Chapter 1: Introduction
1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.
8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a
speech community.
9. parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.
10. competence : The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.
11.performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
13.design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human
language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.
14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to no logical connection between meaning and
sound.
15. productivity: Users can understand and produce sentences t hat they have never
heard before.
16. duality: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound,
which is meaningless, and the higher lever of meaning.
17. displacement: Language can be used to refer to the contexts removed from the
immediate situation of the speaker no matter how far away from the topic of
conversation in time or space.
18. cultural transmission: Language is culturally transmitted. It is taught and learned
from one generation to the next, rather than by instinct.
Chapter 2: Phonology
1. phonic medium : The meaningful speech sound in human communication.
2. phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all
sounds in t he world’s languages.
3. articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. h
a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.
the
4. auditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. how sounds are perceived by the hearer.
5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves,
the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person
to another.
6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.
7. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.
8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds
sequences in written form.
9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show
sounds in written form.
10. diacritics: The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.
11. IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of
letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.
12. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.
13. manner of articulation : The manner in which obstruction is created.
14. place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.
15. consonant: a speech s ound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.
16. vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.
17. monophthong : the individual vowel.
18. diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels, and functions as a single one.
19. phone : The speech sound we use when speaking a language.
20. phoneme : The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds.
21. allophone : any different forms of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments.
22. phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.
23. phonemic contrast : two similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning.
24. complementary distribution : allophones of the same phoneme and they don’t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.
25. minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except one sound and occurs in the same position. The two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.
26. sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.
27. assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature
of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.
28. deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.
29. suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments----syllable, word, sentence.
30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
31. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.
Chapter 3: Morphology
1. morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.
2. open class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it.
3. closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.
4. morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.
5. affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the
meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.
6. suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes
the part of speech of a word.
7. prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually
changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.
8. bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined
wit others. E.g. –ment.
9. free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.
10. derivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form
a new word.
11. inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case.
12. morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how
morphemes combine to form words.
13. compound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as a
single words
14. inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for past
tense.
Chapter 4: Syntax
1. syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form
sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
2. category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar
functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.
6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called
phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the
phrase is built.
8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.
9. specifier: The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers.
10. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.
11. phrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates
the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.
14. coordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the
same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is
known as coordination.
15. subcategorization: The information about a word’s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization.
16. complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.
17. complement clause: The sentence i ntroduced by the complementizer is called a
complement clause.
18. complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement
clause is called a complement phrase.
19. matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded is
called matrix clause.
20. modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads
is called modifier.
21. transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another
22. inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.
23. Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.
24. deep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.
25. surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessary syntactic movement, i.e., transformation, to the deep structure. (05)
26. universal grammar: the innateness principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages.
Chapter 5: Semantics
1. semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.
3. sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.
4. reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.
6. dialectal synonyms: synonyms that are used in different regional dialects.
7. stylistic synonyms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.
8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, i.e., in the words they go together with.
9. polysemy : The same word has more than one meaning.
10. homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
11. homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.
12. homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.
13. complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.
14. hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.
15. superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate.
16. co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.
17. antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.
20. relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship
between the two items are called relational opposites. For example, husband---wife,
father---son, buy---sell, let---rent, above---below.
21. entailment: the relationship between two sentences w here the truth of one is
inferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.
22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage
already knows. e.g. Some tea has already been taken is a presupposition of Take some
more tea.
Chapter 6: Pragmatics
1. pragmatics: The study of how speakers uses sentences to effect successful communication.
2. context: The general knowledge shared by the speakers and the hearers.
3. sentence meaning: The meaning of a self-contained unit with abstract and
de-contextualized features.
4. utterance meaning: The meaning that a speaker conveys by using a particular
utterance in a particular context.
5. utterance: expression produced in a particular context with a particular intention.
6. Speech Act Theory: The theory proposed by John Austin and deepened by Searle,
which believes that we are performing actions when we are speaking.
7. constatives: Constatives are statements t hat either state or describe, and are thus
verifiable.
8. performatives: Pe rformatives are sentences that don’t state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.
9. locutionary act: The act of conveying literal meaning by virtue of syntax, lexicon
and phonology.
ntention and performed in
10. illocutionary act: The act of expressing the speaker’s i
saying something.
11. perlocutionary act: The act resulting from saying something and the consequence
or the change brought about by the utterance.
12. representatives: Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.
13. directives: Trying to get the hearer to do something.
17. cooperative Principle: The principle that the participants must first of all be
willing to cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible to
carry on the talk.
18. conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning
during conversation.
Chapter 7: Language Change
8. acronyms: Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words.
9. protolanguage: The original form of a language family, which has ceased to exist.
10. Language family: A group of historically related languages that have developed
from a common ancestral language.
Chapter 8: Language And Society
1. sociolinguistics: The subfield of linguistics that study language variation and
language use in social contexts.
2. speech community: A group of people who form a community and share at least
one speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms.
3. speech varieties: It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker
or a group of speakers.
4. regional dialect: A variety of language used by people living in the same geographical region.
5. sociolect: A variety of language used by people, who belong to a particular social
class.
6. registers : The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation.
dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements,
7. idiolect : A person’s
regarding regional, social, gender and age variations.
8. linguistic reportoire : The totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual
constitutes his linguistic repertoire.
9. register theory : A theory proposed by American linguist Halliday, who believed
that three social variables determine the register, namely, field of discourse, tenor of
discourse and mode of discourse.
10. field of discourse : the purpose and subject matter of the communicative behavior..
11. tenor of discourse: It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question:
who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they
stand to each other.
12. mode of discourse: It refers to the means of communication and it is concerned
with how communication is carried out.
13. standard dialect: A superposed variety of language of a community or nation,
usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.
14. formality: It refers to the degree of formality in different occasions and reflects the relationship and conversations. According to Martin Joos, there are five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, formal and frozen.
15. Pidgin: A blending of several language, developing as a contact language of
people, who speak different languages, try to communication with one another on a
regular basis.
16. Creole : A pidgin language which has become the native language of a group of
speakers used in this daily life.
17. bilingualism : The use of two different languages side by side with each having a
different role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes.(07C)
18. diaglossia : A sociolinguistic situation in which two different varieties of language
co-exist in a speech community, each having a definite role to play.
19. Lingua Franca : A variety of language that serves as a medium of communication
among groups of people, who speak different native languages or dialects
20. code-switching: the movement back and forth between two languages or dialects
within the same sentence or discourse.
Chapter 10: Language Acquisition
1. language acquisition: It refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.
2. language acquisition device (LAD): A hypothetical innate mechanism every normal
human child is believed to be born with, which allow them to acquire language.
3. Universal Grammar: A theory which claims to account for the grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks.
4. motherese: A special speech to children used by adults, which is characterized with slow rate of speed, high pitch, rich intonation, shorter and simpler sentence structures etc.----又叫child directed speech，caretaker talk.
5. Critical Period Hypothesis: The hypothesis that the time span between early childhood and puberty is the critical period for language acquisition, during which children can acquire language without formal instruction successfully and effortlessly.
6. under-extension: Use a word with less than its usual range of denotation.
7. over-extension: Extension of the meaning of a word beyond its usual domain of application by young children.
8. telegraphic speech: Childre n’s early multiword speech that contains content words and lacks function words and inflectional morphemes.
9. content word: Words referring to things, quality, state or action, which have lexical meaning used alone.
10. function word: Words with little meaning on their own but show grammatical relationships in and between sentences.
11. taboo: Words known to speakers but avoided in some contexts of speech for reasons of religion, politeness etc.
12. atypical development: Some acquisition of language may be delayed but follow
the same rules of language development due to trauma or injury.
Chapter 11 : Second Language Acquisition
1. second language acquisition: It refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.
2. target language: The language to be acquired by the second language learner.
3. second language: A second language is a language which is not a native language in
a country but which is widely used as a medium of communication and which is usually used alongside another language or languages.
4. foreign language: A foreign language is a language which is taught as a school subject but which is not used as a medium of instruction in schools nor as a language of communication within a country.
5. interlanguage: A type of language produced by second and foreign language learners, who are in the process of learning a language, and this type of language usually contains wrong expressions.
6. fossilization: In second or foreign language learning, there is a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of
the way a person speaks or writes a language.
14. overgeneralization: The use of previously available strategies in new situations, in which they are unacceptable.
15. cross-association: s ome words are similar in meaning as well as spelling and pronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association.
16. error: the production of incorrect forms in speech or writing by a non-native speaker of a second language, due to his incomplete knowledge of the rules of that
target language.
17. mistake: mistakes, defined as either intentionally or unintentionally deviant forms
and self-corrigible, suggest failure in performance.
18. input: language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can
learn.
19. intake: the input which is actually helpful for the learner.
20. Input Hypothesis: A hypothesis proposed by Krashen , which states that in second
or the learner to understand input language which
language learning, it’s necessary f
present linguistic
contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’s
competence. E ventually the ability to produce language is said to emerge naturally
without being taught directly.
21. acquisition: Acquisition is a process similar to the way children acquire their first
language. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules.
Learners are hardly aware of their learning but they are using language to communicate. It is also called implicit learning, informal learning or natural learning.
23. comprehensible input: Input language which contains linguistic items that are
sent linguistic competence.
slightly beyond the learner’s pre
24. language aptitude: the natural ability to learn a language, not including
intelligence, motivation, interest, etc.
25. motivation: motivation is defined as the learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive.
26. instrumental motivation: the motivation that people learn a foreign language for
instrumental goals such as passing exams, or furthering a career etc.
27. integrative motivation: the drive that people learn a foreign language because of
the wish to identify with the target culture.
28. resultative motivation: the drive that learners learn a second language for external
purposes.
29. intrinsic motivation: the drive that learners learn the second language for
enjoyment or pleasure from learning.
Chapter 12 : Language And Brain
1. neurolinguistics: It is the study of relationship between brain and language. It
includes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning,
how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain
affects the ability to use language.
2. psycholinguistics: the study of language processing. It is concerned with the
processes of language acqisition, comprehension and production.
7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired language disorders due to the cerebral
lesions caused by a tumor, an accident and so on.
13. spoonerism: a slip of tongue in which the position of sounds, syllables, or words is
reversed, for example, Let’s have chish and fips instend of Let’s have fish and ch 14. priming: the process that before the participants make a decision whether the
string of letters is a word or not, they are presented with an activated word.
15. frequency effect: Subjects take less time to make judgement on frequently used
words than to judge less commonly used words . This phenomenon is called
frequency effect.
16. lexical decision: an experiment that let participants judge whether a string of letter is a word or not at a certain time.
18. priming effect: Since the mental representation is activated through the prime, when the target is presented, r esponse time is shorter that it otherwise would have been. This is called the priming effect.
Morphology 形态学，研究词的内部结构和构造规则 如colorful,由color和-ful两部分构成，由此概括出一条规则：名词词尾加上-ful可构成形容词 Morpheme, 语素，不能再简化的有意义的语言单位。如boys,由boy和-s构成 Morph 语素的具体形态 Allomorph 语素变体 英文单词illogical,imbalance,irregular和inactive有着共同的语素in-。换句话说，im-,ir-是语素in-的变体。 Free morphemes 能单独出现，独立构词的语素称为自由语素。如work,boy Bound morphemes 不能独立出现，必须附着在其他语素后才能构词的语素。如distempered中，dis-和-ed是黏着语素，temper是自由语素 Bound roots 不能独立出现，只能被词缀附着后出现 如refer中的-fer,consist中的-sist Content morphemes 包含语义内容的语素（包含简单词和能改变词根意义的词缀），如名词、动词、形容词、副词。如work Function morphemes 通过联系一个句子中的其他词提供语法功能的语素 如介词、连词、冠词 at，for，a,but Inflectional 曲折，生成同一语素的不同形式 -s,-‘s,-ing,-en,-er,-est，-s Derivational 派生，生成新词，通常可以改变词汇意义 Cat,caty Compounding合成 如Girlfriend Reduplication 重复 Abbreviation or shortening 简写 Blending 混合 Motor+hotel=motel Breakfast+lunch=brunch Alternation Man men Suppletion不规则 Go went Syntax句法
现代语言学 一绪论 1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2 Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants. 3 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone. 4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher. 5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context. 8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language. 9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 二音系学 1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t. 4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. 6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others. 9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature. 10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest} 三形态学 1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.
序论部分 语言学：是以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立的科学；从方法上分为历史语言学、比较语言学、历史比较语言学、描写语言学；从研究对象上可分为个别语言学和普通语言学；19C 初的历史比较语言学标志着语言学的诞生。 历史语言学：用历史的方法来考察语言的历史演变、研究它的变化规律的语言学。 比较语言学：用比较的方法，对不同的语言进行对比研究，找出它们相异之处或共同规律的语言学。表层结构、深层结构：表层结构和深层结构相对，表层结构赋予句子以一定的语音形式，即通过语音形式所表达出来的那种结构，表层结构是由深层结构转换而显现的；深层结构是赋予句子以一定的语义解释的那种结构。 语言的社会功能语言的依存性（强制性）：语言符号的音义结合是任意的，但一经社会约定俗成后,音义之间就具有互相依存的关系，不得任意更改。 语言层级性：语言是一种分层装置。语言结构要素的各个单位，在语言结构中，并非处在同一个平面上，而是分为不同的层和级。语言可分为二层——底层是一套音位和由音位组成的音节，为语言符号准备了形式部分；上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列，分为三级：第一级是词素，是构词材料'；第二级是词，是造句材料；第三级是句子，是交际的基本单位。语言发展的渐变性：指语言从旧质过渡到新质不是经过爆发，不是经过消灭现存的语言和创造新的语言，而是经过新质要素的逐渐积累，旧质要素的逐渐死亡来实现的。语言结构的体系的演变只能采取渐变，不能爆发突变。 语言发展的不平衡性：指语言结构体系发展变化是不平衡的，即词汇、语义、语音、语法的发展速度是不一样的。与社会联系最直接的词汇、语义变化最快，语音次之，语法最慢。组合关系：构成线性序列的语言成分之间前后相继的关系。语言单位顺着时间的线条前后相继，好像一根链条，一环扣着一环，处于这个组合链中的两个符号或符号序列之间的关系就叫组合关系。如：主谓、动宾等都是具体的组合关系类型。 聚合关系：在线性序列的某一结构位置上语言成分之间相互替换的关系。在同一位置上能够相互替换的语言单位具有相同的语法功能。在这个线性序列中，每一个语言单位都占有一个特定的位置，在这个位置上它可以被其他语言单位替换下来，犹如一根链条，某一环可以被另一环替换下来，从而形成一根新的链条。 语言习得性：是指虽然人类先天就具有潜在的语言能力，但要掌握一门语言，必须通过后天的学习，没有现实的语言环境，不能掌握任何一种语言。 语言能力：抽象思维能力和发音能力的结合，即，掌握语言需要有发达的大脑和灵活的发音器官。征候：是事物本身的特征，它代表着事物，可以让我们通过它来推知事物。如：炊烟代表人家。语音部分语音：即语言的声音，由人的发音器官发出，负载一定的意义，是语言的物质外壳，语言依靠语音来实现其社会交际功能。 音素：从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位，分为元音和辅音。 国际音标：由国际语音学会于1888年制定的一套记音符号，它根据“一个音素只用一个音标表示，一个音标只表示一个音素”的原则，主要使用拉丁字母和各种变形符号，是国际上通用的记音符号。语音的生理属性：指语音的动力、发音体和发音方法。 语音的物理属性：是指物体受到外力作用而发生振动，从而使周围的空气也发生振动，形成音波，音波传入人耳，使鼓膜发生振动，刺激听觉神经，于是人们产生了声音的感觉。语音的物理属性包括音高、音长、音重、音质。 语音的社会属性：指同一个音素在不同的语言或方言中具有不同的作用，执行不同的交际功能，是语音的本质属性。 音高：指声音的高低，取决于发音体振动的频率，具有区别意义的作用。如汉语的声调。音重：指声音的强弱，取决于振幅，具有区别意义的作用。语音的强弱与气流量的大小和发
语言学名词解释汇总 一、名词解释。 1、语言学：①～是以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立的科学；②从方法上分为历史…、比较…、历史比较…、描写…；从研究对象上可分为个别…和普通…； ③19世纪初的历史比较学标志着语言学的诞生。 2、语文学：…是为给古代文化遗产——政治历史文学等方面的经典书面著作作注释，目的是使人们可以读懂古书的一门尚未独立的学科。 3、小学：指我国古代传统的文学学、音韵学和训诂学,虽然我国古代没有语文学，但一般认为…属于语文学的范围。 4、训诂：是解释字义和研究它的演变的一门学科，其目的是从词义方面来解释古书的文字。 5、专语语言学：以某种具体的语言为研究对象的语言学称为…。 ＊共时语言学和历时语言学：根据语言体系的稳固和变化,把语言研究分为共时的和历时的研究,共时…研究的是在特定时期内相对稳固的语言体系,如对现代汉语的研究;历时…研究的则是描写语言体系的历史演变,如对汉语发展史的研究。＊普通语言学：是对人类语言从理论方面进行研究的一门学科，它探索各种语言所共有的规律以及各种语言在结构上的共同特点。 ＊历史语言学：用历史的方法来考察语言的历史演变、研究它的变化规律的语言学称为…。 ＊比较语言学：用比较的方法，对不同的语言进行对比研究，找出它们相异之处或共同规律的叫…。 6、表层结构和深层结构：表层结构和深层结构相对，表层结构赋予句子以一定的语音形式，即通过语音形式所表达出来的那种结构，表层结构是由深层结构转换而显现的；深层结构是赋予句子以一定的语义解释的那种结构。 7、语言：是从言语中概括出来的音义结合的词汇系统和语法系统。 ＊言语：是说的行为和结果。 ＊说话：是人们运用语言工具表达思想所产生的结果。 8、语言层级性（二层性）：语言是一种分层装置。语言结构要素的各个单位，在语言结构中，并非处在同一个平面上，而是分为不同的层和级。语言可分为二层——底层是一套音位和由音位组成的音节；上层分为三级：第一级是词素，是构词材料'；第二级是词，是造句材料；第三级是句子，是交际的基本单位。 ＊语言的线条性：是指在交际过程中，语言符号或者作为符号的形式的声音，只能一个跟着一个依次出现，随着时间的推移而逐渐延伸，绝不能在同一时间里说出两个符号或两个声音。 ＊任意性：语言符号的音义结合是任意的，音义之间交没有必然的、本质的联系，也就是它们之间的结合是不可论证的，是约定俗成的。 ＊依存性：语言符号的音义结合是任意的，但一经社会约定俗成后,音义之间就具有互相依存的关系，不得任意更改。 9、语言发展的渐变性：指语言从旧质过渡到新质不是经 过爆发，不是经过消灭现存的语言和创造新的语言，而是经过新质要素的逐渐积累，旧质要素的逐渐死亡来实现的。语言结构的体系的演变只能采取渐变，不能爆发突变。 ＊语言发展的不平衡性：指语言结构体系发展变化是不平衡的，即词汇、语义、
Chapter 12 : Lan guage And Brain 1. n euroli nguistics: It is the study of relati on ship betwee n brain and Ian guage. It in eludes research into how the structure of the brain in flue nces Ian guage lear ning, how and in which parts of the brain Ian guage is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use Ian guage. 2. psycholinguistics: ____ t he study of Ian guage process in g. It is concerned with the processes of Ian guage acqisiti on, comprehe nsion and product ion. 3. brain lateralizati on: The localizatio n of cog nitive and perceptive fun cti ons in a particular hemisphere of the brain. 4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization of cog nitive fun cti on. 5. right ear advantage: ___ The phe nomenon that the right ear shows an adva ntage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage. 6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cog niti on are called as split brain studies. 7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired Ianguage disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accide nt and so on. 8. non- flue nt aphasia: Damageto parts of the brain in front of the cen tral sulcus is called non-flue nt aphasia. 9. flue nt aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex beh ind the cen tral sulcus results in a type of aphasia called flue nt aphasia. 10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the an gular gyrus of the parietal lobe ofte n causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia. 11. phono logical dyslexia: ___ it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems to have lost the ability to use spelli ng-to-so und rules. 12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems un able to recog nize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spell in g-to-so und rules. 13. spo on erism: a slip of ton gue in which the positi on of soun ds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let' s have chish and fips instend of Let' s have fish and chips. 14. prim ing: the process that before the participa nts make a decisi on whether the stri ng of letters is a word or not, they are prese nted with an activated word. 15. freque ncy effect: Subjects take less time to make judgeme nt on freque ntly used words tha n to judge less com monly used words . This phe nomenon is called freque ncy effect.
Illocutionary act: The illocutionary act is the act performed in the performing of a locutionary act. When we speak we not only produce some units of language with certain meanings, but also make clear our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood, or they also have certain forces as Austin prefers to say. In the example of “Morning!” we can say it has the force of a greeting, or it ought to have been taken as a greeting. Cooperative principle: This is the principle suggested by Grice about the regularity in conversation, which reads “Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged”. There are four categories of maxims under it, namely, quantity maxims, quality maxims, relation maxim, and manner maxims. Conversational implicature: This is a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims. In this sense, implicature is comparable to illocutionary force in speech act theory in that they are both concerned with the contextual side of meaning, or 言外之意in Chinese. Entailment: This is a logical relationship between two sentences in which the truth of the second necessarily follows from the truth of the first, while the falsity of the first follows from the falsity of the second. For example, when “I saw a boy” is true, “I saw a child” is necessarily true;and if “I saw a child” is not true, “I saw a boy” will not be true either. Ostensive communication: “Ostensive communication”, or “inferential communication”, is a shorthand for “ostensive-inferential communication”. That is, communication is not simply a matter of encoding and decoding, it also involves inference on the part of the hearer and ostension (making clear of one?s intention to express something) on the part of the speaker. Speech act theory: speech act theory is the first major in theory in the study of language in use which originated with J.L. Austin. In his opinion, to say something is to do something. He classified speech act into three kinds: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act. Image Schema意向图式: is a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience. Sociolinguistics: is the linguistic study of society or the social study of language. Transformation-generative grammar (TG)转换生成语法TG refers to any grammar in which different syntactic structures are related by transformations. Hend commonly, from the 1960s, of the theories of Chomsky, or of Chomsky?s school, in general. In a transformational grammar as Chomsky first proposed it, the main role of transformations was to relate the sentences of a language as a whole to a small set of kernel sentences. Functional sentence perspective (FSP)功能句子观is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances or texts in terms of the information they contain. The principle is that Stimulus-response: A learning theory associated particularly with the American psychologist Skinner, which describes learning as the formation of association between responses. Behaviorism in linguistics holds that children learn language through a chain of “stimulus-response reinforcement”, and the adult?s use of language is also a process of stimulus-response. A stimulus is the behavior
语言学概论名词解释 (一) 1、【语言学】语言学是把语言作为研究对象的科学,是关于语言的理论知识。+语言学是抽象应用性学科,语言学为语文教学服务,语言学为国家语文政策服务,语言学促进现代化建设 2、【具体语言学】以某一种或一些具体语言为研究对象的语言学叫做具体语言学+具体语言学都是研究有关个别语言(或语系、语族)的特殊规律的。 3、【理论语言学】把具体语言研究的成果总结起来,找出语言的一般规律的学科是理论语言学(或普通语言学)。+它在具体语言研究的基础上总结出一般规律,再用来指导具体语言的研究,理论语言学提供语言学的基本概念、有关语言的一般理论、模式和研究方法,通常包括语言结构的分析和描写的种种原则。它的内容应该适用于所有或多数语言。 4、【历时语言学】也叫历史语言学,研究语言在不同阶段的历史演变,研究它的语音、语义或词汇、语法等从古到今的发展。 5、【共时语言学】也叫断代语言学,它研究某一时期的具体语言的结构状况。 6、【应用语言学】应用语言学是应用语言学成果于各种有关语言文字实际运用的学科。+它包括语言教学、机器翻译、人机对话、情报检索、人工智能、词典编纂、文学创作技巧、失语症治疗等有关语言文字运用的研究。 7、【各种类型的语言学】研究语法构造的叫语法学;研究词汇的叫做词汇学;研究语音的语音学;研究语义的叫语义学;研究如何加强语言表现力的是修辞学;研究文字的是文字学。
8、【社会语言学】社会语言学是语言学同其他社会科学相交的边缘学科,建立于20世纪60年代。+社会语言学的根本目的是要研究人们使用着的活生生的语言是什么样子,随哪些因素而起变化,有什么规律,因此它的研究课题十分广泛,另一方面,还可以研究社会现象及其发展过程在语言中的反映。 9、【心理语言学】心理语言学是语言学和心理学相交的边缘学科,20世纪50年代既已建立。+心理语言学的研究内容主要是:语言的习得,语言的发生,语言的理解,语言与思维、智力的关系等。心理语言学还对大脑结构、思维和语言之间的制约关系进行探索,但目前有关的若干问题已成为又一门新的学科--神经语言学的研究对象。 10、【数理语言学】数理语言学是数学与语言学相交的边缘学科,是用数学方法研究自然语言及其运用的一门新兴学科。数理语言学因研究的目的、对象等的差异又分为代数语言学和统计语言学。 (二) 11、【语言】语言是人类最重要的交际工具,它以语音为表现形式,以语义为内容,是一个由词汇和语法构成的符号系统。+语言是社会的产物,语言受制于社会(具体语言中的语音和语义的结合是由社会决定的),又服从于社会需要。语言的活动范围最为宽广,能够满足社会全体成员各个方面的交际需要。语言具有基础性、广泛性、适应性、全民性、无阶级性。有声语言是划分人和动物的重要标志之一。语言是民主社会集体创造的最重要的交际工具,它本身是民族文化的组成部分,而且往往是文化的其他领域的载体和表现形式,也因此说语言是民族文化的标志。 12、【言语】言语是运用语言(说话)和运用语言的结果(说的话)。在运用文字的情况下,言语是写作和写下来的话。+平常听到的一句句话都是言语,言语是社会本质和个人本质的结合。
名词解释 https://www.doczj.com/doc/a84869300.html,petence and Performance: The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Competence----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard. ) 2.Sociolinguistics: is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.( It is a field of study that assumes that human society is made up of many related patterns and behaviors, some of which are linguistic.) https://www.doczj.com/doc/a84869300.html,nguage Acquisition: refers to t he child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community. (Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s devel opment of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.) 4.the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf (and also a belief held by some scholars). It states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language. (2) The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis consists of two parts, i.e. linguistic determinism and relativism. Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. Or put it more bluntly, language determines thought, i.e. the notion of linguistic determinism. Because languages differ in many ways, Whorf also believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, i.e. relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of linguistic relativism. 5.Phrase structure rule: The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as: NP →(Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. VP →(Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments. AP →(Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP →(Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.
语言学纲要名词解释 导言 1.语言学：以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立学科，其主要任务是研究语言的性质、结构和功能，通过考察语言及其应用的现象，来解释语言存在和发展的规律。 2.语文学：指19世纪历史比较语言学之前的语言研究，这时的语言研究尚未独立，语言学作为其他学科的附庸而存在，语言研究的主要目的是为了阅读古籍和语言教学，从而为统治者治理国家或为其他学科的研究服务。 3.小学：中国传统的语文学，由于汉语书面语使用的文字——汉字的特点，中国传统语言研究抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵、训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语文学。 4.理论语言学：也称普通语言学，是关于语言的一般规律的理论研究。理论语言学的水平在很大程度上决定于具体语言学的研究成果。 5.共时语言学：以同时的、静态的分析方法，研究语言相对静止的状态，描写分析语言在某一时期、某一阶段的状况，是从横的方面研究语言。 6.历时语言学：研究语言发展的历史，观察一种语言的各个结构要素在不同发展阶段的历史演变，是从纵向的方面研究语言的历史。涉及到一种语言的叫做历时语言学，如历史语音学，历史词汇学，历史语法学等；涉及到多种语言和方言的叫做历史比较语言学。 7.索绪尔：瑞士语言学家，现代语言学的奠基人，结构主义语言学的开创者，著有《普通语言学教程》，被人们誉为“现代语言学之父”。他提出语言是符号体系；符号由能指所指两部分构成，这两部分的关系是任意的，一旦形成以后又是约定性的；符号系统内部存在“组合关系”和“聚合关系”；区分了“语言”和“言语”；“内部语言学”和“外部语言学”；“历时语言学”和“共时语言学”。他的学说标志着现代语言学的开始，在不同的程度上影响着20世纪的各个语言学派。 8.布龙菲尔德：美国描写语言学派的代表人物，它的主要贡献是将语言学从哲学理念建设成为一门科学。早期的著作是出版于1914年的《语言研究导论》，立足于心理学来阐释语言、刺激—反应论来解释语言的产生和理解的过程。1933年他的最有影响的著作《语言论》出版。这时，他已经从构造心理学转到行为心理学。他在该书中提出了美国结构语言学派研究语言的基本原则和描写语言结构的总框架。 9.乔姆斯基：转换生成语法的创始人，著有《句法结构》。最出他用结构主义的方法研究希伯来语，后来发现这种方法有很大的局限性，转而探索新的方法，逐步建立了转换生成语法，1957年出版的《句法结构》就是这一新方法的标志。这种分析方法风靡全世界，冲垮了结构语言学的支配地位，因而被人们成为“乔姆斯基革命”，对语言学的发展方向产成了巨大影响。 10.韩礼德：英国语言学家，功能主义语言学派的代表人物，继承了以弗斯为首的伦敦学派的基本理论，并吸收布拉格学派和哥本哈根学派的某些观点的基础上发展起来和创立了系统功能语法，著有《普通语言学教程》《语法功能论》等著作。他从人类学和社会学的角度出发研究语言与社会的关系，把语言看做“社会符号”，其包括功能系统、层次和语境等概念，在语法中认为系统中存在连锁系统和选择系统，在功能语法中他用功能的配置来解释语法结构，提出了概念功能、人际功能、语篇功能。20世纪70年代后，他将注意力转移到语言与社会学、符号学的关系上，对社会语言学进行研究。 11.赵元任：字宣仲，江苏常州人，生于天津。赵元任是“中国语言学之父”。他将科学运用于语言学研究的结果：用自然科学中的基本概念说明语言问题；用自然科学的先进成果记录和分析语音；把自然科学中的研究方法引入语言学；引入科学的描述事物的方式以及解决问题的程序等等。中国的传统语言学在他和同时代的一批学者的努力下，逐步走向现代化。 12.历史比较语言学：出现于18世纪末19世纪初，中心在德国。该学派采用历史比较的方法，通过语音和词形的比较研究语言的发展和演变，发现了语言之间的亲缘关系并建立了语言的谱系分类。历史比较语言学的兴起，是语言学成为一门独立的学科。经过一个多世纪的探索研究，弄清了世界上很多语言的同源关系，建立了世界语言的谱系分类，为语言学的发展做了很大贡献。历史比较语言学也有局限：他强调了语言的历史比较，忽视了语言的共时研究；孤立地研究语言单位，缺乏对语言系统性的研究。 13.结构主义语言学：1916年索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》标志着结构主义语言学的诞生。索绪尔语言理论的核心是语言是符号系统，突破了历史比较语言学的局限，开拓了语言研究的新领域，给语言学带来革命性的变化。