term"human"in the definition indicates that l anguage is possessed by human beings only and is very different from the c ommunication systems of other living creatures.The term"communication"m eans that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.62.What are the design features of human language?Illustrate them with ex amples.1)Arbitrariness As mentioned earlier,the arbitrary property of langu age means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance,there is no necessary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes.In addition,different sounds are used to refer t o the same object in different languages,and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing.However,language is not entirelyarbitrary.There are words which are created in the imitation of sound s by sounds,such as crash,bang in English.Besides,some compound word s are also not entirely arbitrary.But the non-arbitrary words are quite limitedin number.The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2)Productivity Language is prod uctive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretationof new signals by its users.This is why they can produce and understand a n infinitely large number of sentences,including sentences that they have ne ver said or heard before.They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before.Productivity is unique to human language.Most animal comm unication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the numberof different signals that their users can send and receive.3)Duality The du ality nature of language means that language is a system,which consists of two sets of structure,or two levels,one of sounds and the other of meaning s.At the lower or the basic level,there is the structure of sounds,which are meaningless,discrete,individual sounds.But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words,which,at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences.This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk abou t anything within their knowledge.No animal communication system has duali ty or even comes near to possessing it.4) Displacement Displacement mea ns that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present,real or imagined matters in the past, present,or future,or in far-away p laces.In other words,language can be used to refer to contexts removed fro m the immediate situations of the speaker.Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation.5)Cultural transmission Huma n beings were born with the ability to acquire language,but the details of an y language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct.They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically transmi tted.63.How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Traditional gram-mar is prescriptive;it is based on"high"(religious,literary)writte n language.It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users.But Modern linguistics is descriptive;It collects authentic,and mai nly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in a n objective and scientific way.64.How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study anda diachronic study?The description of a language at some point in timeis a Synchronic study;the description of a language as it changes throu gh time is a diachronic study.A synchronic study of language describesa language as it is at some particular point in time,while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language o ver a period of time.65.Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary,not the written?First,the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten for m and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of langua ge.Second,the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purp oses Finally,the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire o ur mother tongue.66.What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?The distinction between langue,and parole was made by the famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this ngue refers to the abstract linguisticsystem shared by all the members of a speech community,and parole ref ers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conve ntions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is t he concrete use of the conventions and the application of the ng ue is abstract;it is not the language people actually use,but parole is c oncrete;it refers to the naturally occurring language ngue is rel atively stable;it does not change frequently;while parole varies from per son to person,and from situation to situation.67.How do you understand competence and performance?American linguist N. Chomsky in the late1950 ’s proposed the distinction between comp etence and performance.Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user ’s knowledge of the rules of his language.This internalized set of rules e nables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large n umber of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous.According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect,his performances may have mista kes because of social and psychological factors such as stress,embarras sment,etc..Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the co mpetence,which is systematic,not the performance,which is too haphaz ard.68. Saussure ’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky ’ s distinction between competence and performance.What do you thi nk are their major differences?Although Saussure’s distinction and Cho msky ’ s are very similar,they differ at least in that Saussure took a soci ological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social c onventions,and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him,competence is a property of the mind of each individual.69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary?Why?Language isarbitrary in nature,it is not entirely arbitrary,because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent,for example,the onomatopoeia,words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds s uch as bang,crash,etc..Take compounds for another example.The two el ements“photo ” and“ copy” in“ photocopy” are non-motivated,but t he compound is not arbitrary.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第二章 )Chapter 2 ： PhonologyI.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2.If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning,they are said to be in complementary distribution.3.A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4.English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5.In linguistic evolution,speech is prior to writing.6.In everyday communication,speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7.Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of thestream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machinecalled spectrograph.8.The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas:the throat,the mouth and the chest.9.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.10.English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulationand the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11.According to the manner of articulation,some of the types into whichthe consonants can be classified are stops,fricatives,bilabial and alv eolar.12.Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors:the position of tongue in the mouth,the openness of the mouth,the shape of the lips,and the length of the vowels.13.According to the shape of the lips,vowels can be classified into close vowels,semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14.Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15.Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16.Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17.A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.18.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings,the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19.The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20.Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over asequence of two or more phonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with t he letter given:puff of air stream in the production of spee 21. A ____refers to astrongch sounds.22.A____phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23.The four sounds/p/,/b/,/m/and/w/have one feature in common,i.e,they are all b_______sounds.24.Of all the speech organs,the t____is the most flexible,and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25.English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p____of articulation.26.When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete,the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released a nd the air passing out again is called a s________. <![endif]>27.S_________features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.They include stress,tone,intonation,etc.28.The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s ____rules.29.The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is calledbroad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________transcription.30.When pitch,stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation,they are collectively known as i_________. 31.P______is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units t o effect linguistic communication.32.The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities:the pharyngeal cavity,the o_______cavity and the na sal cavity.33.T____are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates ofvibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just li ke phonemes.<![endif]>34. Depending on the context in which stress is considered,there are twokinds of stress: word stress and s_________stressbelow.Mark t III. There are four choices following each of thestatementshe choice that can best complete the statement.35.Of all the speech organs,the_______is/are the most flexible. A. mouth B.lips C.tongue D.vocal cords36.The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are____ sounds. A. voiceless B.voiced C. vowel D.consonantal37.__________is a voiced alveolar stop.A./z/B./d/C./k/D./b/38.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “ copying ”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones____________. A.identical B.same C. exactly alike D.similar39.Since/p/and/b/are phonetically similar,occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning,they are said to be_________ __.A.in phonemic contrastB.in complementary distributionC.the allophonesD.minimal pair40.The sound/f/is_________________. A.voiced palatal affricateB.voiced alveolar stopC.voiceless velar fricativeD.voiceless labiodental fricative41.A____vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position. A. back B.central C.front D.middle42.Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two ormore phonemic segments.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called____________. A. phonetic components B.immediate constituents C.suprasegmental features D.se mantic features43.A(n)___________is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstractunit,a collection of distinctive phonetic features. A.phone B.so und C. allophone D.phoneme44.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the____of that phoneme. A. phones B.sounds C. phonemes D. allophones<![endif]>IV. Define the terms below:45. phonology46.phoneme47.allophone48.international phonetic alphabet49.intonation50.phonetics51.auditory phonetics52.acoustic phonetics53.phone54. phonemic contrast55. tone56.minimal pairV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible.Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:57.Of the two media of language,why do you think speech is more basic than writing?58.What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59.What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?60.Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61.In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?I.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F8.F9.T 10.F 11.F 12.T13.F 14.F15.F16.F17. T 18. F 19.T 20.TII.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begin s with the letter given:21.Aspiration 22.Articulatory23.b ilabial24. tongue25. place26.st op27.Suprasegmental 28.sequential29.narrow 30.intonation31.P honology32. oral33.Tone34. sentenceIII.There are four choices following each of the statements below.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:35.C 36.A 37.B 38.D 39.A 40.D 41.C 42.C 43.D44.DIV.Define the terms below:45.phonology: Phonology guage; it aims to discover ns and how these sounds munication.studies the system of sounds of a particular lan how speech sounds in a language form patter are used to convey meaning in linguistic com46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unitof distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47. allophone:The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phonem e.48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationallyaccepted system of phonetic transcription.49. intonation:When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation,they are collectively known as i ntonation.50.51.phonetics:Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages52.auditory phonetics:It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view.It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er. 53.acoustic phonetics:It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves.It studies the physical means by which speech sounds a re transmitted through the air from one person to another.54.phone: Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we usewhen speaking a language.A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.55. phonemic contrast:Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes.If two phonemes can occur in the same environment a nd distinguish meaning,they are in phonemic contrast.56. tone:Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.57. minimal pair:When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stri ngs,the two words are said to form a minimal pair.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible.Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:58. Of the two media of language,why do you think speech is more basic than writing?1)In linguistic evolution,speech is prior to writing.2)In everyday communication,speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.3)Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at school.59. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?。

语言学教程复习题与问题详解（胡壮麟版）2语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第四章)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of lan guage, including the combination of morphemes into words.2. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another followinga simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules t hat comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language sp eak-er are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no li mit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordin ating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of gram maticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed a nd new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recogni zed and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and a uxiliary phrase.10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object us ually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from aff irmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the l etter given: 15. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which conta ins a sub-ject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.16. A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a nu mber of words to form a complete statement, question or command.17. A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually pr ecedes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called p_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is i ncorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is norma lly called an e_______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sensethat new words are constantly added.22. A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P_______ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to ope rate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations b etween and among natural languages.24. The theory of C____ condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice th at can best complete the statement:25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the gramma tical-cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word tha t introduces the embedded clause. A. coordinator B. particle C. prepositio n D. subordinator27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties. A. recursive B. grammatic al C. social D. functional28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand ____________A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammati cality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sent encesD. All of the above.29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________. A. tr ansformational rulesB. generative rules C.phrase structure rules D. x-bar theor y 30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________. A. noun phrases appear onl y in subject and object positions. B. noun phrases can be used to modify an other noun phrase C. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positions D. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.31. The sentence structure is ________. A. only linear B. Only hierarchical C. complex D. both linear and hierarchical32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite 33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentencesA. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. A. Generative B. Transformational C. X-bar D. Phrase structureIV. Define the following terms: 35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate senten ce 38. syntactic categories 39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competen ce 41. transformational rules 42. D-structureV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence?44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples. 4 5. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why? 46. What are the advantages of using treediagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? 4 7. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.T II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 15. simple, 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex 20.embedded 21. open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.Case III. There are four given choices fo r each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statemen t: 25. D 26. D 27. A 28. D 29. A 30. A 31. D 32. C 33. D 34. BIV. Define the following terms: 35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allo w words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. 3 6. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually compri ses a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which co ntains a finite verb or a verb phrase. 37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate s entence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating co njunction, such as "and", "but", "or". 38. syntactic categories: Apart from sen tences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a le xical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a partic ular grammaticalfunction. 39. grammatical relations: The structural and logica l functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The gra mmatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the s entence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in t he grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules tha t transform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure i s the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes plac e. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentence s at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions: 43. What are t he basic components of a sentence? Normally, a sentence consists of at leas t a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase. 4 4. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples. T raditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple senten ce, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentenc e consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and s tands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her hist ory exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of whic h is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do n ot haveequal status, one is subordinate to the other. For exam-ple: Before J ohn gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin-guistics. 45. Are the e lements in a sentence linearly structured? Why? No. Language is both line arly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto an other following a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sen-tences are also hierarchi cally structured. They are orga-nized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can b e seen from the following tree diagram: S NP VP Det N Vt NP De t N The boy likes the music. 46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? The tre e diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it is believed to most t ruthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples. NP movement in-volves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sen tence changes from the active voice to the passive voice: (A) The man beat t he child.(B). The child was beaten by the man. B is the result of the mov ement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original posi tions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right an d "the child" is preposed to the left. Not all instances of NP-movement, ho wever, are related tochanging a sentence from the active voice to the passiv e voice. For example: (C) It seems they are quite fit for the job. (D) They seem quite fit for the job. These sentences are identical in meaning, but diff erent in their superfi-cial syntactic representations. It is believed that they hav e the same underly-ing structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第五章)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Diale ctal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as Britis h English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English. 2. Sense is concer ned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of t he linguistic form. 3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have diff erent references in different situations. 4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of e xperience. 5. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can deriv。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第8-9章Chapter 8 Language in Use1. 语义学与语用学的区别1.1 语用学（Pragmatics）Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used.（语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。

）1.2 区别Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.（语用学主要研究在特定的语境中说话人所想要表达的意义，语义学研究的句子的字面意义，通常不考虑语境。

）2. 合作原则及其准则（Herbert Paul Grice）2.1. 合作原则(Cooperative Principle)说话人经常在话语中传达着比话语表层更多的信息，听话人也能够明白说话人所要表达的意思。

格莱斯认为一定存在一些管理这些话语产生和理解的机制。

他把这种机制称作合作原则。

2.2. 准则(maxims)数量准则(quantity)①使你的话语如（交谈的当前目的）所要求的那样信息充分。

②不要使你的话语比要求的信息更充分。

质量准则(quality)设法使你的话语真实①不要讲明知是虚假的话②不要说没证据的话关系准则(relation)所谈内容要密切相关方式准则(manner)要清晰。

①避免含糊不清②避免歧义③要简练（避免冗长）④要有序3. 言语行为理论（Speech Act Theory）---John Austin3.1. 施为句&叙事句(Performatives & Constatives)施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证真假；叙事句要么用于陈述，要么用于验证，可以验证真假。

Chapter 1 Invitations to linguistics1.2 what is languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols for human communication1.3 design features of languagearbitrariness: there is no connection between the words; sound and its meaningduality: the property of having two levels of structurescreativity(productivity): users can produce sentences they have never heard before. Its potential to create endless sentences by recursiveness.displacement: language can be used to refer to the context removed from the immediate situation of the speakers.cultural transmission: language is passed o through teaching and learning , rather than by instinct.1.4 origin of languageThe bow-wow theory: imitate the sounds of animalThe pooh-pooh theory: instinctive sounds of joy, ager and painThe yo-he-ho theory: rhythmic grunts produced when working1.5 functions of language1.5.1 the main functions of language:Descriptive functions: cognitive or referential or propositional function. Primary function of language. , to convey factual informationExpressive function: emotive or attitudinal function, supplies users’ feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values.Social function: interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people1.5.2 according to Jakobson:Emotive: addresser 表达情感Conative: addressee 导致动作的发生Referential: context描述客观事实Poetic: message语言本身的美Phatic communication: contact建立社会关系Metalinguistic: code make clear the meaning of language itself1.5.3 according to Halliday this system contains three macrofunctionsIdeational: to organize the speaker or writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world. 达意功能指组织说话者或作者现实或虚伪世界的体验，即语言指称实际或虚伪的人，物，动作，事件，状态等Interpersonal: to indicate, establish or maintain social relationships between people.人际功能表明，建立，或维持人与人之间的社会关系，包括称谓形式，情感，语言功能等。

【最新整理，下载后即可编辑】Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed ofelements of the secondary level and each of the two levels hasits own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rulewhich can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. Therecursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for thepossibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are notpresent (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.加1 Each sound in the language is加2 the direct/non-arbitrary/non-symbolicrelation between meaning and form. There areresemblances between the language form andwhat they refer to. That relationship is calledicon. Iconicity exists in sounds, lexicons andsyntax. It is the motivation between languageforms and meanings. It is a relation ofresemblance between language form and whatthey refer to.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.1. function: to convey new information, toembodying all use of language to3. referring to the fact that language hasto make any stretch of spoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a livingpassage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions: 1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. 1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day,etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talkabout a book, and I can also use the expression “the wordbook” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, andauditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape ofsyllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the studyof the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 Macrolinguistics1.8.1 Psycholinguistics1.8.2 Sociolinguistics1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics1.8.4 Computational linguisticsthe linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which themembers of a language-community actually conform and doesnot seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, ofcorrectness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and forall.For example, “Don’t say X.”is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement.The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be anddescribing how things are. In the 18th century, all the mainEuropean languages were studied prescriptively. However,modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature oflinguistics as a science determines its preoccupation withdescription instead of prescription.1.9.2as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic descriptionis the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g.a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’stime would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is ofteninfluenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’sperformance does not always match his supposed competence.Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence,rather than performance. Chomsky’scompetence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as,though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction.Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of acommunity, while competence is deemed as a property of mindof each individual. Saussure looks at language more from asociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomskysince the latter deals with his issues psychologically orpsycholinguistically.1.9.5 Etic vs. emicBeing etic means researcher s’making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just asoften the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis inlinguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the nativemembers of a speech community rather than via appeal to theinvestigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three mainareas:1. phonetics –the study of the production of2. phonetics –the study of the physical properties of3. phonetics –the study of perception of speechMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in anylanguage according to the principles of the InternationalPhonetic Association. The symbols consist of letters anddiacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet,some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive:2. Fricative:3. (Median) approximant:4. Lateral (approximant):2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with thelower lip and the upper front teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tipor blade and the upper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with thetongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with thetongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with thetongue tip or blade curled back so that the underside ofthe tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the backof the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front ofthe tongue and the hard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back ofthe tongue and the soft palate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back ofthe tongue and the uvula, the short projection of thesoft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of the velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the rootof the tongue and the walls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the twopieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English”or “OxfordEnglish” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.A chart of English consonants[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximantChapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of alanguage that can be distinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms ofrelationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes”has two morphemes: “box”and “es,”neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme.E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s”makes the allomorphsthereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse – mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute,by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. Stability2. Relative uninterruptibility3. A minimum free form3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable words2. Grammatical words and lexical words3. Closed-class words and open-class words4. Word class3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.3.2.2 Types of morphemes1.those which may constitute words by themselves, are freemorphemes.Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.2. Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot further beanalyzed. An affix is the collective term for the type offormative that can be used only when added to anothermorpheme. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.3. Inflectional affix and derivational affixInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways:(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute ordelicate grammatical meaning to the stem. E.g. toys,walks, John’s,etc. Therefore, they serve toproduce different forms of a single word. In contrast,derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning.E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2) Inflectional affixes don’t change the word class ofthe word they attach to, such as flower, flowers,whereas derivational affixes might or might not, suchas the relation between small and smallness for theformer, and that between brother and brotherhoodfor the latter.(3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned bynonsemantic linguistic factors outside the word theyattach to but within the phrase or sentence. E.g. thechoice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on theinternet.”is determined by the subject the boy inthe sentence, whereas derivational affixes are moreoften based on simple meaning distinctions. E.g. Thechoice of clever and cleverness depends on whetherwe want to talk about the property “clever” or wewant to talk about “the state of being clever.”(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes,which are always word final. E.g. drums, walks, etc.But derivational affixes can be prefixes or suffixes.E.g. depart, teacher, etc.3.2.3 Inflection and word formation1. InflectionInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, whichdo not change the grammatical class of the stems to whichthey are attached.2. Word formationWord formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassifiedinto the compositional type (compound) and derivationaltype (derivation).(1) CompoundCompounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join twoseparate words to produce a single form, such asice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room,simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is deverbal, that is, it is derived from a verb.Consequently, it is also called a verbal compound or asynthetic compound. Usually, the first member is aparticipant of the process verb. E.g. Nouns: self-control,pain-killer, etc. Adjectives: virus-sensitive, machinewashable, etc. The exocentric compounds are formed byV + N, V + A, and V + P, whereas the exocentric comefrom V + N and V + A. E.g. Nouns: playboy, cutthroat,etc. Adjectives: breakneck, walk-in, etc.(2) DerivationDerivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes. In contrast with inflections, derivations canmake the word class of the original word either changedor unchanged.3.2.4 The counterpoint of phonology and morphology1. Allomorph: Any of the different forms of a morpheme.2. Morphophonology / morphophonemics:Morphophonology is a branch of linguistics referring tothe analysis and classification of the phonological factorsthat affect the appearance of morphemes, andcorrespondingly, the grammatical factors that affect theappearance of phonemes. It is also called morphonologyor morphonemics.3. Assimilation: Assimilation refers to the change of asound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called “contact”or“contiguous” assimilation.4. Dissimilation: Dissimilation refers to the influenceexercised by one sound segment upon the articulation ofanother, so that the sounds become less alike, ordifferent.3.3 Lexical change3.3.1 Lexical change proper1. InventionSince economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items comedirectly from the consumer items, their producers or theirbrand names.2. BlendingBlending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part ofthe first word and the final part of the second word, or byjoining the initial parts of the two words.3. Abbreviation / clippingA new word is created by cutting the final part, cuttingthe initial part or cutting both the initial parts of the originalwords.4. AcronymAcronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.5. Back-formationBack-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deletingan imaged affix from a longer form already in the language.6. Analogical creationThe principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in theconjugation of some English verbs.7. BorrowingEnglish in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages.Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic and other languageshave all played an active role in this process.3.3.2 Phonological change1. LossThe loss of sound can first refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system.The loss of sounds may also occur in utterances at theexpense of some unstressed words.2. AdditionSounds may be lost but they may also be added to the original sound sequence.3. MetathesisMetathesis is a process involving an alternation in the sequence of sounds. Metathesis had been originally aperformance error, which was overlooked and accepted bythe speech community.4. AssimilationAssimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is morespecifically called “contact”or “contiguous”assimilation.3.3.3 Morpho-syntactical change1. Morphological changeThe form of inflectional affixes may also change.2. Syntactical changeThere are more instances of changes in the syntactical features of words3.3.4 Semantic change1. BroadeningBroadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its specific sense to a relatively general one.2. NarrowingContrary to broadening, the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.3. Meaning shiftAll semantic changes involve meaning shift. Here meaning shift is understood in its narrow sense, i.e. thechange of meaning has nothing to do with generalization orrestriction as mentioned above.4. Class shiftBy shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process orattribution. This process of word formation is also knownas zero-derivation, or conversion.5. Folk etymologyFolk etymology refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of theorigin or meaning of the term or from the influence ofmore familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.3.3.5 Orthographic changeChanges can also be found at the graphitic level. Since writing is a recording of the sound system in English, phonological changes will no doubt set off graphitic changes.End of Chapter 3Chapter 4 Syntax4.1 The traditional approach4.1.1 Number, gender and case4.1.2 Tense and aspect[For these two sections, please consult materials ontraditional English grammar. – icywarmtea]4.1.3 Concord and governmentConcord (a.k.a. agreement) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntacticrelationship should agree with each other in terms of somecategories. E.g. in English the determiner and the noun itprecedes should concord in number as in this man, these men.And the form of a subject should agree with that of the verb interms of number in the present tense, e.g. He speaks English;They speak English.Government is another type of control over the form of some words by other words in certain syntactic construction. Itdiffers from concord in that this is a relationship in which aword of a certain class determines the form of others in termsof certain category. E.g. in English, the pronoun after a verb ora preposition should be in the object form as in She gave him abook; She gave a book to him. In other words, the verb, or thepreposition, governs the form of the pronoun after it. Theformer is the governor, and the latter is the governed.4.2 The structural approach4.2.1 Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSyntagmatic (a.k.a. horizontal / chain) relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or betweenelements which are all present, such as the relation betweenweather and the others in the following sentence: If the weatheris nice, we’ll go out.Paradigmatic (a.k.a. vertical / choice) relation is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at aparticular place in a structure, or between one element presentand the others absent.4.2.2 Immediate constituent analysis (IC analysis)1. How to do itImmediate constituents are constituents immediately, directly, below the level of a construction, which may be asentence or a word group or a word.Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediateconstituents –word groups (phrases), which are in turnanalyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and theprocess goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience. The ICanalysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets orshown with a tree diagram. E.g.Poor John ran away. →(1) ((Poor) (John)) ((ran) (away)).(2)Poor John ran awayThrough IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, any ambiguities, if any, will berevealed in that IC analysis emphasizes not only the linearstructure of the sentence but also the hierarchical structure ofthe sentence. E.g. the sentence Leave the book on the shelf. isambiguous. It has two meanings: (1) Put the book on the shelf;(2) Don’t touch the book on the shelf. These two meaningscan be shown by the following tree diagrams. (Omitted. See thetextbook p125~128.)3. Its problemsHowever, IC analysis has three disadvantages. First, at the beginning, some advocator insisted on binary divisions. Anyconstruction, at any level, will be cut into two parts. But this isnot possible. E.g. Old men and women is ambiguous in that itmay mean old + men and women or old men + and women.It’s impossible to combine with only the preceding part oronly the succeeding part. Second, constructions withdiscontinuous constituents will pose technical problems for treediagrams in IC analysis. E.g. the phrasal verbs like make up,turn on, or give up will cause problems in that when the objectis expressed by a pronoun, it will interrupt the phrasal verb asin make it up. The most serious problem is that there arestructural ambiguities which cannot be revealed by IC analysis.E.g. the tree diagram and the labels can only do one analysis forthe love of God.4.2.3 Endocentric and exocentric constructionsAn endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one ofits constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of thewhole. It is also called headed construction. Typical endocentricconstructions are noun phrases, verb phrases and adjectivephrases. They may be further divided into two subtypes:subordinate and coordinate constructions. Those, in whichthere is only one head, with the head being dominant and theother constructions dependent, are subordinate constructions.In the coordinate construction, there are more than one head,e.g. boys and girls, in which the two content constituents, boysand girls, are of equal syntactic status, and no one is dependenton the other.The exocentric construction is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalentto any of its constituents. There is no noticeable center or headin it. Typical exocentric constructions are prepositional phrases,subordinate clauses, English basic sentences, and the verb plusobject constructions.4.3 The generative approach4.3.1 Deep and surface structuresIn transformational generative grammar (a.k.a. T-G grammar), the deep structure may be defined as the abstractrepresentation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its differentconstituents, such as the relation between the underlyingsubject and its verb, or a verb and its object.The surfaces structure is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to thestructural organization of a construction people actuallyproduce and receive.The example for the surface structure is The newspaper was not delivered today. The deep structure of the above sentencewould be something like: (negative) someone (past tense)deliver the newspaper today (passive). The items in brackets arenot lexical items but grammatical concepts which shape thefinal form of the sentence. Rules which describe deep structureare in the first part of the grammar (base component). Ruleswhich transform these structures into surface structures(transformational rules) are in the second part of the grammar(transformational component).4.3.2 The standard theory and afterWhat is the trace theory?[I think this is difficult. It is too abstract for me. –icywarmtea]After the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the original position. This is the notion trace inT-G grammar. It’s suggested that if we have the notion trace,all the necessary information for semantic interpretation maycome from the surface structure. E.g. The passive Dams arebuilt by beavers. differs from the active Beavers built dams. in。

第一部分名校考研真题2017年中山大学837语言学考研真题及参考答案考试科目：外国语言学与应用语言学I. Explain the following terms. (10 points for each term)1. allomorph【答案】Those morphs which represent the same morpheme are called the allomorphs of the same morpheme. For instance, the noun plural morpheme {plural} in English has [-s], [-z], [-iz], [-ai], [-n], [-i] and other morphs, such morphs are termed as the allomorphs of the morpheme {plural}. Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, some others may have considerable variations; some morphemic shapes represent different morphemes and thus have different meanings, for instance, the morphemic shapes {-s} can express plurality in desks, person/ finiteness in speaks and case in girl’s.Words such as illogical, imbalance, irregular and inactive share a common morpheme in-. In other words, il-, ira-, and ir- are exceptionally the variation forms of one morpheme in-. These variation forms are called ALLOMORPHs, i.e. allomorphs of the same morpheme owing to the influence of the sounds to which it attaches. Other instances are such as the variation of plural forms of nouns. -s, -es, -en, -ee-, o, -ce and -yes.2. diglossia【答案】The term diglossia, first used by Ferguson in 1959, refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism. But instead of two different languages, in a diglossic situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play. The language which Ferguson used as examples are Arabic, Modem Greek, Swiss German and Haitian Creole. Each of these languages has two varieties: the high variety (H) and the low variety (L). The two varieties have overt recognition in the community and have commonly known and used labels. H-variety is used in government, the media, education and for religious services. The other one is usually a non-prestige variety, the low variety used in the family, with friends, when shopping, etc.One of the most important features of diglossia is the specialization of function of the two varieties. Each variety is the appropriate language for certain situations with very slight overlapping.3. embedding【答案】Embedding refers to the means by which one clause is included in the sentence (main clause) in syntactic subordination which is also called center embedding in linguistics. Different languages accommodate this construction in various ways, but many of them allow for instances where a smaller, or more precise, unit of speech can be included in a fuller sentence. When this phrase is integratedwhole into the larger one, it is often referred to as center embedding. One of the most common examples of center embedded phrases involves relative clauses that get injected into larger sentences. One basic example is a sentence like this one: “The man that the woman heard left.” – In this example of center embedding, if the relative clause was entirely taken out, a shorter sentence might read like this: “The man left.” The inclusion of the relative clause serves to show the r eader that there was a woman who heard the man, and this leads to the appearance of the phenomenon of center embedding in the sentence. Thus the basic function of embedding is to demonstrate more details about the meaning of the original sentence.4. idiom【答案】An idiom is a phrase or an expression that has a figurative, or sometimes literal, meaning. Categorized as formulaic language, an idiom’s figurative meaning is different from the literal meaning. There are thousands of idioms, occurring frequently in all languages. It is estimated that there are at least twenty-five thousand idiomatic expressions in the English language.5. pragmatics【答案】Pragmatics can be defined in various ways. A general definition is that it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. As the process of communication is essentially a process ofconveying and understanding meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. Pragmatics is a comparatively new branch of study in the area of linguistics; its development and establishment in the 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study of linguistics, especially that of semantics. Pragmatics is the study of language in use, focusing on the study of speaker’s meaning, utterance meaning or contextual meaning. Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, so they are related to as well as different from each other. It differs from the kind of meaning we studied in semantics in that it takes context into consideration while semantics concentrate on the study of literal meaning without context.6. loan translation【答案】Loan translation is a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language. For instance, the English word almighty is a literal translation from the Latin omnipotens. This is also called CALQUE, which may be a word, a phrase, or even a short sentence. The English expression free ve rse was translated from Latin’s verse libre, and black humour is a loan translation from French humour noir, so is found object from French objet trouve.7. interlanguage【答案】The type of language constructed by second or foreign language learnerswho are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as Interlanguage. Interlanguage is often understood as a language system between the target language and the learner’s native language. It is imperfect compared with the target language, but it is not mere translation from the learner’s native language either. However, interlanguage should not really be seen as a bridging language between or a mixture of the target language and native language. Interlanguage is a dynamic language system, which is constantly moving from the departure level to the native-like level. Therefore, “inter” actually means between the beginning stage and the final stage. Studies on interlanguage can be done in two ways: (1) investigating the psychological, biological or neurological mechanisms involved in the production of interlanguage; (2) investigating the linguistic features of interlanguage. The former type of research has been widely conducted, whereas the latter type has not received due attention.8. communicative competence【答案】Communicative competence includes both the knowledge about the language and the knowledge about how to use the language appropriately in communicative situations. It includes five main components of communicative competence. Namely, linguistic competence, pragmatic competence, discourse competence, strategic competence, and fluency.(1) Linguistic competence ‘is concerned with knowledge of the language itself, its form and meaning’ (Hedge, 2000:46). More specifically, it involves spelling,pronunciation, vocabulary, word formation, grammatical structure, sentence structure, and semantics. Hedge emphasises that linguistic competence is an integral part of communicative competence and it is wrong to think that communicative language teaching does not aim for high standard of linguistic correctness.(2) Pragmatic competence is concerned with the appropriate use of the language in social context. That is to say, the choice of the vocabulary and structure depends on the setting, the relative status of the speakers, and their relationships. The above tasks have illustrated this point. In Hymes’s words, to know ‘when to speak, when not, what to talk about with whom, when, where and in what manner’(3) Discourse competence refers to one’s ability to create coherent written text or conversation and the ability to understand them (Canale and Swain, 1980). In other words, it is one’ s ability to express or to understand a topic logically and coherently by effectively employing or comprehending the cohesive markers used in the discourse such as: ‘by the same token’, ‘to put it in other words’, ‘first’, ‘second’, ‘at last’, and also the reference words such as ‘it’, ‘they’, ‘that’, etc. in the context. It is these cohesive words which hold meaning together in a sensible way. Discourse competence, according to Hedge (2000), also includes one’s ability to initiate, develop, enter, interrupt, check, or confirm in a conversation.(4) Strategic competence is similar to communication strategies. It refers to。

第7章语言、文化、社会1. Define the following terms.·Anthropological Study of Linguistics: aims to look at the relationships between language and culture in a speech community. For this reason, it can alternatively he called anthropological linguistics. More specifically, practitioners of the field want to know more about a given community by examining the correlation between the tradition of the community, beliefs, and social behavior of community members and their language use in different contexts of communication.·Communication: is an information process taking place between at least two parties or persons.·Communicative Competence: is a sociolinguistic rule put forward by Dell Hymes in contrast with the “competence”vs. “performance”dichotomy in theoretic linguistics.·Context of Situation: is a framework put forward by Firth. This theory has the following elements (Firth, 1950: 43—44 [Palmer, 1981: 53—543).A. The relevant features of the participants= persons, personalities:(i) The verbal action of the participants.(ii) The non-verbal action of the participants.B. The relevant objects.C. The effects of the verbal action.·Nida’s Classification of Culture: According to Nida(1964), there are five types of sub-culture we should be fully aware of when engaged in translation: 1) ecological culture; 2) linguistic culture; 3) religious culture: 4)material culture; and 5)social culture.·Ethnography of Communication: is an authoritative research framework of our time in a linguistic study of social and cultural factors (Hymes, 1972). The essential elements Suggested by this framework include 1) speech community, 2) situation, event and act, and 3) mnemonic SPEAKING components. ·FLB: an important concept recently put forward by theoretic linguistics, stands for the faculty of language in the broad sense. It forms a contrast with FLN -- the faculty of language in the narrow sense.·FLN: an important concept recently put forward by theoretic linguistics, stands for the faculty of language in the narrow sense. It forms a contrast with FLB the faculty of language in the broad sense.·Gender Difference: is a term used to refer to the variety of differences observed between men and women’s linguistic behavior. This study covers almost all the levels of linguistic studies, ranging from pronunciation variants to communicative patterns.·Linguistic Determinism: is a theory which believes that our language will influence or decide our way of looking at the world. In a loose sense, linguistic determinism, linguistic relativity, and the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis can beregarded as synonyms.·Linguistic Relativity: is a view which “was first expounded by the German ethnologist, Wilhelm yon Humboldt”(Crystal, 1985: 262). In a loose sense, this term has the same meaning with linguistic determinism and the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.·Linguistic Sexism: is a term used to refer to sex-biased phenomena in language use. More specifically, it aims to reveal and deal with linguistic issues related to male chauvinism.·Six-Person System: is a typological pattern developed to study personal pronouns from the perspective of linguistic universality (Ingram, 1978). The following table summarizes this system explicitly. This typological system provides us with a comparative model to study the pronominal usage across languages.Six-Person System·Speech Community: refers to a group of people who “share not only the same rules of speaking, but at least one linguistic variety as well.”(Hymes, 1972: 52) ·SPEAKING: is a mnemonic way of summarizing certain components of speech which make possible the description and analysis of communicative behavior: S=Situation(场景), P=Participants(参与者), E=Ends(目的), A=Act sequence (相关形式与内容), K=Key (语气), I=Instrumentalities (语式), N—Norms (准则), and G —Genres(体裁).·Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: is a theoretic assumption which suggests that our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’unique ways of understanding the world. In a loose sense, this term can be interchangeably used with linguistic relativity and linguistic determinism.·Sociolinguistics of Language: examines issues related to the subject from a more linguistic perspective and, hence, is complementary with the Sociolinguistics of Society in terms of its coverage and concerns. Alternatively, we may also define the Sociolinguistics of Language as a study of sociolinguistic issues at a micro level of discussion.·Sociolinguistics of Society: examines issues related to the subject from a more societal perspective and, hence, is complementary with the Sociolinguistics of 1.anguage in terms of its coverage and concerns. Alternatively, we may also define the Sociolinguistics of Society as a study of sociolinguistic issues at a macro level of discussion.·Tripartite Model for Successful Communication: is a working framework which is based on Roger’s concept of real communication (1961) and is composed of the following principles: 1) try to look at things from other persons’point of view, 2) try to sense their feeling to a given issue, and 3) try to understand their way of knowing the world.·Variationist Linguistics: is a theoretic framework advanced by William Labor to study how language variation and change take place in different social contexts or geographic districts under the influence of social factors such as economics, education, class, gender, style, and so on. The method it uses is basically quantitative, but qualitative instruments have recently been introduced in this branch of linguistic research for a better description and explanation of the data collected.·Women Register: is a hypothesis which assumes that the following features are prevailing in women’s linguistic behavior:1) Women use more “fancy”color terms such as “mauve”and “beige”.2) Women use less powerful curse words.3) Women use more intensifiers such as “terrible”and “awful”.4) Women use more tag questions.5) Women use more statement questions like “Dinner will be ready at seveno’clock?”(with a rising intonation at the end)6) Women’s linguistic behavior is more indirect and, hence, more polite thanmen’s.2. What are some important contributions that sociolinguistics has made to linguistic studies?Key: A couple of contrastive points can be given to show important contributions of sociolinguistics to linguistics. First, we observe that traditional linguisticsemphasizes a formal analysis of language, whereas sociolinguistics calls for a multi-faceted study of language as well so that a more balanced research framework can be achieved. Second, we notice that traditional linguistics focuses much on the study of structure, whereas sociolinguistics emphasizes the study of function as well so that a holistic study of linguistic issues will be possible. Third, traditional linguistics attempts to look at internalized elements of language, whereas sociolinguistics pays attention to externalized factors in language use as well so that a better understanding of the relationships between language, society, and the speaker can be achieved.3. Why do we need to teach culture in our language classroom?Key: A consensus has been reached that language not only reflects culture hut also is part of culture. The close relationships between language and culture have widely been acknowledged. When it comes to language teaching and learning, the influence of cultural knowledge on the linguistic performance of language learners has been identified and highlighted. It has repeatedly been found that learners who lack sufficient knowledge about the target culture can hardly become active and appropriate language users in their target language. For these reasons, the information concerning cultural differences has rightly been introduced in language classrooms of different kinds for enhancing learners’cultural consciousness and improving their performance in cross-cultural contexts of communication.。

第4章句法：从语词到篇章1. Define the following terms.·syntax: the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.·co-occurrence: It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. For instance, what can precede a noun (dog) is usually the determiners and adjectives, and what can follow it when it takes the position of subject will be predicators such as bark, bite, run, etc. In short, co-occurrence is the syntactic environment in which a construction, with its relevant elements, can appear grammatically and conventionally. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.·construction: it refers to any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use construct contains. It can be further divided into the external and internal properties.Take the sentence The boy kicked the ball as an example, we will determine the external syntax as an independent clause, while NP (“the boy”), VP (“kicked”)and NP (“the ball”) will be assigned respectively to the different elements in this clause.·constituent: Constituent is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction: for example, in the sentence The boy ate the apple, S (A), the boy (B), ate the apple (C), each part is a constituent. Constituents can be joined together with other constituents to form larger units. If two constituents, in the case of the example above, B (the boy) and C (ate the apple), are joined to form a hierarchically higher constituent A (“S”, here a sentence), then B and C are said to be immediate constituents of A. ·endocentric: Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i. e. a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable Centre or Head. In the phrase two pretty girls, girls is the Centre or Head of this phrase or word group. ·exocentric: Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre”or “Head”inside the group. Exocentric construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate (verb + object ) construction, and connective (be + complement) construction. In the sentence The boy smiled, neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.·subordination: Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguisticunits so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. Thus the subordinate constituents are words which modify the Head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers. In the phrase swimming in the lake, swimming is the head and in the lake are the words modifying the head.·category: The term category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g., noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, and so on.·coordination: A common syntactic pattern in English and other languages is formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but or or. This phenomenon is known as coordination. In the construction the lady or the tiger, both NPs the lady and the tiger have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally.·agreement: Agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also, be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories). For instance, the syntactic relationship between this pen and it in the following dialogue:—Whose is this pen?—Oh, it’s the one I lost.·embedding: Embedding refers to the means by which one clause is included in another clause in syntactic subordination. E.g., I saw the man who had visited you last year.·reeursiveness: it mainly means that a constituent can be embedded within (i.e., be dominated by) another constituent having the same category, but it can be used to any means to extend any constituent. Together with openness, recursiveness is the core of creativity of language. For example, “I met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new”. ·cohesion: Cohesion refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text. The cohesive devices usually include: conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collocation, lexical repetition, reference, substitution, and so on. In the following example, the cohesive device is “Reference”, that is, “it”refers back to the door: He couldn’t open the door. It was locked tight.·grammatical subject & logical subject: Grammatical and logical subjects are two terms accounting for the case of subject in passive voice. Take the sentences A dog bit John and John was bitten by a dog as examples. Since the object noun (John in this case) sits in the slot before the verb in the passive, it is called grammatical subject, for the original object noun phrase occupies the grammatical space before a verb, the space that a subject normally occupies;the subject (a dog), now the object of a preposition (by a dog), is called a logical subject, since semantically, the subject still does what a subject normally does: it performs an action.2. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences (Hint: It may help to refer back to section 4.2.2)(1) The instructor told the students to study.(2) The customer requested for a cold beer.(3) The pilot landed the jet.(4) These dead trees must be removed.(5) That glass suddenly broke.Key: (1) [NP (det. +n.)+V+NP (det. +n.)+inf.](2) [NP (det. +n.)+V+P P (prep. +det. +adj. +n.)](3) [NP (det. +n.)+V+NP (det. +n)](4) [NP (det. +adj. +n.) +mv (modal verb) +be (auxiliary verb) +Past Participle](5) [NP (det. +n.)+adv. +V]3. Put brackets around the immediate constituents in each sentence. Ex. ((I) ((rode) (back))) ((when) ((it) ((was) (dark)))).(a) The boy was crying.(b) Shut the door.(c) Open the door quickly.(d) The happy teacher in that class was beaming away.(e) He bought an old car with his first pay cheque.Key: (a) ((The) (boy)) ((was) (crying)).(b) (Shut) ((the) (door)).(c) ((Open) ((the) (door))) (quickly).(d) ((The) (((happy) (teacher)) ((in) ((that) (class))))) ((was) ((beaming) (away))).(e) (He) (((bought) ((an) ((old) (car)))) ((with) ((his) ((first) ((pay) (cheque)))))).4. For each of the underlined constructions or word groups, do the following. —State whether it is headed or non-headed.—If headed, state its headword.—Name the type of constructions.Ex. His son will be keenly competing.Answer: headed, headword--competing; verbal group(a) Ducks quack.(b) The ladder in the shed is long enough.(c) I saw a bridge damaged beyond repair.(d) Singing hymns is forbidden in some countries.(e) His handsome face appeared in the magazine.A lady of great beauty came out.(g) He enjoys climbing high mountains.(h) The man nodded patiently.。

Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规那么在语言交际中的表达。

第6章语言与认知1. Define the following terms.·psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. As an interdisciplinary academic field based on psychology and linguistics, psycholinguistics investigates the six following subjects: language acquisition, language comprehension, language production, language disorders, language and thought, and cognitive architecture of language, The most important research subjects are acquisition, comprehension and production.·language acquisition: Language acquisition is one of the central topics in psycholinguistics. Acquiring a first language is something every child does successfully, in a matter of a few years and without the need for formal lessons.Four phases are identified and acknowledged in the process of language acquisition: holophrastic stage, two word stage, three-word utterances, and, fluent grammatical conversation stage.·holophrastic stage: Holophrastic stage is the first phase of language acquisition.The main linguistic accomplishments during this stage are control of the speech musculature and sensitivity to the phonetic distinctions used in the parents’language. Shortly before their first birthday, babies begin tounderstand words, and around that birthday, they start to produce them. At this stage, words are usually produced in isolation; this one-word stage can last from two months to a year. About half the words are for objects: food, body parts, clothing, vehicles, toys, household items, animals. There are words for actions, motions, and routines.·two-word stage: Two-word stage is the second phase of language acquisition. Around 18 months, the child begins to learn words at a rate of one every two waking hours, and keeps learning that rate or faster through adolescence. The primitive syntax begins with two- word strings. Children announce when objects appear, disappear, and move about, point out their properties and owners, comment on people doing things and seeing things, reject and request objects and activities, and ask about who, what, and where. These sequences already reflect the language being acquired: in 95% of them, the words are properly ordered.·three-word utterances: Three-word utterances stage is the third phase of language acquisition. Three-word utterances look like samples drawn from longer potential sentences expressing a complete and more complicated idea. For example, although the children never produced a sentence as complicated as Mother gave John lunch in the kitchen, they did produce strings containing all of its components in the correct order.·connectionism: With respect to language comprehension, connectionism in psycholinguistics claims that readers use the same system of links betweenspelling units and sound units to generate the pronunciations of written words and to access the pronunciations of familiar words, or words that are exceptions to these patterns. In this view, similarity and frequency play important roles in processing and comprehending language, with the novel items being processed based on their similarity to the known ones.·cohort model: The cohort model is a supposed doctrine dealing with the spoken word recognition postulated by Marslen-Wilson and Welsh in 1990. It is suggested that the first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set or cohort of word candidates that are consistent with the input. These candidates compete with one another for activation. As more acoustic input is analyzed, candidates that are no longer consistent with the input drop out of the set. This process continues until only one word candidate matches the input~ the best fitting word may be chosen if no single candidate is a clear winner. ·interactive model: The interactive model holds that in recognizing the spoken words higher processing levels have a direct, “top down”influence on lower levels. Lexical knowledge can affect the perception of phonemes. There is interactivity in the form of lexical effects on the perception of sublcxical units. In certain cases, listeners’knowledge of words can lead to the inhibition of certain phonemes; in other cases, listeners continue to “hear”phonemes that have been removed from the speech signal and replaced by noise.·race model: The race model suggests in spoken word recognition there are two routes that race each other--a pre-lexical route, which computes phonologicalinformation from the acoustic signal, and a lexical route, in which the phonological information associated with a word becomes available when the word itself is accessed. When word-level information appears to affect a lower-level process, it is assumed that the lexical route won the race. ·serial model: Serial model proposes that the sentence comprehension system continually and sequentially follows the constraints of a language’s grammar with remarkable speed. Serial model describes how the processor quickly constructs one or more representations of a sentence based on a restricted range of information that is guaranteed to be relevant to its interpretation, primarily grammatical information. Any such representation is then quickly interpreted and evaluated, using the full range of information that might be relevant.·parallel model: Parallel model emphasizes that the comprehension system is sensitive to a vast range of information, including grammatical, lexical, and contextual, as well as knowledge of the speaker/writer and of the world in general Parallel model describes how the processor uses all relevant information to quickly evaluate the full range of possible interpretations of a sentence. It is generally acknowledged that listeners and readers integrate grammatical and situational knowledge in understanding a sentence. ·resonance model: The resonance model is a model about text comprehension, in this model, information in long term memory is automatically activated by the presence of material that apparently bears a rough semantic relation to it.Semantic details, including factors such as negation that drastically change the truth of propositions, do not seem to affect the resonance process. It emphasized a more active and intelligent search for meaning as the basis by which a reader discovers the conceptual structure of a discourse. In reading a narrative text, reader attempts to build a representation of the causal structure of the text, analyzing events in terms of goals, actions, and reactions. A resonance process serves as a first stage in processing a text, and, reading objectives and details of text structure determine whether a reader goes further and searches for a coherent structure for the text.·construal: Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation etc.·construal operations: Construal operations are conceptualizing processes used in language process by human beings. That is, construal operations are the underlying psychological processes and resources employed in the interpretation of linguistic expressions.·figure-ground alignment: Figure-ground alignment seems to apply to space with the ground as the prepositional object and the preposition expressing the spatial relational configuration. It also applies to human perception of moving objects. Since the moving object is typically the most prominent one, because it is moving, it is typically the figure, while the remaining stimuli constitute the ground.·trajector: Trajector means a moving or dynamic figure.·landmark: Landmark means the ground provided for a moving figure.·basic level category: Basic level category is the most economical level at which you can find the most relevant information. The information on our interactions with objects in the real world are stored at this level. It is at this level that we conjure up the general gestalt of the category.·subordinate level Subordinate level is the level at which we perceive the differences between the members of the basic level categories.·image schema: Image schema is a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual’interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to oar experience.·metaphor: Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other. It’s often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain. The target domain is the experience being described by the metaphor and the source domain is the means that We use in order to describe the experience.·metonymy: Metonymy is a figure of speech that has to do with the substitution of the name of one thing for that of another.·ontological metaphors: Ontological metaphors mean that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc., as entities and substances.·structural metaphors: Structural metaphors play the most important role。