欧洲文化史名词解释

欧洲文化史的研究欧洲文化史指的是欧洲地区的文化发展历史，这里所指的文化是指一种民族或社会的思想、风俗、习惯、宗教等各种文化现象的总和。

欧洲文化史的研究范围涵盖了古代、中世纪和现代三个历史时期，也擅长通过研究文化现象的变迁来理解欧洲社会的演变。

本文将从不同角度来探讨欧洲文化史的研究。

一、欧洲史的分类研究欧洲文化史的研究，首先是要对欧洲史进行分类，“史”在这里是要指代一种包含了历史、文化、思想等方面的综合性研究。

学者们通常会从欧洲史的国家、地区、文化、艺术等不同角度进行分类，以便于更好地研究具体的历史事件、文化现象以及它们之间的联系。

从国家角度上看，欧洲各个国家都有着自己的历史和文化，研究者们可以按照不同国家的历史背景来探讨某一个文化现象的演变，比如“意大利文艺复兴”。

从地区角度上看，欧洲划分为东欧和西欧两个大区，而在这两个大区中还有更细致的划分，比如北欧、中欧和南欧，研究者们可以利用这些划分来研究欧洲某个区域的文化差异和发展规律。

从文化角度上看，欧洲有着众多的文化，包括了艺术、哲学、宗教、法律等多个领域，研究者们可以从不同的文化领域入手，探讨同一或不同文化领域中的文化变迁和发展。

二、欧洲文化史的主要时期欧洲文化史可以分为古代、中世纪、近代和现代四个主要历史时期，每个时期都有着独特的文化特征和发展规律。

古代指的是公元前776年到公元476年的历史时期，包括了希腊、罗马两大古典文明，以及据说于公元6世纪左右开始建立的君士坦丁堡的拜占廷帝国。

研究者们可以从古代文化遗产中梳理出古代的文化特征和变迁规律。

中世纪指的是公元476年到公元1453年的历史时期，包括了罗马帝国西部灭亡、大批日耳曼部落从北方迁入欧洲、天主教成为欧洲基督教总教区等历史事件。

研究者们可以从中世纪的天主教文化、城市化、手工业等方面研究中世纪文化的发展规律。

近代指的是公元1453年到1789年的历史时期，这个时期可以说是欧洲文化史上的一个分水岭，因为在这个时期里，欧洲发生了宗教改革、地理发现、科学爆炸等许多对整个欧洲思想、文化的颠覆性变革。

欧洲文化入门名词解释51：1． Pax Romana：In the Roman history，there came two hundred years of peaceful time，which was guaranteed(保证) by the Roman legions， it was known as Pax Romana2． The New Testament名词解释The Bible was divided into two sections：the Old Testament and the New Testament. The New Testament is about the doctrine (教义) of Jesus Christ. The word “Testament” means “agreement”， the agreement between God and Man.3．Pentateuch名词解释：The Old Testament consists of 39 books，the oldest and most important of which are the first five books，called Pentateuch. Pentateuch contains five books：Genesis (创世记)，Exodus (出埃及记)，Leviticus(教义记)，Numbers (逃亡记)，Deuteronomy (摩西遗言记)。

4．Genesis名词解释Genesis is one of the five books in Pentateuch，it tells about a religious account (描述) of the origin of the Hebrews people，including the origin of the world and of man， the career (经历) of Issac and the life of Jacob and his son Joseph.5．The Historical Books was divided into seven sections： ①Books of Joshua ② Books of Judges ③ Books of Samuel ④ Books of Kings ⑤ Books of the Chronicles ⑥ Books of Ezra ⑦ Books of Nehemiah. 6．the Middle ages名词解释 In European history， the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages.The middle ages is so called because it came between ancient times and modern times. To be specific (具体说来)，from the 5th century to 15th century.The transitional (过渡时期) period is called the middle ages，between ancient times and modern times.7. Feudalism名词解释Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding (土地所有) — a system of holding land in exchange for military service (军事力量)。

古希腊文明
爱琴文明——克里特文明与迈锡尼文明的合称
克里特文明约在公元前4500年至公元前3000年的新石器时代。

克里特岛位于欧洲东南端，是爱琴海上最大的岛屿。

其文明一直持续到公元前15世纪前后，由希腊人统治或是由迈锡尼人的入侵或由于火山爆发地震，至今无法断言。

迈锡尼文明创造者为希腊人的一支阿卡亚人，他们大约在公元前1650年前后或更早，从巴尔干半岛北部南下进入希腊半岛的中部和南部。

公元前1600年左右出现竖井式墓坑
公元前1500年左右圆顶墓王朝
鼎盛期在公元前13世纪左右，其势力伸张到整个爱琴海，在其末期，约公元前12世纪初期，发生了著名的特洛伊
战争。

当时以迈锡尼为首的希腊人组成
联军，东渡爱琴海，远征小亚细亚的富
庶城市特洛伊。

后其被希腊人的另一支——多利亚人所灭。

荷马时代
公元前11世纪到公元前9世纪
又称英雄时代
恩格斯指出：“在英雄时代的希腊社会
制度中，古代氏族组织还是很有活力的，不过那我们也应经看到，它的瓦解已经
开始”。

相比迈锡尼文明而言，荷马时代社会制
度有相对倒退的情况，但就其社会经济
发展水平而言有，重要的进步现象。

欧洲文化史名词解释The Introduction of European Culture- English TermsGreek Culture and Roman Culture1) It is one of the two great ancient Greek epics by Homer. 2) It deals with the alliance of the states of the southern mainland of Greece, led by Agamemnon in their war against the city of Troy probably in the period 1200-1100 B. C. 3) The heroes are Hector on the Trojan side and Achilles and Odysseus on the Greek. 4) In the final battle, Hector was killed by Achilles and Troy was sacked and burned by the Greeks.2．Herodotus（希罗多德）: 1) He is one of great ancient Greek historians. 2) He is often called ― Father of History. 3) He wrote about the wars between Greeks and Persians. 4) His history, full of anecdotes and digressions and lively dialogue, is wonderfully readable.5) His object in writing was ― that the great and wonderful deeds done by Greeks and Persians should not lack renown.‖31) He was the philosopher of ancient Greece in the 5th and 4th century. 2) He was considered one of the three greatest names in European philosophy. 3) He hold that philosophy took the aim to reach the conclusion of oneself and virtue was knowledge. 4) His thoughts were recorded in Dialogues by Plato.5) He devised the dialectical method.4. Dialectical method（辩证法）: 1) It was devised by ancient Greek philosopher Socrates. 2) It isa method of argument, by questions and answers.1) He was the greatest philosopher of ancient Greece, pupil of Socrates. 2) His Dialogues are important not only as philosophical writing but also as imaginative literature. Of the Dialogues he wrote, 27 have survived, including: the Apology, Symposium and the Republic. 3) Plato built up a comprehensive system of philosophy. 4) His philosophy is called idealism.6. Diogenes（狄奥艮尼）（北京市2002年自考真题名词解释）: He was one of the Cynic’s leaders in ancient Greece, who decided to live like a dog. 2) The word ―cynic‖ means ―dog‖ in Greek. 3) He rejected all conventions, advocated self-sufficiency and extreme simplicity in life.7．Stoics（斯多咯派）: 1) It was one of four ancient Greek schools of philosophers in the 4th century B. C. 2) To them , the most important thing in life was ―duty‖. 3) It developed into the8 1) It is one of three ancient Greek architecture styles. 2) It is also called the masculine style. 3) It is sturdy, powerful, severe-looking and showing a good sense of proportions and numbers.4) The Doric style is monotonous and unadorned.9．Pax Romana（罗马和平）（北京市2001年自考真题名词解释）:1）In the year 27 B.C. Octavius took supreme power as emperor with the tile of Augustus. 2) Two centuries later, the Roman empire reached its greatest extent in the North and East.3) The emperors mainly relied on a strong army-the famous Roman Legions and an influential bureaucracy to exert their rules.4) Thus the Roman enjoyed a long period of peace lasting 200 years. This remarkable phenomenon in the history is know as Pax Romana.10. Virgil（维吉尔）: 1) He was the greatest of Latin poets. 2) He wrote the great epic, the Aeneid.3) The poem opened out to the future, for Aeneas stood at the head of a rce of people who were to found the first the Roman republic and then the Roman Empire.Division Two The Bible and Christianity1) The Bible is a collection of religious writings comprising two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. 2) The former is about God and the laws of God; the latter, the doctrine of Jesus Christ.2. The Old Testament:1)The Bible was divided into two sections: the Old T estament and the New Testament. 2) The Old Testament is about God and the Laws of God. 3)The word ―Testament‖ means ―agreement‖, the agreement between God and Man.3. The New Testament: 1) The Bible was divided into two sections: the Old T estament and the New Testament. 2) The New Testament is about the doctrine (教义) of Jesus Christ. 3)The word1) In the Old Testament, the oldest and most important are the first five books, called Pentateuch.2) Pentateuch contains five books: Genesis (创世记), Exodus (出埃及记), Leviticus(利未记), Numbers (民数记), Deuteronomy (申命记).5．Genesis：1）Genesis is the first one of the five books in Pentateuch in Old Testament. 2) It tells about a religious account of the origin of the Hebrews people, including the origin of the world and of man, the career of Issac and the life of Jacob and his son Joseph.6. Exodus: 1) Exodus is the second one of the five books in Pentateuch in the Old Testament. 2) It tells about a religious history of the Hebrews during their flight from Egypt Led byMoses. 3)1) For many hundred years after Adam and Eve were driven out of Eden, the family of man multiplied and spread over the earth, but they became more and more corrupt 2) Thus God decided to destroy all life on earth in a great flood. 3) Because Noah always kept his faith in God, God spoke to him about His intention and told him to build an ark to protect him and his kin from the waters. 4) .Noah followed God’s instructions. 5) For 40 days it rained, the whole earth was covered with water, those sheltered in the ark being the only survivals.8. The Prophets (先知)：1）For more than a thousand years in the Middle East there had been a class of people known as ―Prophets‖ or the spokesmen of God.2）Earlier prophets lived in groups as temple officials. Later on there appeared in dependent prophet. 3）The Prophets can be grouped into the Major Prophets and Minor Prophets.（分为大小先知）9．The Book of Daniel（《但以理书》）：1）The Book of Daniel belongs to The Old Testament of the Bible. 2)The book appeared in the early days of Jews’revolt against the Syrian Kin g Antiochus IV. 3) It is a story mixed with vision, describing how Daniel and his friends were taken prisoner to Babylon after the fall of Jerusalem and how they refused to compromise their101) Roman emperor Constantine believed that God had helped him in winning the battle for the throne, so he issued the Edict of Milan in 313. 2) It granted religious freedom to all, made Christianity legal.11．The four accounts in the New Testament（四福音书）: 1) The four accounts are the first four books in the New Testament.2) They were believed to have been written by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, four of Jesus’early followers. 3) They tell of the birth, teaching, death and12 1）As the most important and influential of English Bible, it is also called the ―Authorized‖ve rsion. 2) It was produced by 54 biblical scholars at the command of King James, and was published in 1611. 3) With its simple, majestic Anglo-Saxon tongue, it is know as the greatest book in the English language.Division Three The Middle Ages1．the Middle ages（中世纪）（北京市2002年自考真题名词解释）: 1) In European history, the thousand-year period from the 5th century to 15th century following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages.2)The middle ages is so called because it came between ancient times and modern times. 3) During the Medieval times there was no central government to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite Europe was the Christian church.4) Christianity took the lead in politics, law, art, and learning for hundreds of ―Age of Faith‖.21）Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding —a system of holding land in exchange for military service. 2）The word ―feudalism‖ was derived from the Latin ―feudum‖, a grant of land.3．Fiefs（封地，采邑）：1）In Feudalism, the ruler of the government redivided the large lands into small pieces to be given to chancellors or soldiers as a reward for their service. 2）The subdivisions were called fiefs.4. vassals（诸侯）: 1)In Feudalism, the ruler of thegovernment redivided the large lands into small pieces to be given to chancellors or soldiers as a reward for their service.2)The subdivisions were1) In the Middle Ages of western Europe, as a knight, he were pledged to protect the weak, to fight for the church, to be loyal to his lord and to respect women of noble birth. 2) These rules were known as code of chivalry, from which the western idea of good manners developed.6. dubbing (骑士头衔加冕仪式) :After a knight was successful in his trails and tournaments, there was always a special ceremony to award him with a title, knight. This special ceremony is called dubbing.7. The Manor (庄园)：1）The centre of medieval life under feudalism was the manor. 2）Manors were founded on the fiefs of the lords. 3）By the twelfth century manor houses were made of stone81) In the medieval ―age of faith‖, almost all Europeans belonged to the Catholic Church. 2) The word ―catholic‖meant ―universal‖3) The Catholic Church was highly centralized and disciplined international organization and the Pope was the head of the Church. He not only ruled Rome and parts of Italy as a king, he was also the head of all Christian churches in western Europe. Those who opposed the Pope lost their membership and their political right. 4) The Church even set up a church court-the Inquisition to stamp out so-called heresy.5) Latin was the accepted official language in the Roman Catholic Church. 6)’s daily life and the western thinking.91）Heeding the spiritual message of Christianity, between 300 and 500 A.D., many men withdrew from worldly contacts to deserts and lonely places. 2) This movement developed into the establishment of monasteries（修道院）and convents (女修道院) for monks and nuns. 3）Some of the hermits were great scholars known as ―Father of the Church‖, whose w ork is generally considered orthodox.. 4) Three representatives were St. Jerome,1) It was founded by St. Benedict, a great monk in 529A. D. 2) The monks who followed Benedict’s rule promised to give up all their possession before entering the monastery. 3) wore simple clothes and ate only certain simple foods. 4) They could not marry and had to obey without question the orders of the abbot. 5) They had to attend serviceseven times during the day and once at midnight.6) In addition, they were expected to work five hours a day in the fields surrounding the monastery.11. holy communion（圣餐）: 1) It is one of most important sacraments. 2) It helps to remind people that Christ has died to redeem man.12．The Crusades（十字军东征）（北京市2001年自考真题名词解释）: 1) In 1071 Palestine fell to the armies of the Turkish Moslems who attacked the Christian pilgrims, killing many of them and sold many others as slaves. 2) News of this kink roused great indignation among Christians in western Europe. 3) The result was a series of holy wars called the Crusades which went on about 200 years. 4) All the soldiers going to Palestine wore a red cross on the tunics as a symbol of obedience to God. 5) There were altogether eight chief Crusades from 1096 to 1291. 6)Aothough the Crusades did not achieve their goal to regain the Holy land, they had an important effect on the future of both the East and the West. They brought the East into closer contact with1）In early medieval period, the Emperor of the Romans, Charlemagne, encouraged learning by setting up monastery schools, giving support to scholars and setting scribes to work copying various ancient books. Because the scribes performed their tasks well, few of the ancient works that had survived until that time were ever lost. 3) The result of Ch arlemagne’s efforts is usually called the ―Carolingian Renaissance‖. 4)The term is derived from Charlemagne’s name in Latin, Carolus. 5) The most interesting side of this rather minor renaissance is the spectacle of Frankish or Germanic state reaching out to assimilate the riches of the Roman Classical and the Christianized Hebraic culture.14. Alfred the Great（阿尔弗雷德大王）（北京市2003年自考真题名词解释）: 1) As the ruler of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex, he contributed greatly to the medieval European culture.2) He worried about the disappearance of learning and made Wessex the Anglo-Saxon cultural centre by introducing teachers and scholars, founding new monasteries, and promoting translations into the vernacular from Latin works. 3)He also inspired the compilation of the Anglo151）The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancient literature.2）―National epic‖ refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is, the languages of various national states that came into being in the Middle Ages. 3）Literary workswere no longer all written in Latin.4）It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination161) It is an Anglo-Saxon epic in 8th century. 2) It originates from the collective efforts of oral literature. 3) The story is set in Denmark or Sweden and tells how the hero, V eowulf, defeats the monster Grendel and Grendel’s mother, a sea monster, but eventually receives his own death in fighting with a fire dragon.4) It marks the beginning of English literature.17. Song of Roland （《罗兰之歌》）：1）It is the most well-known of a group of French epics known as La Chanson de Gestes.2) It tells how Roland, one of Charlemagne’s warriors, fights in1）It was written by the greatest poet of Italy, Dante. 2) It is one of the landmarks of world literature. 3) The poem itself is the greatest Christian poem with a profound vision of the medieval Christian world, and expresses humanistic ideas which foreshadowed the spirit of Renaissance. 4) It was written in Italian rather than in Latin, which influenced decisively the evolution of European literature away from it origins in Latin culture to1) The Canterbury Tales was written by English poet Chaucer.2) The book contains twenty-four tales bold by a group of pilgrims on their journey to Canterbury. 3) Most of the tales are written in verse which reflects Chaucer’s innovation by introducing French and Italy writing into the English native alliterative verse(头韵).4)The Canterbury Tales is the best representative of themiddle English, paving the way to Modern English.20. Gothic（哥特式建筑）(北京市2001自考真题名词解释)：1）The Gothic style started in France and quickly spread through all parts of western Europe. 2) It flourished and lasted from the mid-12th to the end of 15th century and, in some areas, into the 16th.3) More churches were built in this manner tan in any other style in history. 4) The Gothic was an outgrowth of the Romanesque, but it reflected a much more ordered feudal society with full confidence. 5) Gothic cathedrals soared high, their windows, arches and towers reaching heavenward, flinging their passion against the sky. The were decorated with beautiful stained glass windows and sculptures.Renaissance and Reformation11）As a period in western civilization, generally speaking, Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th century. 2 Renaissance started in Florence and Venice with the flowering of paintings, sculpture and architecture.3) The word ―Renaissance‖ means revival, specifically in this period of history, revival of interest in ancient Greek and Roman culture.4)Renaissance, in essence, was a historical period in which the European humanist thinkers and scholars made attempts to get rid of conservatism in feudalist Europe and introduce new ideas that expressed the interests of the rising bourgeoisie, to lift the restrictions in all areas placed by the Roman church authorities.5. During the period of Renaissance, old sciences revived and new sciences emerge, national languages and national cultures free from the absolute control of the Papal authority in Rome took shape and art and2．1）Humanism is the essence of Renaissance. 2) Humanists in Renaissance believed that human beings had rights to pursue wealth and pleasure and they admired the beauty of human body. 3) This belief ran counter to the medieval ascetical idea of poverty and stoics,, and shifted man’s interest from Christianity to humanity, from religion to philosophy, fro heaven to earth, from the beauty of God to the beauty of human in all its joys, senses and feelings. 4) Theologically, the humanists were religious. But they began to look at the problems of God and Providence with a view to understanding man’s work and man’s earthly happiness. 5) The philosophy of humanism is reflected in the art and literature in Italy and the rest of Europe, to pass down as the beginning of the history of modern man, who, instead of brooding about death and the other world, lives and works for the present and future progress of mankind.3. Leonard da Vinci（北京市2004年自考真题名词解释）: 1) He was a painter, a sculptor, an architect, a musician, an engineer and a scientist, who was born in Florence in Italy. 2) He was a Renaissance man in the true sense of the word. 3) He had profound understanding of art, which exerted great influence among the painters of his own generation, and generations to follow.4）Mona Lisa.1) Michelangelo was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect andpoet. 2) he was a towering figure of the Renaissance. 3) By art, he expressed his vision of man, man’s beauty, man’s nobility, his own anguish and his own energy, a means by which he madeDavid , Moses and Sistine Chapel.1) Raphael was one of major painters during the Renaissance.2) In his work, there is the exquisite harmony and balance of the High Renaissance. 3) Raphael was best know for his Madonna(Virgin Mary). He painted his Madonnas in different postures. 4) Because of his Madonnas with sweet expressions, he came to be known as the elegant Raphael.6．High Renaissance（文艺复兴全盛时期）: 1) The Renaissance in Italy reached its height in the 16th century with its center moving to Milan, then to Rome, and created High Renaissance(1490-1530). 2) meantime by the beginning of the 16th century, Venetian art had come into being in full glory. 3) the representatives in this period were da Vinci, Michelangelo. Raphael and Titian.7．Reformation（宗教改革）（北京市２００１年自考真题名词解释）：１）The Reformation was a 16th century religious movement as well as a socio-political movement. ２）It was led by Martin Luther and wept over the whole Europe. 3) This movement was aimed at opposing the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church and replacing it with the absolute authority of the Bible. 3) The Reformists believed in direct communication between the individual and God, engaged themselves in translating the Bible into their mother tongues, urged the Church to have institutional reforms and were interested in liberation national economy and politics from the interference of the Roman Catholic Church and carrying out wars in the interests of peasants and revolution of the bourgeoisie. 4) The Reformation dealt the feudal theocracy a fatal blow and1）He was the German leader of the Protestant Reformation.2) His doctrine marked the first break in the unity of the Catholic Church. 3) His doctrines were: men are redeemed by faith and not by the purchase of indulgence; Bible was the supreme authority and man was only bound to the law of the word of God, not the word of the clergy; all believers were priests, and all occupations were holy.9. John Calvin（约翰?加尔文）: 1) He was a French theologian who put his theological thoughts in his Institues of the Christian Religion, which was called as Calvinism. 2) He rejected the papal authorities and devoted himself to the work of reformation in Geneva, where he set himself the task of constructing a government based on the subordination of the state to the church, a type of government which later came to be know as the Presbyterian government. 3) Calvin’s influence was widespread, particularly in England and Scotland, and the Netherlands.10. Calvinism（加尔文主义）（北京市２００３年自考真题名词解释）:1)Calvinism was established by Calvin in the period of Renaissance. 2)Calvinism held that the absolute authority of the G od’s will, holding that only those specially elected by God are saved, and that any form of sinfulness was a likely sigh of damnation whereas hard work and thrifty way of life could be a sign of salvation. 3) This belief serves so well to help the rising bourgeoisie on its path that many historians have suggested that Calvinism was one of the main courses the capitalist spirit.11. Counter-Reformation（反宗教改革）: 1)By late 1520 the Roman Catholic Church had lost its control over the church in Germany and the movement against the Roman Catholic Church had swept over the whole of Europe, shaking the very foundation of the Roman Catholic Church. 2) The Roman Catholic Church did not stay idle. They gathered their forces to examine the Churchinstitutions and introduce reforms and improvements, to bring back its life. 3) In time, the romanCatholic Church did re-establish itself as a dynamic force in European affairs. 4) This recovery of power is often called by historians the Counter-Reformation.12. Jesuits/The Society of Jesus（耶酥会）: 1) In the Counter-Reformation, a Spaniard Ignatius and his followers called themselves the Jesuits, members of the Society of Jesus. 2) The Jesuits went through strict spiritual training and organized their own colleges to train selected youth who would be centre of their influence in the next generation.3) The Jesuits made it their life long work13. 1) Don Quixote is the greatest work by Spanish novelist Cervanes..2) The novel depicts the various adventures of Don Quixote and his servant Sancho Panza and offers a picture of Spain in the 17th century with various characters and landscapes.3) it was a parody satirizing a very popular type of literature at the time, the romance of chivalry. 4)1) Shakespeare is the greatest poet and dramatist in English literature. 2) He was a man of the late Renaissance who gave the fullest expression to humanist ideals. 3) He produced a lot of works, including Hamlet, O thello, King Lear and Macbeth, which exerted great impact on the world literature and was regarded as one of the two reservoirs of modern English language.15. Columbus（哥伦布）:1) He was a Italian navigator. 2) Under the patronage of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, He sailed west to reach the orient. 3) He left Palos in 3 August, 1492 with three ships and reached the Bahamas on 12 October 1492, whichwas claimed to be the New World. 16. Copernicus（哥白尼）: 1) He was a Polish astronomer who put forward revolutionary ideas in astronomy in 17th century. 2) He believed that the earth and other planets orbit about the sun and that earth is not at the centre of the universe. 3) He set forth his beliefs in the book The Revolution of the Heavenly Orbs and came to be known as father of modern astronomy. 4) He was also the forerunner of modern science.Division Five The Seventeenth Century1. Kepler’s Laws（开普勒定律）: 1) The first important astronomer after Copernicus to adopt the heliocentric theory was the German scientist Kepler. 2)Kepler is best known for his discovery of the three laws of planetary motion, the three laws being called Kepler’s Laws. 3) They may be stated as follows each planet moves in an ellipse, with sun at one focus; each planet moves more rapidly when near the sun than farther from it; the distance of each planet from the sun bears a definite relation to the time period of its revolution around the sun.4. :They formed the basis of all.1）The law of the universal gravitation is considered to be one of the most important discoveries in the history of science.2) It was discovered by English scientist, Isaac Newton. 3) It states that the sun, the moon, the earth, the planets, and all the other bodies in the universe move in accordance with the same basic force, which is called gravitation.4) From his law of universal gravitation Newton was able to deduce the orbits of comets, the tides, and even the minute departures from elliptical orbits on the part of the planets.3. the Great Instauration（伟大的复兴）: 1) T o expect any great advancement in science, English philosopher Francis Bacon held, we must begin anew. 2) The fresh start required the mind to overcome all the preconceptions, all the prejudices, all the assumptions, sweep away all the fallacies and false beliefs. In a word it is to break with the past, and to restore man to his lost mastery of the natural world. This was what Bacon called the Great Instauration.4．Inductive method（归纳法）：1）Inductive method was established by English philosopher Francis Bacon in 17th century.2) Induction means reasoning from particular facts or individual cases to a general conclusion.3). Induction was put over against deductive method.5. Thomas Hobbes’s political thought（霍布斯的政治思想）（北京市2004年真题名词解释）: 1) Thomas Hobbes held that men are enemies and at war with each other. 2) In odrder to get men out of the miserable condition of war, there should be a common power or government backed by force and able to punish. 3) He preferred monarchy.6. Lock’s Social Contract（洛克的社会契约论）：1）He believed that political society and government rest on a rational foundation. 2) He emphasized that the social contract must be understood as involving the individual’s consent to submit to the will of the majority and that the will of the majority must prevail. 3) Absolute monarchy is contrary to the original social contract and dangerous to liberty. 4) The ruler of government is one partner of the social contract. 5) The people shall be judge when circumstances render rebellion legitimate.7. The English Revolution:1) The English Revolution took place in the middle of the 17th century. 2) Among the causes ofthis revolution were the growth of capitalism,, the break-up of serfdom and the Puritan Movement. 3) 1in 1642, the Civil War broke out between the king and the Parliament. Led by Cromwell, the English bourgeoisie won the victory, and Charles I was1) During the restoration in England, many revolutionary leaders and those who had supported the Revolution were persecuted and Charles II was planning to turn England into a Catholic country. 3) In 1688, the representatives of the Parliament went to Holland to negotiate with the Dutch king William and his wife Mary, who was a member of the English royal family and a Protestant. Thus the English throne was offered to William and Mary, and the short-lived restoration ended. 4) There was no bloodshed in this event of 1688, so it was called the Glorious Revolution.9. The Bill of Rights（权利法案）: 1) In 1889, the Bill of Rights was enacted by the English Parliament. 2) It established the supremacy of the Parliament and put an end to divine monarchy i n England. 3) The bill of Rights limited the Sovereign’s power in certain important directions: ①the power of suspending the laws by royal authority was declared to be illegal; Parliament was responsible for all the law making.②The king should levy no mone y except by grant of Parliament. ③The king should not keepa standing army in time of peace without consent of Parliament;④.No Roman Catholic, nor anyone marrying a Roman Catholic should succeed to the throne. 4) The Bill is the foundation on which the conditional monarchy of England rests.10. Descartes’Theory of Knowledge（笛卡儿的认知论）: 1) Descartes employed methodic doubt with a view to discovering whether there was any indubitable truth. 2) His motto is ―I doubt,therefore I think: I think, therefore I am‖. 3) Doubting is thinking, thinking is the essence of the mind. 4) Descartes concluded that all tings that we conceive very clearly and distinctly are true, and that knowledge of things must be by the mind.11. French Classicism（北京市2003年自考真题名词解释）: Classicism implies the revival of the forms and traditions of the ancient world, a return to works of old Greek literature from Homer to Plato and Aristotle. 2). It intended to produce a literature, French to the core, which was worthy of Greek and classical ideals. 3)This neoclassicism reached its climax in France in the 17th century. 4) Three characteristics were: ①In The French Classical literature, man was viewed as a social being consciously and willingly subject to discipline;②Rationalism was believed to be a ble to discover the best principles of human conduct and the universal principles of natural laws. French classicism was fond fo using classical forms, classical themes and values.12：1）The term ―baroque‖ was first applied to the architecture of the period, with its proliferation of ornament, and then extended to its elaborate paintings and music.2) Baroque Art, flourished first in Italy, and then spread to Spain, Portugal, France in south Europe and to Flander and the Netherlands in the North. 3)It was characterized by dramatic intensity and sentimental appeal with a lot of emphasis on light and color.Division Six The Age of Enlightenment1.Enlightenment(启蒙运动)(北京市2004年自考真题名词解释):1)Enlightenment was an intellectual movement originating in France, which attracted widespread support among the ruling and intellectual classes of Europe and North America in the。

“白板说”：英国哲学家洛克提出了著名的“白板说”，认为人的心灵如同白板，观念和知识都来自后天，并且得出结论，天赋的智力人人平等。

古典主义是17世纪盛行于法国，后流行于欧洲的一种文学思潮，因主张以古希腊罗马文学为典范而得名。

古典主义在政治上拥护王权，强调克制个人感情，服从国家整体利益；思想上崇尚理性，以唯理主义为哲学基础；创作上强调模仿古人，大量从古代文学中选取题材；艺术形式上对各种体裁有严格界定，如禁止混淆悲剧体裁和喜剧体裁，剧本创作须遵守“三一律”等。

古典主义的主要成就是悲剧和喜剧。

代表作家有高乃依和拉辛等。

狂飙突进运动，又称“狂飙运动”，发生在十八世纪从七十年代到八十年代中叶的德国，历时十五年。

它是文艺形式从古典主义向浪漫主义过渡时的阶段，也可以说是幼稚时期的浪漫主义。

其名称来源于音乐家克林格的歌剧“狂飙突进”，但其中心代表人物是歌德和席勒，歌德的“少年维特的烦恼”是其典型代表作品，表达的是人类内心感情的冲突和奋进精神。

这个运动持续了将近二十多年，从1765年到1795年，然后被成熟的浪漫主义运动所取代。

宗教改革运动；16世纪在欧洲出现的以宗教改革为内容的大规模社会政治运动。

中世纪后期的欧洲，教廷势力越来越大，教会占有土地，出售赎罪券，与世俗政权联系密切又彼此争斗，教廷和一些教士的腐化极其严重，各阶层民众对之日益不满。

1517 年10月31日，德国维登堡大学神学教授马丁·路德发表《九十五条论纲》，抨击罗马教廷出售赎罪券，矛头直指罗马教皇，拉开了宗教改革的序幕。

1520 年，路德又发表《关于教会特权制的改革致德意志基督教贵族公开信》，敦促教廷和教会恢复使徒时代的廉洁和简朴。

此后宗教改革运动迅速在欧洲展开。

在德国，出现了一批支持路德主张的封建主和市民教会；在瑞士，出现了以加尔文、茨温利为首的激进改革；在英国，开始了自上而下的宗教改革。

宗教改革的主要内容有：反对罗马教会对各国教会的控制；反对教会占有土地，出售赎罪券；不承认教会有解释《圣经》的绝对权威，不承认教士沟通神人的中介作用，认为《圣经》是信仰的最高原则，因信即可称义，教徒能够与上帝直接相通相遇；要求用民族语言举行宗教仪式，简化形式，主张教士可以婚娶。

欧洲文化名词解释（3）欧洲文化名词解释集锦11. holy commun-io-n（圣餐）: 1) It is one of most important sacraments. 2) It helps to remind people that Christ has died to redeem man.12．The Crusades（十字军东征 1) In 1071 Palestine fell to the armies of the Turkish Moslems who attacked the Christian pilgrims, killing many of them and sold many others as slaves. 2) News of this kink roused great indignation among Christians in western Europe. 3) The result was a series of holy wars called the Crusades which went on about 200 years. 4) All the soldiers going to Palestine wore a red cross on the tunics as a symbol of obedience to God. 5) There were altogether eight chief Crusades from 1096 to 1291. 6) Aothough the Crusades did not achieve their goal to regain the Holy land, they had an important effect on the future of both the East and the West. They brought the East into closer contact with the West. And they greatly influenced the history of Europe.13. Carolingian Renaissance（加洛林复兴）：1）In early medieval period, the Emperor of the Romans, Charlemagne, encouraged learning by setting up monastery schools, giving support to scholars and setting scribes to work copying various ancient books. Because the scribes performed their tasks well, few of the ancientworks that had survived until that time were ever lost. 3) The result of Charlemagne’s efforts is usually called the “Carolingian Renaissance”. 4)The term is derived from Charlemagne’s name in Latin, Carolus. 5) The most interesting side of this rather minor renaissance is the spectacle of Frankishor Germanic state reaching out to assimilate the riches of the Roman Classical and the Christianized Hebraic culture.14. Alfred the Great（阿尔弗雷德大王） 1) As the ruler of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wesse-x, he contributed greatly to the medieval European culture. 2) Heworried about the disappearance of learning and made Wesse-x the Anglo-Saxon cultural centre by introducing teachers and scholars, founding new monasteries, and promoting translations into the vernacular from Latin works. 3)He also inspired the compilation of the Anglo Saxon Chronicles.15．National Epic(民族史诗)：1）The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form. in ancient literature.2）“National epic” refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is, the languages of various national states that came into being in the Middle Ages. 3）Literary works were no longer all written in Latin.4） It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics.16．Beowulf（《贝奥武甫》）：1) It is an Anglo-Saxon epic in 8th century. 2) It originates from the collective efforts of oral literature. 3) The story is set in Denmark or Sweden and tells how the hero, Veowulf, defeats the monster Grendel andGrendel’s mother, a sea monster, but eventually receives his own death in fighting with a fire dragon. 4) It marks the beginning of English literature.17. Song of Roland （《罗兰之歌》）： 1）It is the most well-known of a group of French epics known as La Chanson de Gestes.2) It tells how Roland, one ofCharlemagne’s warriors, fights in Spain and dies defendinga pass in the Pyrenees.18. The Divine Comedy（《神曲》）：1）It was written by the greatest poet of Italy, Dante. 2) It is one of the landmarks of world literature. 3) The poem itself is the greatest Christian poem with a profound vision of the medieval Christian world, and expresses humanistic ideas which foreshadowed the spirit of Renaissance. 4) It was written in Italian rather than in Latin, which influenced decisively the evolution of European literature away from it origins in Latin culture to a new varied expression.19. The Canterbury Tales（《坎特伯雷故事集》）：1) The Canterbury Tales was written by English poet Chaucer. 2) The book contains twenty-four tales bold by a group of pilgrims on their journey to Canterbury. 3) Most of the tales are written in verse which reflects Chaucer’s innovation by introd ucing French and Italy writing into the English native alliterative verse(头韵).4)The Canterbury Tales is the best representative of the middle English, paving the way to Modern English.20. Gothic（哥特式建筑）名词解释1）The Gothic style. started in France and quickly spread through all parts of western Europe. 2) It flourished and lasted from the mid-12th to the end of 15th century and, in some areas, into the 16th. 3) More churches were built in this manner tan in any other style. in history. 4) The Gothic was an outgrowth of the Romanesque, but it reflected a much more ordered feudal society with full confidence. 5) Gothic cathedrals soared high, their windows, arches and towers reachingheavenward, flinging their passion against the sky. The were decorated with beautiful stained glass windows and sculptures.欧洲文化名词解释12017-04-08 22:32 | #2楼Ziggurats were built by the Sumerians, Babylonians, Elamites,Akkadians, and Assyrians for local religions. Each ziggurat was part of a temple complex which included other buildings. The precursors of the ziggurat were raised platforms that date from the Ubaid period during the fourth millennium BC. The earliest ziggurats began near the end of the Early Dynastic Period. The latest Mesopotamian ziggurats date from the 6th century BC.The Code of HammurabiThe Code of Hammurabi is a well-preserved Babylonian law code of ancient Mesopotamia, dating back to about 1754 BC. It is one of the oldest deciphered writings of significant length in the world. The sixth Babylonian king,Hammurabi, enacted this code. The Code adjust"an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth" as graded depending on social status.Alexander the GreatHe was a King of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon, member of the Argead dynasty. Born in Pella in 356 BC. He spent most of his ruling years on an unprecedented military campaign through Asia and northeast Africa, until by the age of thirty he had created one of the largest empires of the ancient world, stretching from Greece to Egypt and into northwest ancient India. He was undefeated in battle and is considered one of history's most successful military commanders. HippocratesHippocrates was an ancient Greek physician of the Age of Pericles. And he is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine. He is referred to as the father of western medicine in recognition of his contributions that found the Hippocratic School of Medicine. This intellectual school revolutionized medicine in ancient Greece, establishing it as a discipline distinct from other fields that it had traditionally been associated with theurgy and philosophy, thus establishingmedicine as a profession.Julius CaesarJulius Caesar was a Roman general, statesman, Consul, and notable author of Latin prose. He played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire. In 60 BC, Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey formed a political alliance that was to dominate Roman politics for several years. Caesar's victories in the Gallic Wars,extended Rome's territory to the English Channel and the Rhine. Caesar became the first Roman general to cross both when he built a bridge across the Rhine and conducted the first invasion of Britain.。

欧洲文化入门名词解释题欧洲文化是一个广泛而丰富的主题，包含了许多名词和概念。

以下是一些常见的欧洲文化名词解释：1. 文艺复兴（Renaissance），指15世纪至17世纪期间在欧洲兴起的一场文化运动，标志着中世纪晚期的结束和现代时代的开始。

它在文学、艺术、科学和哲学等领域产生了重要影响。

2. 巴洛克（Baroque），巴洛克是17世纪至18世纪初期的一种艺术和建筑风格，以其复杂、夸张和华丽的特点而闻名。

它在欧洲各地留下了许多宏伟的教堂和宫殿。

3. 文艺复兴人文主义（Renaissance Humanism），文艺复兴时期的一种思想运动，强调人的价值和尊严，以人类中心主义为核心。

人文主义者关注人类的教育、人文科学和个人成就。

4. 启蒙运动（Enlightenment），18世纪欧洲的一场思想运动，强调理性、科学和个人自由。

启蒙运动的哲学家们反对封建主义和宗教教条，主张人民的权利和平等。

5. 文化多样性（Cultural Diversity），欧洲是一个多民族、多语言和多文化的大陆。

文化多样性指的是不同民族和文化群体之间的差异和共存。

欧洲的文化多样性是其独特之处。

6. 民主（Democracy），民主是一种政治制度，强调人民的参与和决策权。

欧洲有许多国家采用民主制度，并且民主原则被认为是现代欧洲社会的基石。

7. 宗教改革（Protestant Reformation），16世纪欧洲发生的一场宗教运动，由马丁·路德等人领导。

它对天主教教会的权威提出了质疑，并导致了新教派别的兴起。

8. 工业革命（Industrial Revolution），18世纪末至19世纪初期，在英国开始的一场经济和技术变革。

工业革命引发了工业化和城市化进程，对欧洲社会和经济产生了深远影响。

9. 现代主义（Modernism），20世纪初期的一种文化和艺术运动，强调创新、个人表达和对传统的反叛。

现代主义在绘画、音乐、文学和建筑等领域都有显著影响。

西方文化史名词解释1. 文艺复兴（Renaissance）: 文艺复兴是指15世纪至17世纪初欧洲发生的一场从中世纪脱胎而生的文化革新运动。

这场运动最早在意大利出现，后来影响了整个欧洲。

文艺复兴时期的人们对古代文化和艺术的研究和追求达到前所未有的高度，创作了许多优秀的艺术作品和文学作品，对欧洲和世界文化产生了深远的影响。

2. 宗教改革（Protestant Reformation）：宗教改革指的是16世纪欧洲发生的一场与罗马天主教会斗争的宗教运动。

该运动的领导人包括马丁·路德、约翰·加尔文等人，他们对教会的教义和实践提出了批评和质疑，并提出了一系列新的教义和教派。

宗教改革最终导致天主教和新教之间的分裂，并对欧洲社会、政治和文化产生了深远的影响。

3. 启蒙运动（Enlightenment）：启蒙运动是指18世纪欧洲兴起的一场主张人类通过理性思维解放自己的运动。

启蒙运动的思想家强调人的理性和自由，主张摒弃过去的迷信和专制，追求真理和进步。

这一运动对政治、哲学、科学、艺术等领域都有深远影响，促进了民主、科学和人权的发展。

4. 工业革命（Industrial Revolution）：工业革命是指18世纪末至19世纪初英国发生的一场从农业社会转变为工业社会的经济和技术变革。

工业革命以机械化和工厂制生产为标志，推动了农业、制造业和交通运输业的现代化，使生产力大大提高。

这一革命改变了人们的生产方式和生活方式，对全球经济、社会和环境产生了深刻影响。

5. 民族国家（Nation-State）：民族国家指的是以民族为基础的政治实体。

在西方文化史上，民族国家的形成通常与16世纪后的宗教改革和17世纪后的绝对君主制有关。

民族国家的发展不仅强调民族一体性和国家主权，也对形成现代国际关系和民主制度产生了重要影响。

6. 进化论（Evolutionism）：进化论是指19世纪达尔文等科学家提出的一种关于物种起源和发展的理论。

一、名词解释：1、《荷马史诗》答：公元前8世纪，古希腊盲诗人荷马，把希腊人口头流传的诗歌整理编纂而成，由《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》两部史诗构成。

史诗用古希腊语的爱奥尼亚方言写成。

荷马史诗以迈锡尼时代晚期的特洛伊战争为题材，其情节始终贯穿人和神两条线索。

反映了公元前11-前8世纪的希腊社会状况，还可看迈锡尼时代的痕迹,是欧洲最早的文学巨著，成为欧洲文学的渊源。

反映了希腊宗教正向人格神崇拜过渡。

它为奥林帕斯教的建立奠定了基础，对于希腊民族性格的塑造起了重要作用。

2、《上帝之城》答：是罗马帝国晚期著名的神学家和教父哲学家奥古斯丁的著作。

410年，罗马城被西哥特人攻破，人们把灾难归咎于基督教，奥古斯丁写了此书对罗马帝国衰亡作解答。

本书共二十二章，第一部分主要驳斥对基督教不实的攻击，第二部分说明地上城和上帝城的不同起源、进展和结局。

奥古斯丁指出，罗马的衰退归咎于道德的衰败，而基督教则有助于道德的提升；基督教徒归属于上帝城；地上城与上帝城根本差别于，前者人民的共通点是爱自己，后者则是结合于上帝的爱和彼此的爱。

从而构成了基督教的历史观。

3、启蒙运动答：发生于17、18世纪欧洲的一场反封建、反教会的思想文化革命运动，它为资产阶级革命作了思想准备和舆论宣传。

其爆发中心为法国，代表领袖是伏尔泰。

启蒙思想家们宣扬天赋人权、三权分立、自由、平等和博爱，进一步论证封建制度的不合理，从而提出一整套哲学理论、政治纲领和社会改革方案。

这场运动矛头直指封建制度以及天主教会，促进欧美资产阶级革命的发展，同时对亚洲国家的思想解放起了催化剂作用。

4、凯恩斯主义答：是根据凯恩斯的著作《就业、利息和货币通论》的思想基础，主张国家采用扩张性的经济政策，通过增加需求促进经济增长的经济理论，是资本主义世界经济危机和国家垄断资本主义的产物。

凯恩斯认为，经济危机时由社会生产资料和消费品需求不足造成的，要消除经济危机就应该相应采取国家干预经济、赤字预算、增加投资的政策。

欧洲文化史欧洲文化略分五个时期。

一、古典时期（ the Classic Age， 1200 ～476 ）主要是古希腊文明（the Ancient Greek Civilization）及古罗马文明（the Ancient Roman Civilization）。

奉行的是异教徒的信仰和实践（Paganism）。

异教徒指非基督教徒，非犹太教徒，非伊斯兰教徒。

理念上鲜有束缚，实践中享受人生，个性突出，热情奔放，创造力旺盛，风格多姿多彩。

二、中世纪时期（the Middle Ages， 476～1453）主要是罗马天主教的教会文化（the Church Culture），强调人的原罪（the original sin），人性受到压抑（inhibited），文化上是一泓死水（cultural backwater）。

这一时期的主流是对古典时期的反动。

反主流的代表人物是但丁（ Alighier，Dante，l265～1321），杰作是史诗《神曲》（Divine Comedy）。

三、文艺复兴时期（the Renaissance， 15～16C）古典主义的复兴，遵循的是人文主义（Humanism），这是对中世纪经院哲学（Scholasticism）的对抗（reaction）。

代表人物有：1. 米开朗琪罗（Michelangelo Buonarroti，1475～1564）：代表作有梵蒂冈教皇（Pope，pontiff）专用西斯庭小教堂（The Sistine chapel）穹顶上的壁画《创世纪》，（Genesis）以及圣坛后的壁画《最后的审判》（The Last Judgment），雕塑《大卫》（David）等。

米氏又是建筑师、诗人。

2. 达芬奇（Leonardo da Vinci，1452～1519）：代表作有《蒙娜丽莎》（Mona Lisa），《最后的晚餐》，（The last Supper）。

是画家，又是雕塑家、建筑师、音乐家、工程师，确是多才多艺（versatile）。

第三部分《西方文化史》1-4章考点+名词解释第一章第一章西方文化的起源◆最初的奴隶制文明、现代西方文化的源头：爱琴文化◆现代西方文化的“基石”：希腊—罗马古典文化◆西方文化的精神祖先：古代希伯来人、古代希腊人一．一．欧洲史前文化（一）（一）旧石器文化1. 1.早期文化有三个：阿布维利文化、阿舍利文化、克拉克文化2. 2.阿布维利—阿舍利文化代表工具：手斧3. 3.克拉克文化代表工具：石片4. 4.欧洲最早发现的早期智人化石：尼安德特人化石5. 5.尼安德特人创造的文化：莫斯特文化6. 6.欧洲晚期智人：克罗马农人（现代欧洲白种人的祖先）7.7.晚期智人阶段主要文化：奥瑞纳文化、梭鲁特文化、马德林文化8.8.克罗马农人最突出的文化成就：岩画艺术（多以动物为题材）代表作：阿尔塔米拉洞穴岩画（西班牙）拉斯科洞穴岩画（法）最早的雕刻：“持角杯的少女”（也称“洛塞尔的维纳斯”）（二）（二）新石器文化1. 1.欧洲中石器文化的代表：阿齐尔文化（法）、马格尔莫斯文化（北欧）2. 2.阿齐尔文化主要工具：石镞、骨镞、骨质鱼叉3. 3.马格尔莫斯文化：鱼叉、鱼钩------渔猎生活4. 4.新石器文化主要特征：磨制石器和陶器的使用家畜驯养和定居农业的出现5. 5.欧洲最早的农业居民遗址在：南欧6. 6.欧洲最早的奴隶制文明：克里特岛进入青铜时代二．二．爱琴文化—克里特-迈锡尼文化（一）（一）爱琴文化的发现◆发现者：亨利•谢里曼（德）阿瑟•伊文斯（英）：发现米诺斯王宫（二）（二）克里特文化（前2600---前1250）1. 1.早期爱琴海非希腊语居民（创造早期爱琴文化）：皮拉斯吉人、卡里亚人或勒列吉人2. 2.克里特岛最为强大的奴隶制小国：米诺斯王朝3. 3.克里特重要雕刻品：石雕（“斗士杯”和“军官杯”）；克里特人有斗牛的习俗4. 4.米诺斯王朝书写形式：从图形符号发展为线形音节文字（线形文字A）5. 5.克里特人是海上民族，航海业发达；克里特文化兼具海洋性和开放性（三）（三）迈锡尼文化1. 1.迈锡尼文化的创造者：阿该亚人2. 2.阿该亚人创造了另一种泥板文书：线形文字B3. 3.表明迈锡尼社会进入奴隶制阶段的是：线形文字B里有关奴隶的字样4. 4.特洛伊战争时间：前12世纪初5. 5.以爱琴社会为题材的著作：《荷马史诗》，对于希腊精神的塑造产生了巨大的影响三．三．古代近东文化◆古代近东居民：美索不达米亚各族、埃及人、腓尼基人、希伯来人（一）（一）自然环境与古代近东文化1. 1.底格里斯河与幼发拉底河造就美索不达米亚尼罗河孕育埃及2. 2.“尼罗河的赠礼”：埃及“肥沃的新月地带”：两河流域包括巴勒斯坦3. 3.古代埃及与美索布达米亚地区都经历了由城邦走向统一的过程，形成了奴隶制神权统治，王权与法律均来自神授4. 4.埃及文化：单一发展进程5. 5.两河流域最早奴隶制文明创造者：苏美尔人6. 6.古代埃及人发明了：太阳历（二）（二）古代美索不达米亚文化（以苏美尔文化为基础，由阿卡德人、巴比伦人、亚述人等发展而来）1. 1.阿摩利人的古巴比伦王国，亚述人的亚述帝国以及迦勒底人的新巴比伦王国先后统治美索不达米亚地区2. 2.前3000年：苏美尔人开始使用楔形文字3. 3.最初的学校出现在：苏美尔4. 4.亚述学：通过楔形文字来研究两河流域历史文化5. 5.美索不达米亚最著名的史诗：《吉尔伽美什史诗》6. 6.美索不达米亚人的宗教观：多神信仰、神的人格化、灵魂不死观7.7.古巴比伦珍贵遗产：《汉谟拉比法典》（共282条），保留了原始的“同态复仇”习惯法8.8.《汉谟拉比法典》实质是：维护奴隶主阶级统治其进步意义：1）以成文法的形式使古巴比伦社会人人有法可依2）规定了明确的诉讼程序9.9.美索不达米亚建筑杰出代表：“空中花园”（世界七大奇观之一）“七级大庙塔”10.10.几何学：巴比伦人运用勾股定理11.11.代数学：巴比伦人使用十进位与六十进位制12.12.古巴比伦人制定太阴历13.13.今天历法中星期制度的来历：每周七天，即日、月、水、火、木、金、土（三）（三）古代埃及文化1. 1.象形文字的发明者：古代埃及人2. 2.使文字开始具有抽象含义的是：表意符号的出现3. 3.埃及的象形文字由三个部分构成：表形、表意、表音4. 4.字母文字的创造者：腓尼基人5. 5.埃及学诞生的标志：1882年商博良（法）释读象形文字6. 6.古代埃及人最初的宗教信仰：图腾崇拜7.7.埃及法老被视为太阳神的化身，又被称为太阳神之子，其权力来自神授8.8.法老阿蒙霍特普四世创作：《阿顿颂诗》9.9.古代埃及著名诗歌：《打谷歌》《阿顿颂诗》10.10.古代埃及最著名的箴言《伊浦味箴言》11.11.古代埃及著名建筑：金字塔、“迷宫”、底比斯的阿蒙神庙12.12.古代埃及雕塑代表：狮身人面像、涅菲尔提提王后像（阿玛尔纳艺术）13.13.数学成就：埃及人应用十进位法、求出圆周率3.1614.14.天文成就：世界上最早的太阳历（四）（四）古代近东文化对西方文化的影响1. 1.古代近东文化包括：美索不达米亚文化、埃及文化2. 2.西方文化的两大精神祖先：希腊人、希伯来人3. 3.《旧约圣经》中“通天塔”的原型：巴比伦城的七级大庙塔4. 4.古代希腊字母：由腓尼基字母发展而来，腓尼基字母（22个）是世界上第一套拼音字母；希腊字母后来发展成拉丁字母和斯拉夫字母5. 5.希腊雕像考罗斯：具有埃及人的气质6. 6.埃及的《阿顿颂诗》影响了《旧约圣经》的《诗篇》7.7.前45年，朱里亚.凯撒在埃及立法的基础上制定“朱里亚历”（“儒略历”），在罗马推行8.8.16C末，教皇格里高利十三世制定“格里高利历”（今天通行世界的“公历”）9.9.数学方面，希腊数学家欧几里德继承古代埃及几何学四．四．希伯来文化希伯来宗教伦理思想成为现代西方宗教和伦理思想的主要源泉，希伯来人是西方文化的精神始祖之一（一）（一）希伯来人与犹太教1. 1.希伯来人宗教思想的核心内容之一：“摩西十诫”2. 2.所罗门死后，希伯来人国家分裂为：以撒玛利亚为都城的以色列（北部）以耶路撒冷为都城的犹太（南部）3.著名先知以西结极大发展了犹太教，增加了救世主（弥赛亚）4.犹太人宗教与社会生活的中心：犹太会堂5.犹太教分裂出的教派：法利赛派、撒都该派、艾塞尼派6.研究古代希伯来人宗教与历史的珍贵资料：《死海古卷》7.犹太教思想成为基督教主体思想，其经典构成了基督教的《旧约圣经》8.以色列及散居各地的犹太人的名族语言：希伯来语（二）（二）《旧约圣经》（犹太教的经典）1. 1.《旧约圣经》共39卷，由法律书、先知书、圣录三部分组成2. 2.旧约的主题和核心：“法律书”，在旧约中地位最高，包括《创世纪》《出埃及记》《利未记》《名数记》《申命记》（为摩西所传，又称《摩西五经》）3. 3.“先知书”地位次于“法律书”，从希伯来人建国至新巴比伦征服犹太王国这段时间的历史记载和先知言行录4. 4.“圣录”的地位次于“先知书”，内容包括“巴比伦囚徒”至波斯统治时期的犹太历史和诗篇5. 5.《七十子希腊译本》：被翻译成希腊文的旧约，比希伯来文经典多出一部分经卷，人们把没有争议的经卷称为“正典”，有争议的称为“后典”（三）（三）希伯来人的宗教---伦理思想1. 1.犹太教宗教思想的特点：1）坚持一神论，只有雅赫维才是唯一真神2）契约观念3）注重戒律，如摩西十戒4）弥赛亚和天国观念第二章第二章西方古典文化的繁荣理性主义与人文主义，民主与科学的精神，是希腊古典文化的精髓，造就了西方文化中的古典传统。

Unit one Greek Culture and Roman Culture1. Herodotus: He was one of the great Greek historians. He was called”father of history”. He wrote wars between Greeks and Persians.2. Socrates: he was one of the great philosophers of ancient Greece. His philosophy took the aim to reach the conclusion of oneself. He thought that virtues was knowledge. His thought was recorded in Dialogue by Plato. He devised the dialectical method.3.Aristotle: he was one of the great philosophers of ancient Greece, pupil of Plato. He thought that theory should follow fact. His major works are Ethics, Politics, Poetics and Rhetoric.4. Plato: he was one of the great philosophers of ancient Greece, pupil of Socrates. He built up a comprehensive system of philosophy. His philosophy is called idealism. Among his Dialogues, the most famous books are the Apology, the Republic and Symposium.5. Dialectical method: It was devised by ancient Greek philosopher Socrates. It is a method of argument, by questions and answers.6. Diogenes: He was one of the Cynic’s leaders in ancient Greece. He decided to live like a dog. The word “cynic”means ”dog” in Greek. He rejected all conventions, advocate self-sufficiency and extreme simplicity in life.7. Stoics: It was one of four ancient Greek schools of philosophers. To them, the most important thing in life was “duty”. It developed into the theory that one should endure hardship and misfortune with courage. The chief Stoic was Zeno.8. Doric style: It is one of three ancient Greek architecture styles. It is also called the masculine style. It is sturdy, powerful, severe-looking and showing a good sense of proportions and numbers.9. Homer: Ancient Greeks considered Homer to be the author of their epics. He probably lived around 700 BC. His major works are Iliad and Odyssey.Unit two The Bible and Christianity1. The Bible: The Bible is a collection of religious writings, comprising two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. The former is about God and the laws of God; the latter is about the doctrine of Jesus Christ.2. The Old Testament: The Bible was divided into two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. The Old Testament is about the God and the Laws of God. The word “Testament’ means “agreement”, the agreement between God and Man.3. The New Testament: The Bible was divided into two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. The New Testament is about the doctrine of Jesus Christ. The word “Testament’ means “agreement”, the agreement between God and Man.4. Pentateuch: The first five books in the Old Testament are called Pentateuch. The five books are Genesis, Leviticus, Exodus, Numbers and Deuteronomy.5. Genesis: Genesis is one of the five books in Pentateuch in the Old Testament. It tells about a religious account of the origin of the Hebrews people, including the origin of the world and of man.6. Commandment: After the Hebrews formed into a great nation, they left the desert and entered the mountainous Sinai. Moses climbed to the top of the mountain to receive God message, which came to be known as the Ten Commandments.7. Noah’s Ark: People on earth became more and more corrupt, so the God decided to destroy them in a great flood, except Noah who kept faith in God. Noah followed God’s instructions to build an ark to protect him and his kin. 40 days later, only those sheltered in the ark survived.8. The fall of man: God created Adam and Eve, who lived in happiness in the Garden of Eden. One day, at the temptation of the Serpent, Eve and Adam ate fruits from the forbidden tree. Then, they were driven out of Eden. Thus man’s story of misfortune and hardships began.9. The prophets: For more than a thousand years in the Middle East there had been a class of people known as “prophets” or the spokesmen of God. The prophets can be grouped into the Major Prophets and Minor Prophets.10. The four accounts in the New Testament: The four accounts are the first four books in the New Testament. They were written by four of Jesus’ early followers. They tell of the birth, teaching, death and Resurrection of Jesus.11. King James’ version of Bible: It is the most influential English Bible. It is also called the “Authorized ” version. It was produced by 54 biblical scholars at the command of King James, and published in 1611.Unit three the Middle Ages1.The Middle Ages: It refers to the period between the 5th century and 15th century. During this times, there was no central government to keep the order. The only organization united Europe was the Christian church. Thus, the Middle Ages is also called the “Age of Faith”.2.Feudalism:In Europe, it was mainly a system of land holding---a system of holding land in exchange for military service. The word “feudalism” was derived from the Latin “feudum”, a grant of land.3. Code of Chivalry: In the Middle Ages, as a night, he was pledged to protect the weak, to fight for the church, to be loyal to his lord and to respect women of noble birth. These rules were known as code of chivalry.4. Dubbing: After a knight was successful in his trails and tournaments, there was a special ceremony to award him with a title, knight. This ceremony is called dubbing.5. The Catholic Church: In the Middle Ages, almost all Europeans belonged to the Catholic Church. Pope was the head of the Church. The Church had great influence on people’s daily life and the western thinking.6. The Crusades: In 1071,Turkish Moslems attacked the Christian pilgrims in Palestine, killing many of them. This news roused great indignation among Christians in western Europe. The result was a series of holy wars called the Crusades.7. Aflred the Great: He was the ruler of the Anglo-Saxon of Wessex. He contributed greatly to the medieval European culture.8. National epic: It refers to the epic written in vernacular languages. The languages of various national states came into being in the Middle Ages.9. The Divine Comedy: It was written by the greatest poet of Italy, Dante. It is one of the landmarks of the world literature. It is a Christian poem and expresses the idea of humanism.10. Gothic:It started in France and spread through western Europe. It flourished and lasted from the 12th century to 15th century. It was an outgrowth of the Romanesque. The Gothic cathedrals soared high. They were decorated with beautiful stained glass windows.11. Dante: He was the greatest poet of Italy. His masterpiece, the Divine Comedy, is one of the landmarks of the world literature.Unit four Renaissance and Reformation1. Renaissance: It refers to the period between the 14th and mid 17th century. “Renaissance” means revival, specifically, revival of interest in ancient Greek and Roman culture. In this period, Humanists tried to introduce new ideas that expressed the interest of the rising bourgeoisie.2. Humanism:It is the essence of Renaissance. Humanists believed that human beings had rights to pursue wealth and pleasure and they admired the beauty of human body. This belief shifted man’s interest from Christianity to humanity, from heaven to earth, from the beauty of God to beauty of human.3.Leonard da Vinci: he was an Italian painter, sculptor, architect, musician, engineer and scientist. He was a Renaissance man in the true sense of the word. He had great influence on the painters of his own generation, and generations to follow. His major works are Last Super and Mona Lisa.4. Michelangelo: He was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect and poet. He was a towering figure of the Renaissance. His major works are David, Moses and Sistine Chapel.5. Raphael: He was one of the major painters of the Renaissance. He was best known for his Madonna. Because of his Madonnas with sweet expression, he came to be known as the elegant Raphael.6. Boccaccio: He was a close friend of Petrarch. He devoted himself to reintroduce Greek works. His greatest work was the Decameron.7. Petrarch: He was a great figure in Italian literature and a great humanist. He was a courtier and a diplomat. He was good at not only in lyric poetry but also at prose. He was best known for Canzoniers.8. Reformation: It was a religious movement as well as a socio-political movement in the 16th century. It was led by Martin Luther and swept the whole Europe. It gave a fatal blow to the Roman Catholic Church, and paved the way for capitalism.9. Martin Luther: He was the German leader of the Protestant Reformation. His doctrine marked the first break in the unity of the Catholic Church. His held that Bible was the supreme authority, all believers were priests, and all occupations were holy.10. John Calvin: He was a French man, one of the leaders of the Protestant Reformation. His thoughts was called as Calvinism. His made a great influence in England, Scotland and the Netherlands.11. Calvinism: It was established by Calvin. It held the absolute authority of the God’s will. It believed that only those elected by God are saved, and any form of sinfulness was a sigh of damnation, whereas hard word could be a sign of salvation.12. Couter-Reformation: During the Reformation, the Roman Catholic Church had lost its control over many places in Europe. The Church introduced reforms to bring back its life. Those improvements did work and the Roman Catholic Church did re-establish itself to some degree. 13. Copernicus: He was a Polish astronomer. He believed that the earth and other planets orbit about the sun and earth is not at the center of the universe. He was known as “father of modern astronomy”. His famous book was14. William Shakespeare: He is the greatest poet and dramatist in English literature. He was a man of the late Renaissance. His works including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear and Macbeth exerted great influence on the world literature.15. Columbus: He was a Italian navigator. Under the patronage of the royal family of Spain, he sailed west to reach the orient. He left Palos in 3 August,1492 with three ships and reached the Bahamas on 12 October 1492.16. Machiavelli: He was an author and a statesman. He was called “father of political science” in the west. By his famous books, Prince and Discourses, he expressed his ideas of liberty and democracy.Unit five The Seventeenth Century1. Galilei: He was a great Italian physicist of the 17th century. He was the first person to apply the telescope to the study of the skies. His discoveries were recorded in his famous book, the Starry Messenger.2. Bacon: He was an English philosopher, essayist and statesman. The famous sentence“knowledge is power”comes from him.His major works are the Advancement of Learning, the New Atlantis, the New Method and Essays.3. Thomas Hobbes: He was an English author. He was best known for Leviathan, one of the most famous political treatises. During the English Revolution, because of his royalist convictions, he took refuge in France.4. John Locke: He was a great English political philosopher. He inherited and developed the materialist views from Bacon and Hobbes. His famous books are Essays Concerning Human Understanding and Treatises of Civil Government.（2007年名词解释)5. Hobbes’ Materialist Views: He held that our knowledge comes from experience, and only material things are perceptible and knowable to us.6. Hobbes’s political thought: He held that men are enemies and at war with each other. In order to get men out of the war, there should be a common power backed by force and able to punish. He preferred monarchy.7. Lock’s Materialist Views: He held that all our ideas are ultimately derived from sensation or from reflection, and all our knowledge comes from experience.8. Lock’s Political Philosophy:treatises of Civil Government, he rejected the theory of divine right of kings, he set forth the true origin of government, he firmly believed in natural rights.9.10. The English Revolution: with the growth of capitalism,in 1642, the Civil War broke out between the king the Parliament. Led by Cromwell, the English bourgeoisie won the victory. Charles I was captured and beheaded in 1649 and a republic was born.11. The Glorious Revolution: Charles II was planing to turn England into a Catholic country. In 1688, the representatives of the Parliament negotiated with the Dutch king William and Mary, who was a member of the English royal family and a Protestant. Thus the English throne was offered to William and Mary and the restoration ended.12. The Bill of Rights: It was enacted by the English Parliament in 1689. It established the supremacy of the Parliament and put an end to divine monarchy. It limited the Sovereign’s power in some directions.13. Descartes: He was a French philosopher, physicist and mathematician. It is believed that modern philosophy begins with Bacon in England and with Descartes in France. His major works are Discourse on Method and Rules for the Direction of the Mind.14. Baroque Art: It flourished in Italy, and then spread to Spain, Portugal, France, Flander and the Netherlands. It was characterized by dramatic intensity and sentimental appeal with a lot of emphasis on light and color. The representatives are Bernini, Borromini and Peter Paul Rubens. Unit six The Age of Enlightenment1. Enlightenment: It was an intellectual movement originating in France and then spread though the Europe and North America in the second half of the 18th century. It is sometimes called the Age of Reason, because the writers used critical reason to free minds.2. The First Industrial Revolution: It took place in England between 1760 and 1840. It began with the invention of the steam engine. It rapidly changed the face of the world and ushered in a completely new age.3. French Revolution:In 1789, the people in Paris seized the Bastille. This event marked the end of the French monarchy. The guiding document of the revolution called Declaration of the Rights of Man. It established bourgeois democracy.4. Montesquieu: He was a French philosopher in 18th century. He was a great French man of letters associated with the Enlightenment. His famous works are Persian Letters and The Spirit of the Laws.5. The Spirit of the Laws: It was written by French philosopher Montesquieu in 18th century. It believed that the legislative, executive and judicial powers must be confided to different individuals or bodies,acting independently. The book has a great influence in the Western world even to this day.6. Voltaire: He was a French poet, dramatist and philosopher. He was noted for his characteristic wit, satire and critical capacity. His famous works are Letters Anglaise and Candide.7. Rousseau: He was a philosopher, and one of the greatest figures of the French Enlightenment. He glorified human nature and attacked social inequality. He was best known for his works including Emile, The Confessions, and The Social Contract.8. Rousseau’s The Social Contrat: It held that a society able to cultivate the individuals’moral stature without injuring his freedom. He believed that a social contract is established when each individual gave his rights to a general will. The book ended with a claim for social democracy.9. Henry Fielding: He was an English novelist, dramatist and essayist. He was called by Walter Scott the “father of the English novel”. His masterpiece was Tom Jones.10. Diderot: He was a French philosopher of the 18th century and man of letters. His famous works are Encyclopedia, Philosophical Thoughts, Letters on the Blind.11. Rococo Art: It is usually associated with architecture and interior decoration. It is characterized by elaborate ornamentation imitating shellwork. It has a curing and elastic pattern. The representatives are Watteau and Boucher.12. Kant: He was a German philosopher. He was the key figure of the German classical philosophy, and he is sometimes called the “waterhead of modern philosophy”. His famous works are Critique of Pure Reason, Critique of Practical Reason and Critique of Judgment.13. The Viennese School: Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven.Unit seven Romanticism1. Romanticism: It was a movement in literature, philosophy, music and art. It developed in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th century. It emphasized individual values and aspirations. It gave impetus to the national liberation movement in 19th century Europe.2. The lakers: English Romantic poets Wordsworth and Coleridge were best known as Lakers. The reason why they were called as Lakes is that they lived in the Lake District.Unit eight Marxism and DarwinismHegel: He was a German philosopher. He held that universe is subject to a constant progress of change and that activity is basic; progress is rational and logic is the basic of world progress. Such thoughts were recorded in his book Phenomenology.Darwinism: It refers to Darwin’s theory of evolution, the essence of which is natural selection. This idea had been touched upon by several scientists. Darwinism had great influence on biology, theology and social science.Marxism: It was born in the 19th century from European culture. It was developed from the German classical philosophy, utopia socialism as well as english and french political economy. It can be divided into 3 sections: Marxist philosophy, Marxist political economy and Marxist socialism.Unit night Realism1. Realism: it is a literary movement in Europe and the US in the last half of the 19th century and the early 20th century. It language was usually simple, clear and direct, while the tone was often comic, frequently satiric.2. Balzac: He was a french realist. He has been called “the French Dickens”. He grew up under the regime of Napoleon. The three best-known of his 90 novels in the Human Comedy are Eugenie Grandet, La Cousine Bette and Le Pere Goriot.3. Flaubert: he is one of the great literary artist of the 19th century. Though less fertile and wide-ranging than Balzac, he is much more of a conscious artist whose work constitutes an epoch in the history of the art of fiction. His work is Madame Bovary.4. Zola: He was a french author. He was the founder of the naturalist school. He believed almost blindly scientific determinism. His theory of naturalism was recorded in Les Rougen-Macquarts.5. Tolstoy: He was a Russian realistic novelist. He made the Russian realistic novelist a literary genre that ranks in importance with classical Greek tragedy and Elizabethan drama. His famous works are War and Peace, Anna Karenina, Resurrection.6. Van Gogh: He was a Dutch impressionist painter, who stresses the expression of his subject emotions in his paintings. His famous works are Starry Night, Sunflower, The Night Cafe.Unit ten Modernism1.Modernism: It was a international movement in all the creative arts, originating about the end of the 19th century. It was made up of manyfacets, such as symbolism. surrealism, cubism, expressionism, futurism, ect.2. Freud: He was an Austrian physician and neurologist. He was “the father of psychoanalysis”. He emphasized the unconscious, Id, Ego and Superego. His books -------has a profound influence on the modernist movement.3. The Lost Generation: It refers to a group of young intellectuals who came back from WWI, were injured both physically and mentally. The best representatives of the lost generation was Ernest Hemingway.4. Hemingway: He was an American novelist short story writer of the 20th century. He was awarded the Noble Prize in 1954. His famous works includes The Sun Also Rises, A Farewell to Arms, the Old Man and the Sea.5. The Beat Generation: The Beat Generation in America refers to a group of American youngsters who refused to accept “respectability” and conventional social behaviors and who cultivated a rootless manner of living. The representatives are Ginsberg and Keroual.6. Angry Young Men: It was a term referring to a group of English writers who found themselves to be social misfits. It was represented by John Osborne’s play Look Back in Anger and Amis’s novel Lucky Jim.7. The Theatre of the absurd: It is a term referring to the works of some European playwrights of the 1950s and 60s. Their language is often dislocated. The Theatre of the Absurd is represented by Beckett’s Waiting for Godot.8. Black Humor: It is a term derived from Black Comedy. It refers to some Western, especially American Post-World War II writers. Black humor is kind of desperate humor. It was represented by Joseph Heller’s Catch-22.。

世界文明史考研名词解释汇总
世界文明史考研涉及的名词解释汇总是一个广泛的话题，涵盖
了许多重要的概念和术语。

以下是一些常见的名词解释：
1. 文明，指人类社会在特定历史时期内达到的高度发展的社会
形态，包括政治、经济、文化等方面的进步。

2. 古代文明，指人类历史上早期的文明，如埃及、巴比伦、古
希腊、古罗马等。

3. 中世纪，指欧洲历史上从古代文明衰落到近代文明兴起之间
的时期，大约从公元5世纪到15世纪。

4. 文艺复兴，指15世纪至16世纪欧洲发生的一系列思想、文
化和艺术变革，标志着中世纪向近代的转变。

5. 近代史，指欧洲历史上从文艺复兴开始到18世纪末的时期，以工业革命为标志，标志着现代社会的形成。

6. 工业革命，指18世纪末至19世纪初英国发生的一系列技术、
经济和社会变革，标志着人类社会进入工业化时代。

7. 帝国主义，指19世纪末至20世纪初欧洲列强对其他国家进
行殖民扩张和经济控制的现象和政策。

8. 第一次世界大战，指1914年至1918年间爆发的一场全球性战争，对世界格局和国际关系产生了深远影响。

9. 第二次世界大战，指1939年至1945年间爆发的一场全球性战争，是人类历史上规模最大、影响最深远的战争之一。

10. 冷战，指第二次世界大战后，苏联和美国之间的意识形态、政治和经济上的对抗和紧张局势，持续了约半个世纪。

以上仅是一小部分世界文明史考研中的名词解释，希望对您有
所帮助。

如有更具体的问题，请继续提问。

欧洲文化史欧洲文化史是一个丰富多彩的领域，涵盖了几千年的历史和各个国家的文化演变。

从古代希腊罗马文明到文艺复兴时期的人文主义运动，再到现代的多元文化融合，欧洲的文化历程可以说是人类文明发展的重要组成部分。

古希腊和罗马文化是欧洲文化史的开端。

古希腊的文化对于西方文化产生了深远的影响。

在古希腊，诗人、哲学家和艺术家们创造了许多伟大的文化成就，如荷马的史诗《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》，柏拉图的哲学思想等等。

而在罗马，科学、法律和工程方面的成就都为欧洲文化的发展奠定了基础。

中世纪是欧洲文化史上一个重要的时期，它被视为文艺复兴的前奏。

在这个时期，宗教在欧洲文化中起到了主导作用，基督教信仰深深地影响了社会生活、艺术和文学。

修道院成为了学术研究和知识传承的中心。

同时，中世纪的骑士精神和十字军东征也为欧洲文化增添了一份浪漫的色彩。

文艺复兴时期标志着欧洲文化的重大转变。

在这个时期，人们开始重新对古希腊和罗马文化产生兴趣，开始重新研究古代的文化和哲学。

这种对古代文化的追溯，激发了人文主义运动的诞生。

人文主义者强调人类和人类价值，认为每个人都应该有机会接受教育并发展自己的才能。

人文主义的理念在文学、艺术和科学方面都有所体现，为欧洲文化的繁荣做出了巨大贡献。

17世纪和18世纪是欧洲启蒙运动的时期，该运动对欧洲文化产生了深远的影响。

启蒙运动强调理性、科学和个人自由。

许多哲学家和思想家，如伏尔泰、卢梭和洛克，提倡民主、平等和人权。

启蒙运动还促进了科学和技术的发展，开创了工业革命的先驱。

这个时期的文化象征了欧洲文化转型的重要节点。

19世纪和20世纪，欧洲经历了许多巨大的变革，这些变革影响了欧洲的文化风貌。

从浪漫主义到现代主义，从世界大战到全球化，欧洲的文化经历了多样的流派和思潮。

艺术家们通过他们的作品表达对社会和政治现象的关切，揭示了欧洲在这个时期所经历的动荡。

如今的欧洲文化是多元且包容的。

欧洲各个国家的文化相互交融，形成了一个多元的文化景观。

第三部分《西方文化史》1-4章考点+名词解释第一章第一章西方文化的起源◆最初的奴隶制文明、现代西方文化的源头：爱琴文化◆现代西方文化的“基石”：希腊—罗马古典文化◆西方文化的精神祖先：古代希伯来人、古代希腊人一．一．欧洲史前文化（一）（一）旧石器文化1. 1.早期文化有三个：阿布维利文化、阿舍利文化、克拉克文化2. 2.阿布维利—阿舍利文化代表工具：手斧3. 3.克拉克文化代表工具：石片4. 4.欧洲最早发现的早期智人化石：尼安德特人化石5. 5.尼安德特人创造的文化：莫斯特文化6. 6.欧洲晚期智人：克罗马农人（现代欧洲白种人的祖先）7.7.晚期智人阶段主要文化：奥瑞纳文化、梭鲁特文化、马德林文化8.8.克罗马农人最突出的文化成就：岩画艺术（多以动物为题材）代表作：阿尔塔米拉洞穴岩画（西班牙）拉斯科洞穴岩画（法）最早的雕刻：“持角杯的少女”（也称“洛塞尔的维纳斯”）（二）（二）新石器文化1. 1.欧洲中石器文化的代表：阿齐尔文化（法）、马格尔莫斯文化（北欧）2. 2.阿齐尔文化主要工具：石镞、骨镞、骨质鱼叉3. 3.马格尔莫斯文化：鱼叉、鱼钩------渔猎生活4. 4.新石器文化主要特征：磨制石器和陶器的使用家畜驯养和定居农业的出现5. 5.欧洲最早的农业居民遗址在：南欧6. 6.欧洲最早的奴隶制文明：克里特岛进入青铜时代二．二．爱琴文化—克里特-迈锡尼文化（一）（一）爱琴文化的发现◆发现者：亨利•谢里曼（德）阿瑟•伊文斯（英）：发现米诺斯王宫（二）（二）克里特文化（前2600---前1250）1. 1.早期爱琴海非希腊语居民（创造早期爱琴文化）：皮拉斯吉人、卡里亚人或勒列吉人2. 2.克里特岛最为强大的奴隶制小国：米诺斯王朝3. 3.克里特重要雕刻品：石雕（“斗士杯”和“军官杯”）；克里特人有斗牛的习俗4. 4.米诺斯王朝书写形式：从图形符号发展为线形音节文字（线形文字A）5. 5.克里特人是海上民族，航海业发达；克里特文化兼具海洋性和开放性（三）（三）迈锡尼文化1. 1.迈锡尼文化的创造者：阿该亚人2. 2.阿该亚人创造了另一种泥板文书：线形文字B3. 3.表明迈锡尼社会进入奴隶制阶段的是：线形文字B里有关奴隶的字样4. 4.特洛伊战争时间：前12世纪初5. 5.以爱琴社会为题材的著作：《荷马史诗》，对于希腊精神的塑造产生了巨大的影响三．三．古代近东文化古代近东居民：美索不达米亚各族、埃及人、腓尼基人、希伯来人（一）（一）自然环境与古代近东文化1. 1.底格里斯河与幼发拉底河造就美索不达米亚尼罗河孕育埃及2. 2.“尼罗河的赠礼”：埃及“肥沃的新月地带”：两河流域包括巴勒斯坦3. 3.古代埃及与美索布达米亚地区都经历了由城邦走向统一的过程，形成了奴隶制神权统治，王权与法律均来自神授4. 4.埃及文化：单一发展进程5. 5.两河流域最早奴隶制文明创造者：苏美尔人6. 6.古代埃及人发明了：太阳历（二）（二）古代美索不达米亚文化（以苏美尔文化为基础，由阿卡德人、巴比伦人、亚述人等发展而来）1. 1.阿摩利人的古巴比伦王国，亚述人的亚述帝国以及迦勒底人的新巴比伦王国先后统治美索不达米亚地区2. 2.前3000年：苏美尔人开始使用楔形文字3. 3.最初的学校出现在：苏美尔4. 4.亚述学：通过楔形文字来研究两河流域历史文化5. 5.美索不达米亚最著名的史诗：《吉尔伽美什史诗》6. 6.美索不达米亚人的宗教观：多神信仰、神的人格化、灵魂不死观7.7.古巴比伦珍贵遗产：《汉谟拉比法典》（共282条），保留了原始的“同态复仇”习惯法8.8.《汉谟拉比法典》实质是：维护奴隶主阶级统治其进步意义：1）以成文法的形式使古巴比伦社会人人有法可依2）规定了明确的诉讼程序9.9.美索不达米亚建筑杰出代表：“空中花园”（世界七大奇观之一）“七级大庙塔”10.10.几何学：巴比伦人运用勾股定理11.11.代数学：巴比伦人使用十进位与六十进位制12.12.古巴比伦人制定太阴历13.13.今天历法中星期制度的来历：每周七天，即日、月、水、火、木、金、土（三）（三）古代埃及文化1. 1.象形文字的发明者：古代埃及人2. 2.使文字开始具有抽象含义的是：表意符号的出现3. 3.埃及的象形文字由三个部分构成：表形、表意、表音4. 4.字母文字的创造者：腓尼基人5. 5.埃及学诞生的标志：1882年商博良（法）释读象形文字6. 6.古代埃及人最初的宗教信仰：图腾崇拜7.7.埃及法老被视为太阳神的化身，又被称为太阳神之子，其权力来自神授8.8.法老阿蒙霍特普四世创作：《阿顿颂诗》9.9.古代埃及著名诗歌：《打谷歌》《阿顿颂诗》10.10.古代埃及最著名的箴言《伊浦味箴言》11.11.古代埃及著名建筑：金字塔、“迷宫”、底比斯的阿蒙神庙12.12.古代埃及雕塑代表：狮身人面像、涅菲尔提提王后像（阿玛尔纳艺术）13.13.数学成就：埃及人应用十进位法、求出圆周率3.1614.14.天文成就：世界上最早的太阳历（四）（四）古代近东文化对西方文化的影响1. 1.古代近东文化包括：美索不达米亚文化、埃及文化2. 2.西方文化的两大精神祖先：希腊人、希伯来人3. 3.《旧约圣经》中“通天塔”的原型：巴比伦城的七级大庙塔4. 4.古代希腊字母：由腓尼基字母发展而来，腓尼基字母（22个）是世界上第一套拼音字母；希腊字母后来发展成拉丁字母和斯拉夫字母5. 5.希腊雕像考罗斯：具有埃及人的气质6. 6.埃及的《阿顿颂诗》影响了《旧约圣经》的《诗篇》7.7.前45年，朱里亚.凯撒在埃及立法的基础上制定“朱里亚历”（“儒略历”），在罗马推行8.8.16C末，教皇格里高利十三世制定“格里高利历”（今天通行世界的“公历”）9.9.数学方面，希腊数学家欧几里德继承古代埃及几何学四．四．希伯来文化希伯来宗教伦理思想成为现代西方宗教和伦理思想的主要源泉，希伯来人是西方文化的精神始祖之一（一）（一）希伯来人与犹太教1. 1.希伯来人宗教思想的核心内容之一：“摩西十诫”2. 2.所罗门死后，希伯来人国家分裂为：以撒玛利亚为都城的以色列（北部）以耶路撒冷为都城的犹太（南部）3.著名先知以西结极大发展了犹太教，增加了救世主（弥赛亚）4.犹太人宗教与社会生活的中心：犹太会堂5.犹太教分裂出的教派：法利赛派、撒都该派、艾塞尼派6.研究古代希伯来人宗教与历史的珍贵资料：《死海古卷》7.犹太教思想成为基督教主体思想，其经典构成了基督教的《旧约圣经》8.以色列及散居各地的犹太人的名族语言：希伯来语（二）（二）《旧约圣经》（犹太教的经典）1. 1.《旧约圣经》共39卷，由法律书、先知书、圣录三部分组成2. 2.旧约的主题和核心：“法律书”，在旧约中地位最高，包括《创世纪》《出埃及记》《利未记》《名数记》《申命记》（为摩西所传，又称《摩西五经》）3. 3.“先知书”地位次于“法律书”，从希伯来人建国至新巴比伦征服犹太王国这段时间的历史记载和先知言行录4. 4.“圣录”的地位次于“先知书”，内容包括“巴比伦囚徒”至波斯统治时期的犹太历史和诗篇5. 5.《七十子希腊译本》：被翻译成希腊文的旧约，比希伯来文经典多出一部分经卷，人们把没有争议的经卷称为“正典”，有争议的称为“后典”（三）（三）希伯来人的宗教---伦理思想1. 1.犹太教宗教思想的特点：1）坚持一神论，只有雅赫维才是唯一真神2）契约观念3）注重戒律，如摩西十戒4）弥赛亚和天国观念第二章第二章西方古典文化的繁荣理性主义与人文主义，民主与科学的精神，是希腊古典文化的精髓，造就了西方文化中的古典传统。

欧美文学史重点整理名词解释：1.“鬼怪霍夫曼”：霍夫曼是19世纪德国著名小说家，霍夫曼小说情节往往荒诞离奇，笔下的人物往往受到幽灵般的神秘力量支配，往往被戏弄，被毁灭，因而在文学史上有“鬼怪霍夫曼”之称，但透过这些荒诞离奇的情节我们可以感受到霍夫曼对现实的嘲讽和批判。

因此海涅说“尽管霍夫曼描写了千奇百怪的鬼脸，但却始终牢牢地依附着人生的现实”。

霍夫曼的作品充满奇异的幻想，怪诞的故事和神秘的色彩，而在这一切背后，却隐含着对于黑暗的德国社会，对腐败的官僚贵族和庸俗丑恶的小市民生活的无情讽刺和鞭笞，同时也抒写了作家对艺术使命的浪漫主义信念，对后世文学有深远影响。

2.异国情调：指原始的自然风光和原始的风土的人情，同样，异国情调重要的不在于时空的距离而在于文化上的距离。

诸如阿拉伯，土耳其，西班牙，西班牙，北美，甚至科西嘉岛。

3.《克伦威尔》序言（法国浪漫主义的宣言书）：主要观点：①批判古典主义文学的清规戒律，反对盲目模仿古人，为创作自由和艺术的多样化辩护。

②雨果在里面指出了崇高优美与滑稽丑怪相对照的艺术理论。

他认为古典艺术仅仅从一个角度去考察自然，因而往往将滑稽丑怪拒之门外，近代艺术则以高瞻远瞩的目光观察自然，于是他们发现丑就在美的旁边，畸形靠近着优美，丑怪常在崇高的背后，美与恶并存，光明与黑暗相共，因此他要求将滑稽丑怪与崇高优美同时加以表现。

通过对照使我们带着一种更新鲜，更敏锐的感受朝着美而上升。

因为真正的诗，完整的诗都是处于对立面的和谐统一中。

4.百科全书派：在法国，从18世纪50年代至80年代，以编纂《百科全书》为中心，形成了启蒙运动的高潮。

当时几乎所有的法国启蒙思想家如狄德罗、达朗贝、伏尔泰、孟德斯鸠、卢梭、爱尔维修、霍尔巴赫、拉美特利等人都参加了编写工作。

因而他们又被称为“百科全书派”。

他们所宣传的学说，为法国资产阶级革命作了充分的思想和舆论的准备。

（P84）5.哲理小说：伏尔泰的作品中最有价值的一部分。

欧洲文化入门名词解释51：1．Pax Romana：In the Roman history，there came two hundred years of peaceful time，which was guaranteed(保证) by the Roman legions，it was known as Pax Romana2．The New Testament名词解释The Bible was divided into two sections：the Old Testament and the New Testament. The New Testament is about the doctrine (教义) of Jesus Christ. The word “Testament” means “agreement”，the agreement between God and Man.3．Pentateuch名词解释：The Old Testament consists of 39 books，the oldest and most important of which are the first five books，called Pentateuch. Pentateuch contains five books：Genesis (创世记)，Exodus (出埃及记)，Leviticus(教义记)，Numbers (逃亡记)，Deuteronomy (摩西遗言记)。

4．Genesis名词解释Genesis is one of the five books in Pentateuch，it tells about a religious account (描述) of the origin of the Hebrews people，including the origin of the world and of man，the career (经历) of Issac and the life of Jacob and his son Joseph.5．The Historical Books was divided into seven sections：①Books of Joshua ② Books of Judges ③ Books of Samuel ④ Books of Kings⑤ Books of the Chronicles ⑥ Books of Ezra ⑦ Books of Nehemiah.6．the Middle ages名词解释In European history，the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages.The middle ages is so called because it came between ancient times and modern times. To be specific (具体说来)，from the 5th century to 15th century.The transitional (过渡时期) period is called the middle ages，between ancient times and modern times.7. Feudalism名词解释Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding (土地所有) — a system of holding land in exchange for military service (军事力量)。