Chapter 5 Word Meaning and Componential Analysis
5.1 Word Meaning
1. What is …word meaning??
Word meaning can be defined as a reciprocal relation between name and meaning. …Meaning? is what the form stands for.
Eg: desk: something you sit at and you do your work
There are two aspects to the meaning of a word: denotation and connotation. The process by which the word refers to the referent is called "denotation". For example, the denotation of "dog" is "canine quadruped". The denotative meaning of a word usually refers to the dictionary definition of a word. As opposed to denotation, connotation refers to the emotional aspect of a word. For example, the connotation of "dog" might include "friend", "helper", "competition", etc.
2. What is reference?
It is the relationship between language and the world. By means of reference, a speaker indicates which things in the world (including persons) are being talked about. In other words, only when a connection has been established between the linguistic sign and a referent, i.e., an object, a phenomenon, a person, etc. does the sign become meaningful.
The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional.
3. What is concept?
It is the general idea or meaning which is associate with a word or symbol in a person?s mind.
What?s the relationship between meaning and concept?
1)They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but
belong to different categories.
2)Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition,
reflecting the objective world in the human mind. Concept is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, and language and so on.
3)But meaning belongs to language, so is restricted to language use. A concept
can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world.
Even in the same language, the same concept can be expressed in different words.
Meaning is closely related to a concept, but they are not identical. A concept is the base of the meaning of a word. A word is used to label a concept. It acts as the symbol for that concept. The concept is abstracted from the person, thing, relationship, idea, event, and so on, that we are thinking about. We call this the referent. The word labels the concept, which is abstracted from the referent; the word denotes the referent, but does not label it. This approach to meaning can be diagrammed as follows: word - concept – referent
The formula shows that the word refers to the referent through a concept.
A concept is an abstraction from things of the same kind.
4. What is sense?
The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with
other expressions in the language.
What?s the difference between reference and sense?
1) Sense denotes the relationships inside the language.
2) Every word that has meaning has sense but not every word has reference.
5.2 Motivation
1. What is motivation?
Motivation deals with the connection between name and sense
2. Types of motivation
A. Onomatopoeic Motivation
It means the imitation of sounds by sounds. Onomatopoeia is derived from Greek onomatopoeia "word-making": onoma, -matos "name" + poieo "make". Various other terms have been suggested, such as echoism (Jespersen) and "phonaesthetic function" (Firth). Onomatopoeic motivation means defining the principle of motivation by sound. The sounds of such words as cuckoo, ding-dong, swish, buzz, seem to be appropriate to their senses. For examples: p101
But it has to be pointed out that onomatopoeic words constitute only a small part of the vocabulary. The forms of words normally have only a conventional relationship with what they refer to. According to Stephen Ullmann, onomatopoeic formation can be divided into primary onomatopoeia and secondary onomatopoeia.
B. Morphological motivation
Words which were formed by means of morphological structure belong to the category of motivation by morphology.
C. Semantic Motivation
Semantic motivation means that motivation is based on semantic factors. It is a kind of mental association. When we speak of the bonnet or the hood of a car, of a coat of paint, or of potatoes cooked in their jackets, these expressions are motivated by the similarity between the garments and the objects referred to. In the same way, when we say the cloth for the clergy, silk for a Q. C., or "town and gown" for "town and university", there is semantic motivation due to the fact that the garments in question are closely associated with the persons they designate. Both types of expression are figurative: the former are metaphorical, based on some similarity between the two elements, the latter are metonymic, founded on some external connection.
1) Metaphor
Metaphor is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison, in which a word or phrase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied to another, as in "He has a heart of stone.", "The curtain of night has fallen."
2) Metonymy
Metonymy is the device in which we name something by one of its attributes, as in crown for king, the turf for horse-racing, the White House for the President.
3) Synecdoche
Synecdoche means using a part for a whole, an individual for a class, a material for a thing or the reverse of any of these - for example, bread for food, the army for a soldier, copper for penny.
D. Etymological motivation
Etymological motivation denotes that the origins of words often throw light on their meanings.
E.g.: Pen originally refers to …a heavy quill or feather?. Today the writing tool is still “pen”, but a meaning is not exac tly the same as what it used to mean.
5.3 Motivation and cultural background
Words that epitomizes cultural history are called culturally-bound words or allusive words. A culturally-bound word condenses a fund of meanings into a shorter term. "Quixotic", for example, is an epitome of a great book by Cervantes. The word derived from Don Quixote, the hero of the satirical romance, has come to mean "extravagantly chivalrous or romantically idealistic; visionary; impractical or impracticable". Another example is the Faustian spirit: that heaven-storming, adventurous thirst for the infinite which led Faust to sell his soul to the devil in return for universal knowledge and experience.
The spiritual history not merely of a decade, but of a whole epoch may be summed up in an allusive word. Sometimes a great poet, a dramatist or a novelist gives a name to the spirit of an age - as Goethe did with Faust, Shakespeare with Hamlet. Even a poet's own name may come to express a quality and temper for which we have no other single word. Virgilian Pity, for example, carries a wealth of meaning: poignant, sensitive sadness over the tragedy implicit in most human life; the feeling of regret over vanished beauty and the doom visited on great-hearted courage in the face of malign destiny.
Culturally-bound words present a challenge to anyone who likes to bring history up into the vivid present.
5.4 Types of meaning
Word meaning is made up of various components which are interrelated and interdependent. These components are commonly described as types of meaning. Types of Meaning: Grammatical Meaning & Lexical Meaning
Lexical Meaning: Conceptual Meaning & Associative Meaning
Associative Meaning: Connotative Meaning & Stylistic Meaning & Affective Meaning & Collocative Meaning
1.Grammatical Meaning & Lexical Meaning
1)Grammatical meaning indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as
part of speech of words, singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional paradigm.
2)Lexical meaning is the meaning of an isolated word in a dictionary. This
component of meaning is identical in all the forms of the word.
2.Conceptual Meaning & Associative Meaning
1)Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of
word meaning.
2)Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the
conceptual meaning. It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, etc.
a. Connotative Meaning
It refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning. What connotations do you think “home”,and “mother” might have?
b. Stylistic Meaning
In some dictionaries, these stylistic features are clearly marked as …formal, i nformal, literary, archaic, slang? and so on.
c. Affective Meaning
Affective meaning expresses the speaker?s attitude towards the person or thing in question. Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative and pejorative/derogative. Words of positive overtones are used to show appreciation or the attitude of approval; those of negative connotations imply disapproval, contempt or criticism.
d. Collocative Meaning
It is that part of the word meaning suggested by the words with which it co-occurs. Pretty and handsome share common ground in the meaning "good-looking", but may be distinguished by the range of nouns with which they are likely to co-occur.
5.5 Componential Analysis
1. What is componential analysis?
The analysis of word meanings/componential analysis is often seen as a process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components, which are known as semantic features or sense components. Componential analysis is on the basis of semantic contrast. The linguistic meaning of a word is the set of abstracted characteristics necessary to distinguish the category which the word names from all other categories. These abstracted characteristics are known as semantic features. Semantic features are used to describe semantic universals that may characterize all languages.
Semantic features are established on the basis of binary opposition.. Eg: +ADULT (adult), - ADULT (young).
Sense components are conventionally enclosed in square brackets or parenthesis or without. They are all written in capital letters or in small letters with the letter in capital to distinguish them from lexical items.
man [ +MALE, +ADULT, +HUMAN]
woman [ -MALE, +ADULT, +HUMAN]
boy [ +MALE, -ADULT, +HUMAN]
girl [ - MALE, -ADULT, +HUMAN]
bullock [+MALE, +ADULT, - HUMAN]
cow [ - MALE, +ADULT, - HUMAN]
In making componential analysis, it is important to focus on the distinguishing features, i.e. features which can distinguish one word from another.
Eg: Between boy, chair, dictionary and hope, thought, problem, the distinguish feature is [+CONCRETE]
2. The advantages and disadvantages of componential analysis.
Chapter 6 Sense Relation
6.1 Polysemy
The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as "polesemy"; such a word is "polesemic". The word "flight", for example, may mean "passing through the air", "power of flying", "air of journey", "unit of the Air Force", "volley", "digression", "series of steps", etc.
1. Two approaches to polysemy
1) Diachronic approach: It is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. The first meaning is the primary meaning. Later meanings are called derived meanings.
2) Synchronic approach: Synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a historical period of time. The basic meaning of a word is called the central meaning. The derived meanings are secondary in comparison.
2. Sources of polesemy
Polesemy can arise in a number of ways. According to Stephen Ullmann, there are five sources. But here we will confine ourselves to the examination of the three most important ones, since the other two (Homonyms Reinterpreted and Foreign Influence) are rare or not quite normal in English.
A. Shifts in application
B. Specialization in a social milieu
C. Figurative language
3. Two processes of development
1) Radiation 2) Concatenation
1) Radiation
Semantically, radiation is the process which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays. All the meanings are independent of one another, but can all be traced back to the central meaning.
2) Concatenation
Another process, as opposed to radiation, is called "concatenation". It means that a word moves gradually away from its original sense as a result of successive semantic changes until, in many cases, there is not a trace of connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary sense.
A good example is "candidate". The word derived from the Latin candidates which originally meant "a person dressed in white"; then, "a white-robed seeker for office", from the Roman custom of wearing one's freshest robes when asking the suffrages of the people. In the current use of "candidate", the idea of "white attire" has completely disappeared, leaving only the sense of "an applicant for office", which has no obvious connection with the primary meaning of the word.
6.2 Homonymy
Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.
1. Types of homonyms: perfect/absolute homonyms; homographs; homophones. Of the three types, homophones constitute the largest number and are most common.
2. Origins of homonyms: change in sound and spelling; borrowing; shortening
3. Differentiation of homonyms from polysemants
4. Rhetoric features of homonyms
(1) --Why should a man never tell his secrets in a cornfield?
--Because it has so many ears.
(2) On Sunday they pray for you and on Monday they prey on you.
From the above examples, we can see that homonyms are often employed to create puns for desired effect of humor or irony for stylistic purposes.
6.3Synonymy
Synonymy is a term used in semantics to refer to a major type of sense relation between lexical items: lexical items which have the same meaning but differ in morphemic structure, phonological form and usage are synonyms, and the relationship between them is one of synonymy.
1.Definition of synonyms
Synonyms are words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.Synonyms share a likeness in denotation as well as part of speech, for a verb cannot have an adjective as its synonym.
2. Types of synonyms
1) Absolute synonyms
Absolute synonyms are words whose meaning is fully identical in any context so that one can always be substituted for the other without the slightest change in meaning.
2) Relative synonyms
Synonyms which denote different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality are called relative synonyms.
3. Sources of synonyms
1)Borrowing
English is particularly rich in synonyms for the historical reason that its vocabulary has come from two different sources, from Anglo-Saxon on the one hand and from French, Latin and Greek on the other. Since English is considered to be a Germanic language from a historical point of view, with Anglo-Saxon as an earlier stage of its development, the "Anglo-Saxon" words are often considered to be "native" while those from French, Latin or Greek are "foreign", "borrowed" from these languages. Examples of this kind can be divided into types:
Doublets:
Native Words Borrowed Words
brotherly fraternal
bodily corporal
homely domestic
house mansion
Triplets:
Anglo-Saxon French Latin
kingly royal regal
time age epoch
rise mount ascend
fast firm secure
2) Dialects and regional English
3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words
4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions
4. Discrimination of synonyms
To sum up, the differences between synonyms may boil down to three areas: denotation, connotation, and application.
1)Difference in range and intensity of meaning
2)Difference in stylistic features
3)Difference in emotive coloring
4)Difference in application
6.4 Antonymy
1. Types of Antonyms
The term "antonymy" is used for "oppositeness of meaning"; words that are in opposition are antonyms.
1) Antonyms classified on the basis of the morphological structure
Traditionally words that are opposite in meaning are classified into root (or absolute) antonyms and derivational antonyms. Root antonyms are words of different roots, e.g. clear - vague, large - small, happiness - sadness, up - down, etc. Derivational antonyms are words of the same roots with negative affixes (mostly prefixes) added to them, e. g. pleasant - unpleasant, polite - impolite, honest - dishonest, pre-war - post-war, useful - useless, hopeful - hopeless, etc.
2) Antonyms classified on the basis of semantic contrast
A. Contraries
Contraries (or contrary terms) show a type of oppositeness of meaning, illustrated by such pairs as wide/narrow, old/young, big/ small, etc. They can be seen in terms of degrees of the quality involved. Thus a road may be wide or very wide and one road may be wider than another. This shows that the semantic polarity in contraries is relative and the opposition is gradual.
Sapir handled contrary terms in terms of gradability. This means that contraries can be placed at both extremes of a scale, between which there may be gradable lexical items. For example, between the antonymic pair beautiful - ugly, there may be such gradable adjectives as pretty - good-looking - plain. One may also grade the intensity of feeling as in love - attachment - liking - indifference - antipathy - hate. It can be seen from above that contraries always imply comparison with some norm. Contraries are also known as graded antonyms.
B. Complementaries
Complementaries (or complementary terms) represent a type of binary semantic contrast which admits of no gradability between the items, e. g. male/female, boy/girl, single/married, etc. Male is said to be "the complementary of" female, and vice versa. In such a relationship, the assertion of one of the items implies the denial of the other.
C. Conversives
Conversives (or converse terms) display a type of oppositeness of meaning,
illustrated by such as buy - sell, give - receive, parent - child, debtor - creditor, above - below, etc. Buy is said to be "the converse of" sell and vice versa: If A sells a watch to B, B buys a watch from A. The same applies to the pair above - below: If A is above B, B is below A. In such a relationship, found especially in the definition of reciprocal social roles, spatial relationship and so on, there is an interdependence of meaning, such that one member of the pair presupposes the other member. In this respect, "converseness" contrasts with complementarity, where there is no such symmetry of dependence.
2. Some of the Characteristics of Antonyms
1)Words which are polysemantic can have more than one antonym.
2)Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. Pairs of antonyms are seen as
unmarked and marked terms respectively, on the grounds that one member is more specific than the other and the meaning of the marked term is found in that of the unmarked.
3)The markedness is also applied to adjectives such as tall--short, old-young
where the second term is more restricted in distribution than the first.
3. The Use of Antonyms
1)Antonym have various practical uses and have long proved helpful and
valuable in defining the meanings of a given word.
2)Antonyms are useful in enabling us to express economically the opposite of a
particular thought, often for the sake of contrast.
3)Antonyms are often used to form antithesis to achieve emphasis by putting
contrasting ideas together.
6.5Hyponymy
Lexical items which have the same phonological or spelling form, but differ in meaning are called homonyms. Such a linguistic phenomenon, i.e. identity of form and diversity of meaning is referred to as homonymy.
1. Homographs
Words that have the same spelling, but differ in sound and meaning are called homographs, e.g. bow/bau/v. (bend the head or body in respect) - bow/bau/n. (a device for shooting arrows); lead/li:d/v. (guide or direct) - lead/led/n. (a heavy, soft, malleable, bluish-gray chemical element); wind/waind/v. (turn or make revolve) - wind/wind/n. (air in motion); sewer/'sjua/n. (a pipe or drain, usually underground, used to carry off water and waste matter) - sewer/'saua/n. (a person or thing that sews.)
2. Homophones
Words that have the same phonological form, but differ in spelling and meaning are called homophones, e.g. air - heir, sea - see, ore - oar, cent - scent.
3. Full homonyms
Words that are identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning are called full (or perfect) homonyms, e.g. ball n. (a round object used in games) - ball n. (a gathering of people for dancing); match n. (a short thin stick, usually of wood, with a head covered by chemicals) - match n. (a game or sports event).
6.6 Semantic Field
Semantic field is concerned with the vocabulary of a language as a system of
interrelated lexical networks. Trier saw vocabulary as …an integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sense.?
Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning
7.1 Types of Change
1. Extension of Meaning (Generalization of Meaning)
The word "generalization" is a term of Latin origin referring to the stretching of meaning. Most words begin as specific names for things. With the passage of time, this precise denotation is lost and the word's meaning is extended, generalized, or blurred.
E.g. Manuscript: (original) handwriting( writing by hand only); (present) any author?s writing whether written by hand or typed with a type-writer or a word-processor.
A large proportion of polysemic words of modern English have their meanings extended sometime in the course of development. Some words are generalized to such a degree that they can mean almost everything.
"Thing" once meant "a political or judicial assembly". Any case, matter, or cause brought before the Thing came to be referred to as a thing; and eventually this meaning of "matter" was extended to cover any "affair" or "business, whether before a court or not. Next the meaning was still further widened to cover "anything done", or "whatever is to be done". From that it was generalized to mean "anything that exists or can be thought about". We now use "thing" as a highly generalized word-of-all-work to apply to whatever we cannot label with a more specific term.
2. Narrowing of Meaning
"Specialization" is also a term of Latin origin referring to "shrinking of meaning". When a word is equally applicable to a number of different objects which resemble each other in some respects, or to a vague or general category of ideas, it may at any moment become specialized by being used to name one of those objects or to express one of those ideas.
1) When a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly.
2) For economy, some phrases are shortened and only one element of the original, usually an adjective, is left to retain the meaning of the whole. Such adjectives have thus taken on specialized meanings.
3) Some material nouns are used to refer to objects made of them and thus have a more specific sense.
3. Elevation of Meaning
When the meaning narrows toward a more favorable meaning, it is called elevation or amelioration. It is the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance. Some words early in their history signify something quite low or humble, but change as time goes by to designate something agreeable or pleasant.
Marshal: a keeper of horses --- a high ranking army officer
Constable: a keeper of horses --- a policeman
4. Degradation of Meaning
When the meaning of a word narrows toward an unfavorable meaning it is called degeneration or pejorative change. It is a process whereby words of good origin or affective neutrality fall into ill reputation or come to be used in a derogatory sense. 5. Transference of Meaning
Some words which were used to designate one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer, known as transference or transfer of meaning.
Types of transference: associated transfer; transfer between abstract and concrete meanings; transfer between subjective and objective meanings; synesthesia.
6. Euphemism 委婉语
When people use euphemisms there is a semantic change involved as the expressions used often have little to do with the referents. Euphemistic terms are found used in every aspect of society.
Restroom, bathroom, lounge, John, convenience, comforts room and powder room are all euphemistic terms for “toilet” which itself is a euphemistic term.
7.3 Causes of Change
1. Extra-linguistic factors: historical reason; class reason; psychological reason
1) Historical reason
A word is retained for a name though the meaning has changed because the referent has changed. (e.g. pen )
2) Class reason
https://www.doczj.com/doc/a710778742.html,nguage records the speech and attitude of different social classes, so
different social varieties of language have come into being.
b.The attitude of classes have made inroads into lexical meaning, particularly in
the case of elevation and degradation.
c.Quite a number of words that denote different sorts of working people or their
occupations have deteriorated and now have taken on a pejorative sense.
3) Psychological reason
a.The associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words, etc. are
often due to psychological factors.
b.People change word meaning owing to various psychological motives: love,
respect, courtesy, suspicious, pessimism, sarcasm, irony, contempt, hatred, etc.
c.The fact that some low, humble and despised occupations often take on more
appealing names is all due to psychological reasons.
d.Religious influence is another kind of psychological need.
2. Linguistic factors
1) One type of such change occurs when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the meaning of the whole.
2) The influx of borrowings has caused some words to change in meaning.
3) The change of meaning is brought about by analogy.
Lecture 2 English Vocabulary：A Historical Perspective 计划学时：2 periods 教学方法：传统讲授法 参考资料：《英语词汇学教程》、《英语词汇学》 教学目的和要求：通过本单元的学习，让学生对英语词 汇的形成和发展有初步的了解。 教学重点： 1) The Indo-European Language Family; 2) A Historical Overview of the English V ocabulary. 教学难点： 1) The language family English belongs to; 2) Growth of present-day English vocabulary. 1. The Eight Language Families in the World It is assumed that the world has approximately 5,615 languages. And on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar, they can be grouped into roughly the following language families: Sino-Tibetan (汉藏语系), Indo-European (印欧语系),Semito-Hamitic (闪含语系), Bantu (班图语系), Uralic (乌拉尔语系), Altaic (阿尔泰语系),Malaya-Polynesian (马来—波利尼西亚语系)and Indian (印第安语系). 2. Indo-European language family And Indo-European language family falls into eight principal groups: Indo-Iranian group (印度-伊朗语族); Slavic (斯拉夫语族- Russian and Polish ); Armenian (亚美尼亚语族); Hellenic (古希腊语族); Italic (意大利语族); Celtic (凯尔特语族); Albanian (阿尔巴尼亚语族); Germanic (日尔曼语族). 3. Germanic Language Group Germanic, which consists of three branches: North Germanic, East Germanic, and West Germanic. The North Germanic branch is the linguistic ancestor of modern Scandinavian languages, viz (即). Danish, Icelandic, Norwegian and Swedish. The East Germanic developed into Gothic (哥特语，现已不复存在). The West Germanic branch developed into Modern German, Dutch, Frisian（弗里斯兰语，荷兰西北部）and English.
Lecture 4 讲授题目：Morphological Structure of English Words 所属章节：《现代英语词汇学概论》之第2章 计划学时：2 periods 教学方法：传统讲授法 参考资料：《英语词汇学教程》、《英语词汇学》 教学目的和要求：通过本单元的学习，学生对词的 形态结构、词的构成要素—词素、词干、词根有基本的了解和认识。 ?教学重点： 1) Morpheme; 2) Types of morphemes. 教学难点： 1) Concept of morpheme; 2) Morpheme、stem 、root. Lecture 4 Before we actually deal with the means of word-formation, we need to analyze the morphological structure of words and gain a working knowledge of the different word-forming elements which are to be used to create new words. Morphological Structure of English Words 1. Morpheme (词素/语素/形位) It seems to be generally agreed that a word is the smallest unit of a language that stands a lone to communicate meaning. Structurally, however, a word is not the smallest unit because many words can be separated into even smaller meaningful units. Look at the following items: Morphological Structure of English Words ? yes yes ? unhappiness un-happi-ness ? horses horse-s ? talking talk-ing Yes has no internal grammatical structure. We could
初中英语词汇课得教学设计 ［内容摘要]:词汇量就是构成语言得得基础，只有学生积累了丰富得英语词汇,才会自主学习,为今后得英语学习打下良基。初中阶段就是学生记忆得黄金阶段,教师要想方设法培养学生得学习兴趣，让学生快乐地学习,快乐地成长。教师要授人以鱼,教会学生用科学得学习方法。同时学会自主学习与发展也就是国家素质教育得要求。就是《英语新课标》得指导思想与宗旨。 [关键词]:初中英语词汇教学实践方法多媒体单词记忆积累拓展 一、教学内容:初中阶段得单词与词组。 二、教学目标: 1、提高、激发学生学习英语词汇得兴趣，培养学习得自觉性与合作精神。 2、会拼读单词,掌握常见得使用方法。 3、掌握词汇得记忆方法,以及各种变化方式。 4、培养学习词汇得听、说、读、写技能，形成一定得语言运用能力。 ５、借助情感因素,营造亲切、与谐、活泼得课堂气氛,促进学习思维。
6、拓展视野，培养爱国主义精神,形成健康得人生观。 三、教学重点:词汇得记忆与拓展。 四、教学难点:词汇得综合运用。 五、教学方法:启发式、讨论式、表演式、多媒体等。 六、教学用具:课件、实物、图片。 七、课时:一节 八、学情分析: 1、有利条件:学生在小学时基本上已经学习解除了简单得了英语,有了词汇学习得基础,积累了一些简单得词汇,在教师指导下能够完成词汇学习任务。 2、不利条件:由于学生来自不同得学校,英语基础与学习习惯各不相同。再加上初中阶段词汇量得增多,给学生增加了许多词汇记忆得困难。同时初中生受年龄特征得局限,面对众多得词汇,在学习中很容易产生厌倦情绪,很难有更多得付出,更不可能去加以全面得拓展与深化。 九、教学过程: １、复习导入 ①复习巩固：老师让学生跟录音大声朗读上一节课教授得单词。唤醒学生得记忆
《词汇学》课程教学大纲 适用专业：对外汉语、汉语言文学专业 学时：36 先修课程：古代汉语现代汉语 一、本课程的地位和作用 汉语词汇学，与文字学、音韵学、训诂学、语法学都是汉语言专业的一门专业课，是有关汉语的重要内容之一。通过汉语词汇学这门课程的学习，使学生初步了解并掌握古代汉语词汇方面的初步知识及古代汉语词汇的一般特点，了解古今汉语词汇方面的内在联系，为今后从事汉语教学和进一步研究汉语词汇打下扎实的基础。 二、本课程的教学目标 本课程的开设，主要是为培养学生了解古今汉语词汇的语音特点、意义和一般用法，从汉语词汇知识中吸取营养，充实自己，在现实生活的语言交流和交际之中正确运用汉语的词汇。同时，也为进一步研究汉语词汇打基础。 三、课程内容和基本要求 汉语词汇学的主要内容和基础知识，主要是研究汉语词汇的类别、词的语音特征、词的语音形式、演变及其规律，词汇的构成和构
成方式、词义及词义特点、词义的演变、古今词义的异同、词的同义反义现象、同类词、同源词、同音词，词汇研究的方式、手段、词汇学史等方面的内容，要求对这些知识有个一般的了解和基本的掌握，最好能够运用这些知识去研究汉语中所出现的具体的语言现象。 第一章序论 一、词汇学的对象和分科 1、任何语言都有自己的语音系统、词汇和语法构造，语言的这三个组成部分在语言学上都有相应的学科来进行研究。词汇学就是其中以词和词汇作为研究对象的一门学科。所谓词汇就是语言里的词和词的等价物(如固定词组)的总和。词汇中包括实词和虚词，词汇学的研究重点是实词。因为有的虚词词汇意义已经弱化，有的甚至完全失去了词汇意义，只剩下语法意义，所以它们主要是语法学研究的对象。 2、在中国语言学史上，词汇的研究比语音和语法的研究都开始得早，这就是所谓训诂”。最古的一部训诂书《尔雅》写成于西汉时代。到了清朝乾嘉时代。训诂学更有了高度的发展，段玉裁(1735--1815)、王念孙(1744--1832)，王引之(1766--1834)等人把这门学问推进到了一个崭新的历史阶段。此外，我国的词典编纂工作开创之早与规模之大也是举世闻名的。 3、欧洲语言学发展的情况与此不同，开始得最早的是语法的研究。语音和词汇的研究在长时期内只是语法学的附庸。到了十九世纪，语音学和词汇学才逐渐成为独立的语言学学科。但是跟语音学和语法学比较起来，词汇学直到今天还是比较落后的。
初中英语词汇课的教学设计 [内容摘要]词汇量是构成语言的的基础,学生只有储存了丰富的英语词汇,才会自主学习,为英语学习打下良好的基础。初中阶段是学生记忆的黄金阶段，教师要想方设法培养孩子的学习兴趣，让孩子们快乐地学习，快乐地成长。教师要授人以鱼，教会孩子们学习方法。而学会学习和发展是素质教育的要求,也是《英语》(新课准)的指导思想。 一、教学内容:初中阶段的单词和词组。 二、教学目标: 1、提高、激发学生学习英语词汇的兴趣,培养学习的自觉性和合作精神。 2、会拼读单词,掌握常见的使用方法。 3、掌握词汇的记忆方法,以及各种变化方式。 4、培养词汇的听、说、读、写技能,形成一定的语言运用能力。 5、借助情感因素,营造亲切、和谐、活泼的课堂气氛,促进学习思维。 6、拓展视野,培养爱国主义精神,形成健康的人生观。 三、教学重点:词汇的记忆和拓展。 四、教学难点:词汇的综合运用。 五、教学方法:启发式、讨论式、表演式、多媒体等。 六、教学用具:课件、实物、图片。 七、课时:一节 八、学情分析: 1、有利条件:大部分学生在小学时已经学习了英语,有了词汇学习的基础,具备了不少简单的词汇积累,在教师指导下能够完成学习任务。 2、不利条件:由于初中阶段词汇量的增多,让学生增加了许多记忆上的困难。同时初中生受年龄特征的局限,很难在词汇的学习中有更多的付出,更不可能加以全面拓展。 九、教学过程: 1、复习导入 ①老师让学生跟录音大声朗读上一节课教授的单词,以便复习巩固。 ②全班同学关上课本,由老师朗读要听写的单词(10个),学生听写(写出单 词与意思)。 ③最后老师抽查一个小组,其它组用3分钟检查并改正。 2、教授词汇的方法 词汇是组成英语河流的源头,对学生来讲,掌握好学习英语词汇方法就像盖大楼打好地基一样重要,若不掌握好一定的词汇量,想学好、用好英语便是空想。在多年的教学实践当中,在词汇教学方面,我用下面方法有意识地培养学生记忆能力和教学设计。 ①利用字母和字母组合的读音规则，掌握单词的拼写形式。在词汇教学中，要注意音和形的统一与结合，使学生把一定的音同可能对应的形联系起来，又
English Lexicology Chapter 1 1.5 Classification of words 词的分类 依据不同的划分标准，可将英语词汇划分为不同的类别。 首先，根据使用频率（use frequency），可将英语词汇划分为： 1.5.1 Basic word stock & nonbasic word stock Basic word stock is the most important part and the foundation of English vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language (语言的共核). 基本词汇是全民族活动共同的和基本的核心词汇，是语言中使用得最多、生活中最必需、意义最明确、生命力最强的词汇。 基本词汇所占比例不大，但在日常交际中使用频率却很高。 基本词汇的六大特征Six characteristics （1）All national character. The most important feature. denote the most common things and phenomena of the world around us. （2）stability （3）productivity （4）polysemy （5）collocability 全民性、稳定性、能产性、多义性、可搭配性 但是，数词、代词、助动词、介词、连词等并不具备全部五种特征。 Though numerals and pronouns enjoy nation-wide use, they are semantically monosemous, with low productivity and collocability. 不属于基本词汇的7种词（words do not belong to the common core of the language）（p14）: 1.terminology术语 2.jargon行话 3.slang俚语 4.argot黑话
总，再加上个例子就可以拿满分了。区分两个词的区别，主要还是指明其各自的定义。 第一章 1. Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. 2. There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. ―woman‖ means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound. 3. The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors. （At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns） a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language. b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling c）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500 d）. Borrowing of foreign language 4. Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history. The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words. 5.Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion，by origin 1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary. 1. all national character （most important）– natural phenomena most common things and phenomena of the human body and relations world around us names of plants and animals action，size，domain，state numerals，pronouns，prep. ，conj. 2. stability – they donate the commonest thing necessary to life，they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow. e.g. arrow，bow，chariot，knight – past electricity，machine，car，plane —— now 3. productivity – they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words，they can form new words with other roots and affixes. e.g. foot – football，footage，footpath，footer 4. polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous. e.g. take to move or carry from one place to another to remove 5. collocability – quite a number of set expressions，idiomatic usages，proverbial saying and others e.g. heart – a change of heart， a heart of gold Non-basic vocabulary —— 1. terminology – technical terms photoscanning，hepatitis，indigestion，penicillin，algebra，trigonometry，calculus 2. jargon – specialized vocabulary in certain professions. Bottom line，ballpark figures，bargaining chips，hold him back，hold him in，paranoid 3. slang —— substandard words often used in informal occasions dough and bread，grass and pot，beaver，smoky，bear，catch，holler，Roger，X-rays， Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage. 4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groups can-opener，dip，persuader cant，jargon ，argot are associated with，or most available to，specific groups of the population. 5. dialectal words – only by speakers of the dialect beauty，chook，cocky，station，auld，build，coo，hame，lough，bog 6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems，legal document and religious writing or speech. 7. neologism – newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics，futurology，AIDS，internet，E-mail old meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse，monitor 2）. Content word （notional word）– denote clear notions. Functional word （empty word，form word）– do not have notions of their own，express the relation between notions，words and sentences. a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous. Functional words are in a small number.
Chapter 1 1.1 What Is a Word 词的概念：A word can be defined as a meaningful group of letters. （一个词可以被定义为一组有意义的字母） 词包含以下几点： ① a minimal free form of a language.一门语言中最小的形式 ② a sound unity.一个声音统一体 ③ a unit of meaning.一个意义单位 ④ a form that can function alone in a sentence.能在句子中起独立作用的一个形式 A word is a free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.词是一门语言中具有一定的声音，意义和句法功能的最小形式 Words can be simple and complex.词可以是简单的也可以是复杂的 1.2 Sound and Meaning 声音与意义之间的关系：This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary,and there is no logical relationship between the sound and the actual thing and idea itself .The relationship between them is conventional. 这种象征性的联系几乎总是任意的，声音与实际的事物和观念本身没有逻辑关系。他们之间的关系是约定俗成的。 1.3 Sound and Form 读音与拼写不一致的原因：①The English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language. ②The pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years. ③Some of the differences were created by the early scribes. ①英语字母表是从罗马人那里采用的，罗马人没有一个单独的字母来代表语言中的每个 声音。 ②这些年来，发音的变化比拼写的变化更快。 ③有些差异是由早期的抄写员造成的。
2014-9 Teaching objectives & difficulties in learning and teaching 结合课程教学大纲（分为了解、理解、掌握三个要求） Chapter 1 A general survey of English vocabulary 1.To understand and define “word” (many definitions); 2.To know the historical development of English vocabulary and its rapid growth today; 3.To summarize fundamental features of the basic stock of English vocabulary. Chapter 2 Morphological structure of English words 1.To understand the ways that words are formed; 2.To grasp the information about morpheme, allomorphs, and classification of morpheme. (Review knowledge of phoneme , e.g. assimilation辅音同化, 名词复数尾部读音规则等) Chapter 3 Word formation (I) 1.To grasp 3 major processes of word formation (compounding, derivation/affixation,conversion); 2.To explain, compare ROOT, STEM, BASE and can use them to analyse words; 3.To learn with examples (share learning strategies). Chapter 4 Word formation (II) 1.To grasp 8 minor processes of word formation (acronymy, clipping, blending, back-formation, words from proper names, neoclassical formation, miscellaneous); 2.To conduct learning strategies by studying these process of word-formation (https://www.doczj.com/doc/a710778742.html,e acronymy, clipping, blending, back-formation in note-taking and dictation); 3.To raise cultural awareness and to grasp comprehensive knowledge through examples of these 8 processes respectively (e.g words from proper names; esp. words from literature). Chapter 5 Word meaning and semantic features 1.To discuss word meaning (conventionality and motivation); 2.To discuss 2 main types of word meaning (grammatical and lexical), esp. lexical meaning (denotative meaning & associate meanings) 3.To raise cultural awareness through associate meanings (connotative, social,stylistic,affective meaning) with typical examples; 4.To discuss componential analysis and semantic features; to understand the practical usage of doing componential analysis.
英语词汇课教案全英文 【篇一：幼儿英语教案】 幼儿园小班英语cat和dog教案 一、活动目标1．培养幼儿对于英语的兴趣，让幼儿乐意参与英语 活动2．在教师的带领下，让幼儿了解动物cat 和dog 的英语名称3．通过活动促进幼儿交往能力与初步的合作能力二、活动内容听懂、会说单词cat 和dog三、活动准备猫和狗的的卡片、猫与狗的头饰、黑板、录音机等。 四、活动过程1．用英语问候师：hello！引导幼儿模仿说“hello” 师：ok，i’m miss du ，when i say “hello” to you, you can say “hello,!”(对给回答得好的幼儿“give me five!”,运用夸张的肢体动作 吸引幼儿的注意力和兴趣)2．热身运动师：let’s warm up! listen to the music. let’s say “music”(做朝向录音机的动作)师生共做表演“follow me” 3．单词呈现（1）cat师：今天我们班上来了一位新朋友，让我们 猜猜它是谁？将卡片藏在黑板后面，露出一点，直到猜出才显示卡 片单词呈现方式：卡片（用不同的部位击打卡片并说出单词），捉 迷藏游戏（小猫跟我们玩躲猫猫游戏，幼儿眼睛闭起来，引导幼儿 朝不同方向念单词，叫cat出来）（2）dog引导幼儿猜测是不是在 帘子后，教师进去看一下，发出“汪汪汪“的声音，引出”dog” 单词呈现：chant “dog dog汪汪汪”；卡片4．游戏小猫哪去了， 小猫告诉老师，只要和老师一起跳着喊，他就会出来了，钻山洞： 选出两个小朋友做桥墩，钻山洞的小朋友（第一个带上头饰）要边 念单词边钻，引导还没钻的幼儿一起说，让每一位幼儿练习说；钻 山洞人数不可以多。
Textbook: 夏洋、邵林著,《英语词汇学课程》. 北京：北京大学出版社. 2017. Chap2. 主要内容：1.古英语、中世纪英语、现代英语三个发展时期的社会文化背景、语言发展特点和时间起止。2. 英语属于印欧语系，是日耳曼语的一支。 难点：the nature of English --- extremely rich and heterogeneous, a heavy borrower, full of synonyms, a global language. I Notions Language family The 5000 or so languages around the world are grouped into about 300 language families, on the basis of their similarities in their basic word stock and grammars. English is a member of the Indo-European language family. English is a member of the Germanic group of languages. 二、辅助阅读：理解与深化 Read Texts in unit 2 & 3 三、自检 Check your understanding by finish the exercises given in the UNIT.
思考题： 1. Illustrate the language features in each historical period of English and analyze the related historical and social backgrounds that result in the features. 2. What is the contribution of Shakespeare to the English language? 3. Use facts and events to illustrate the nature of English. 四、预习 Unit 3 & 4
English Lexicology 英语词汇学 Fall 2012 Irene Florente
How do we communicate? Making sounds Gestures Writing Words Anything else?
Write down 10 English words you like on a piece of paper Do you know where these words came from (what languages)? Can they be spelled differently? What part of speech are they? (Noun, verb, adverb, etc) Do these words have more than one meaning or have different meanings when used in idioms?
Where do words come from? How are they created? How do they change as history changes? How do they change as people speaking other languages invade or immigrate to their countries? What are the different types of words? Is language alive? (these questions are just for discussion and reflection)
初中英语词汇教案 【篇一：初中英语词汇教学案例3 (1)】 初中英语词汇教学案例3 词汇是语言的三大要素之一，是语言的建筑材料，如何教学生掌握 一定数 量的词汇，是中学英语教学的重要任务之一。学生学习一个新词汇时，往往想知道一些其它与其相关联的词，这给词汇的扩展提供了 自然的良机。下面介绍几种词汇扩展的方法： 1. 关联词群或称联想词群。如：教fruit时，指出这是水果的总称， 为让学生联想到有关水果的词，教师在黑板上表示关联 词:apple,pear,banana,pineapple,cherry,grape,mogao,orange,w atermelon,strawberry, lemon等，这样联想，就可以满足不同程度同学的求知欲望，使每个学生都学有所得。 2.在理解的基础上加强记忆，将机械记忆和理解记忆密切结合起来。如： 1)利用拼读规则：学生知道了al读[?:]的规则后，可帮助记忆all, ball, small, talk, walk,等词。 2)利用词形变化规划。如总结不规则动词的变化，可分为： a－a－a型： cut－cut－cut put－put－put a－b－b型： build－built－built dig－dug－dug i－a－u型：begin－began－begundrink－drank－drunk 3)利用构词法知识。 a.利用同根词：如教过use后，经过构词分析，学生就可以推测出useful, useless, user的词义来。教师就可以说:useful comes from use. it means of use. useful comes from use, too. it means of no use or not useful. b.利用分析前缀的方法。如教retell, rewrite，学生已掌握了tell, write，要向他们解释前缀re－的含义是again的意思。在此基础上学生就能推测出retell, rewrite的意思来。教师就可以说retell comes from tell. retell means to tell again. c.利用分析后缀的方法。如在学生已学过china, japan的基础上， 指出后缀－ese的含义，学生就很容易推测出chinese, japanese 的意思来。
英语词汇学讲义 第一章英语词汇学简介(A Brief Introduction to English Lexicology) 教学目的： ●了解英语词汇学研究的现状及地位 ●掌握及分类 ●了解英语词汇学的研究范围和研究方法 ●了解学习英语词汇学的目的及意义 教学重点： ●英语词汇学的定义 ●英语词汇学的研究范围 教学难点： ●英语词汇学研究滞后的原因 ●英语词汇学的定义及研究范围 教学方法：理论讲解为主，课堂讨论为辅 教学步骤： 课程导入：(10 分钟) Discussion: What do you think lexicology mainly studies? 教学讲练内容：(80分钟) 1.1英语词汇学研究的现状及地位 1828 Noah Webster “lexicology”第一次出现 20c初没有受到足够的重视 1980s以前前苏联和中国有所研究 1980s中期以后西方语言学家开始重视英语词汇学研究，专著陆续问世，并开始把词汇研究与其它学科的研究联系到一起 词汇学研究没有受到重视的原因： 醉汉找钱的故事(David Crystal 为Jean Tournier 的英语词汇学概论写的序言中提及)，说明西方语言学家避重就轻，因为在语言的三个要素中，语音体系和语法体系比较简单，易于归纳，便于研究，容易出成果；而词汇体系比较庞杂，不易归纳和研究，也不容易出成果。实际课堂教学中，很少有教师会系统地讲授词汇学的理论(因为词汇学理论本身就是滞后的)，而学生在外语学习中最大的难点之一就在于如何学习和掌握词汇。从实际需要的角度出发，词汇学研究引起西方语言学家重视也是迟早的事情。此外，电脑应用的发展和普及以及语料库的形成为分析词汇的特征和总结词汇的规律性的原则创造了有利条件，在词汇体系的研究方面出现新的突破是指日可待的事情。 现在词汇学被看作是语言分析的一个层面。语言分析的五分法(词汇学lexicology、音位学phonemics、形态学morphology、句法学syntax和语义学semantics)与传统的三分法(音位学、句法学和语义学)相比，最大的不同在于重视了词汇的作用，充分肯定了词汇学的地位。当然，我们在使用语言的时候，总是不由自主地同时涉及所有的层面，所以，语言分析的五个层面虽然可以分别进行，但是不能忽视它们的相互联系和相互作用。 1.2词汇学的定义及分类 Routledge Dictionary of Language and linguistics by Hadumod bussmann 承认了词汇学在语言学中的地位，但是把侧重点放在词汇的语义学上面。 The Oxford Companion to the English Language by Tom McArthur
第一章 1.word : 1简单意义：a word is a minimal unit/form in/of a sentence 2.完整意义：a word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function. 2.vocabulary定义四个要素：1.refer to the total number of the words in a language.2.it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. 3.refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. 4个要素：language, time, space, person. 3.sound and form 1.关系：the symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional.2.more and more different 原因：1,the number of alphabet cannot describe the English sounds one by one.2, sounds develop faster than the written form.3.the scribes deliberately change the written form for being easily recognized. 4.the printing machine fixed the written form. 5.borrowed words make the gap wider. 4.motivation分类：1.onomatopec motivation.(Refers to the motivated aspect of motivation which means the words are created by imitation the natural sounds or noise. 2. morphological motivation(refers to the motivated aspect of motivation which means the words created by using existing language materials ,as roots, affixes, etc).3.semantic motivation(refers to the motivated aspect of motivation in which the new meanings are given to existing words by mental