The Introduction of European Culture- English Terms
Greek Culture and Roman Culture
1) It is one of the two great ancient Greek epics by Homer. 2) It deals with the alliance of the states of the southern mainland of Greece, led by Agamemnon in their war against the city of Troy probably in the period 1200-1100 B. C. 3) The heroes are Hector on the Trojan side and Achilles and Odysseus on the Greek. 4) In the final battle, Hector was killed by Achilles and Troy was sacked and burned by the Greeks.
2．Herodotus（希罗多德）: 1) He is one of great ancient Greek historians. 2) He is often called ― Father of History. 3) He wrote about the wars between Greeks and Persians. 4) His history, full of anecdotes and digressions and lively dialogue, is wonderfully readable.5) His object in writing was ― that the great and wonderful deeds done by Greeks and Persians should not lack renown.‖
31) He was the philosopher of ancient Greece in the 5th and 4th century. 2) He was considered one of the three greatest names in European philosophy. 3) He hold that philosophy took the aim to reach the conclusion of oneself and virtue was knowledge. 4) His thoughts were recorded in Dialogues by Plato. 5) He devised the dialectical method.
4. Dialectical method（辩证法）: 1) It was devised by ancient Greek philosopher Socrates. 2) It is
a method of argument, by questions and answers.
1) He was the greatest philosopher of ancient Greece, pupil of Socrates. 2) His Dialogues are important not only as philosophical writing but also as imaginative literature. Of the Dialogues he wrote, 27 have survived, including: the Apology, Symposium and the Republic. 3) Plato built up a comprehensive system of philosophy. 4) His philosophy is called idealism.
6. Diogenes（狄奥艮尼）（北京市2002年自考真题名词解释）: He was one of the Cynic’s leaders in ancient Greece, who decided to live like a dog. 2) The word ―cynic‖ means ―dog‖ in Greek. 3) He rejected all conventions, advocated self-sufficiency and extreme simplicity in life.
7．Stoics（斯多咯派）: 1) It was one of four ancient Greek schools of philosophers in the 4th century B. C. 2) To them , the most important thing in life was ―duty‖. 3) It developed into the
8 1) It is one of three ancient Greek architecture styles. 2) It is also called the masculine style. 3) It is sturdy, powerful, severe-looking and showing a good sense of proportions and numbers. 4) The Doric style is monotonous and unadorned.
9．Pax Romana（罗马和平）（北京市2001年自考真题名词解释）:1）In the year 27 B.C. Octavius took supreme power as emperor with the tile of Augustus. 2) Two centuries later, the Roman empire reached its greatest extent in the North and East. 3) The emperors mainly relied on a strong army-the famous Roman Legions and an influential bureaucracy to exert their rules. 4) Thus the Roman enjoyed a long period of peace lasting 200 years. This remarkable phenomenon in the history is know as Pax Romana.
10. Virgil（维吉尔）: 1) He was the greatest of Latin poets. 2) He wrote the great epic, the Aeneid.
3) The poem opened out to the future, for Aeneas stood at the head of a rce of people who were to found the first the Roman republic and then the Roman Empire.
Division Two The Bible and Christianity
1) The Bible is a collection of religious writings comprising two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. 2) The former is about God and the laws of God; the latter, the doctrine of Jesus Christ.
2. The Old Testament:1)The Bible was divided into two sections: the Old Testament and the New Testament. 2) The Old Testament is about God and the Laws of God. 3)The word ―Testament‖ means ―agreement‖, the agreement between God and Man.
3. The New Testament: 1) The Bible was divided into two sections: the Old Testament and the New Testament. 2) The New Testament is about the doctrine (教义) of Jesus Christ. 3)The word
1) In the Old Testament, the oldest and most important are the first five books, called Pentateuch.2) Pentateuch contains five books: Genesis (创世记), Exodus (出埃及记), Leviticus(利未记), Numbers (民数记), Deuteronomy (申命记).
5．Genesis：1）Genesis is the first one of the five books in Pentateuch in Old Testament. 2) It tells about a religious account of the origin of the Hebrews people, including the origin of the world and of man, the career of Issac and the life of Jacob and his son Joseph.
6. Exodus: 1) Exodus is the second one of the five books in Pentateuch in the Old Testament. 2) It tells about a religious history of the Hebrews during their flight from Egypt Led by Moses. 3)
1) For many hundred years after Adam and Eve were driven out of Eden, the family of man multiplied and spread over the earth, but they became more and more corrupt 2) Thus God decided to destroy all life on earth in a great flood. 3) Because Noah always kept his faith in God, God spoke to him about His intention and told him to build an ark to protect him and his kin from the waters. 4) .Noah followed God’s instructions. 5) For 40 days it rained, the whole earth was covered with water, those sheltered in the ark being the only survivals.
8. The Prophets (先知)：1）For more than a thousand years in the Middle East there had been a class of people known as ―Prophets‖ or the spokesmen of God.2）Earlier prophets lived in groups as temple officials. Later on there appeared in dependent prophet. 3）The Prophets can be grouped into the Major Prophets and Minor Prophets.（分为大小先知）
9．The Book of Daniel（《但以理书》）：1）The Book of Daniel belongs to The Old Testament of the Bible. 2)The book appeared in the early days of Jews’revolt against the Syrian King Antiochus IV. 3) It is a story mixed with vision, describing how Daniel and his friends were taken prisoner to Babylon after the fall of Jerusalem and how they refused to compromise their
101) Roman emperor Constantine believed that God had helped him in winning the battle for the throne, so he issued the Edict of Milan in 313. 2) It granted religious freedom to all, made Christianity legal.
11．The four accounts in the New Testament（四福音书）: 1) The four accounts are the first four books in the New Testament. 2) They were believed to have been written by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, four of Jesus’early followers. 3) They tell of the birth, teaching, death and
12 1）As the most important and influential of English Bible, it is also called the ―Authorized‖version. 2) It was produced by 54 biblical scholars at the command of King James, and was published in 1611. 3) With its simple, majestic Anglo-Saxon tongue, it is know as the greatest book in the English language.
Division Three The Middle Ages
1．the Middle ages（中世纪）（北京市2002年自考真题名词解释）: 1) In European history, the thousand-year period from the 5th century to 15th century following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages.2)The middle ages is so called because it came between ancient times and modern times. 3) During the Medieval times there was no central government to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite Europe was the Christian church.4) Christianity took the lead in politics, law, art, and learning for hundreds of
―Age of Faith‖.
21）Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding — a system of holding land in exchange for military service. 2）The word ―feudalism‖ was derived from the Latin ―feudum‖, a grant of land.
3．Fiefs（封地，采邑）：1）In Feudalism, the ruler of the government redivided the large lands into small pieces to be given to chancellors or soldiers as a reward for their service. 2）The subdivisions were called fiefs.
4. vassals（诸侯）: 1)In Feudalism, the ruler of the government redivided the large lands into small pieces to be given to chancellors or soldiers as a reward for their service. 2)The subdivisions were
1) In the Middle Ages of western Europe, as a knight, he were pledged to protect the weak, to fight for the church, to be loyal to his lord and to respect women of noble birth. 2) These rules were known as code of chivalry, from which the western idea of good manners developed.
6. dubbing (骑士头衔加冕仪式) :After a knight was successful in his trails and tournaments, there was always a special ceremony to award him with a title, knight. This special ceremony is called dubbing.
7. The Manor (庄园)：1）The centre of medieval life under feudalism was the manor. 2）Manors were founded on the fiefs of the lords. 3）By the twelfth century manor houses were made of stone
81) In the medieval ―age of faith‖, almost all Europeans belonged to the Catholic Church. 2) The word ―catholic‖meant ―universal‖3) The Catholic Church was highly centralized and disciplined international organization and the Pope was the head of the Church. He not only ruled Rome and parts of Italy as a king, he was also the head of all Christian churches in western Europe. Those who opposed the Pope lost their membership and their political right. 4) The Church even set up a church court-the Inquisition to stamp out so-called heresy. 5) Latin was the accepted official language in the Roman Catholic Church. 6)
’s daily life and the western thinking.
91）Heeding the spiritual message of Christianity, between 300 and 500 A.D., many men withdrew from worldly contacts to deserts and lonely places. 2) This movement developed into the establishment of monasteries（修道院）and convents (女修道院) for monks and nuns. 3）Some of the hermits were great scholars known as ―Father of the Church‖, whose work is generally considered orthodox.. 4) Three representatives were St. Jerome,
1) It was founded by St. Benedict, a great monk in 529
A. D. 2) The monks who followed Benedict’s rule promised to give up all their possession before entering the monastery. 3) wore simple clothes and ate only certain simple foods. 4) They could not marry and had to obey without question the orders of the abbot. 5) They had to attend service
seven times during the day and once at midnight.6) In addition, they were expected to work five hours a day in the fields surrounding the monastery.
11. holy communion（圣餐）: 1) It is one of most important sacraments. 2) It helps to remind people that Christ has died to redeem man.
12．The Crusades（十字军东征）（北京市2001年自考真题名词解释）: 1) In 1071 Palestine fell to the armies of the Turkish Moslems who attacked the Christian pilgrims, killing many of them and sold many others as slaves. 2) News of this kink roused great indignation among Christians in western Europe. 3) The result was a series of holy wars called the Crusades which went on about 200 years. 4) All the soldiers going to Palestine wore a red cross on the tunics as a symbol of obedience to God. 5) There were altogether eight chief Crusades from 1096 to 1291. 6) Aothough the Crusades did not achieve their goal to regain the Holy land, they had an important effect on the future of both the East and the West. They brought the East into closer contact with
1）In early medieval period, the Emperor of the Romans, Charlemagne, encouraged learning by setting up monastery schools, giving support to scholars and setting scribes to work copying various ancient books. Because the scribes performed their tasks well, few of the ancient works that had survived until that time were ever lost. 3) The result of Charlemagne’s efforts is usually called the ―Carolingian Renaissance‖. 4)The term is derived from Charlemagne’s name in Latin, Carolus. 5) The most interesting side of this rather minor renaissance is the spectacle of Frankish or Germanic state reaching out to assimilate the riches of the Roman Classical and the Christianized Hebraic culture.
14. Alfred the Great（阿尔弗雷德大王）（北京市2003年自考真题名词解释）: 1) As the ruler of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex, he contributed greatly to the medieval European culture.
2) He worried about the disappearance of learning and made Wessex the Anglo-Saxon cultural centre by introducing teachers and scholars, founding new monasteries, and promoting translations into the vernacular from Latin works. 3)He also inspired the compilation of the Anglo
151）The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancient literature.2）―National epic‖ refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is, the languages of various national states that came into being in the Middle Ages. 3）Literary works were no longer all written in Latin.4）It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination
161) It is an Anglo-Saxon epic in 8th century. 2) It originates from the collective efforts of oral literature. 3) The story is set in Denmark or Sweden and tells how the hero, V eowulf, defeats the monster Grendel and Grendel’s mother, a sea monster, but eventually receives his own death in fighting with a fire dragon. 4) It marks the beginning of English literature.
17. Song of Roland （《罗兰之歌》）：1）It is the most well-known of a group of French epics known as La Chanson de Gestes. 2) It tells how Roland, one of Charlemagne’s warriors, fights in
1）It was written by the greatest poet of Italy, Dante. 2) It is one of the landmarks of world literature. 3) The poem itself is the greatest Christian poem with a profound vision of the medieval Christian world, and expresses humanistic ideas which
foreshadowed the spirit of Renaissance. 4) It was written in Italian rather than in Latin, which influenced decisively the evolution of European literature away from it origins in Latin culture to
1) The Canterbury Tales was written by English poet Chaucer. 2) The book contains twenty-four tales bold by a group of pilgrims on their journey to Canterbury. 3) Most of the tales are written in verse which reflects Chaucer’s innovation by introducing French and Italy writing into the English native alliterative verse(头韵).
4)The Canterbury Tales is the best representative of the middle English, paving the way to Modern English.
20. Gothic（哥特式建筑）(北京市2001自考真题名词解释)：1）The Gothic style started in France and quickly spread through all parts of western Europe. 2) It flourished and lasted from the mid-12th to the end of 15th century and, in some areas, into the 16th. 3) More churches were built in this manner tan in any other style in history. 4) The Gothic was an outgrowth of the Romanesque, but it reflected a much more ordered feudal society with full confidence. 5) Gothic cathedrals soared high, their windows, arches and towers reaching heavenward, flinging their passion against the sky. The were decorated with beautiful stained glass windows and sculptures.
Renaissance and Reformation
11）As a period in western civilization, generally speaking, Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th century. 2 Renaissance started in Florence and Venice with the flowering of paintings, sculpture and architecture.3) The word ―Renaissance‖ means revival, specifically in this period of history, revival of interest in ancient Greek and Roman culture. 4)Renaissance, in essence, was a historical period in which the European humanist thinkers and scholars made attempts to get rid of conservatism in feudalist Europe and introduce new ideas that expressed the interests of the rising bourgeoisie, to lift the restrictions in all areas placed by the Roman church authorities.5. During the period of Renaissance, old sciences revived and new sciences emerge, national languages and national cultures free from the absolute control of the Papal authority in Rome took shape and art and
2．1）Humanism is the essence of Renaissance. 2) Humanists in Renaissance believed that human beings had rights to pursue wealth and pleasure and they admired the beauty of human body. 3) This belief ran counter to the medieval ascetical idea of poverty and stoics,, and shifted man’s interest from Christianity to humanity, from religion to philosophy, fro heaven to earth, from the beauty of God to the beauty of human in all its joys, senses and feelings. 4) Theologically, the humanists were religious. But they began to look at the problems of God and Providence with a view to understanding man’s work and man’s earthly happiness. 5) The philosophy of humanism is reflected in the art and literature in Italy and the rest of Europe, to pass down as the beginning of the history of modern man, who, instead of brooding about death and the other world, lives and works for the present and future progress of mankind.
3. Leonard da Vinci（北京市2004年自考真题名词解释）: 1) He was a painter, a sculptor, an architect, a musician, an engineer and a scientist, who was born in Florence in Italy. 2) He was a Renaissance man in the true sense of the word. 3) He had profound understanding of art, which exerted great influence among the painters of his own generation, and generations to follow.4）
Mona Lisa.
1) Michelangelo was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect and
poet. 2) he was a towering figure of the Renaissance. 3) By art, he expressed his vision of man, man’s beauty, man’s nobility, his own anguish and his own energy, a means by which he made
David , Moses and Sistine Chapel.
1) Raphael was one of major painters during the Renaissance. 2) In his work, there is the exquisite harmony and balance of the High Renaissance. 3) Raphael was best know for his Madonna(Virgin Mary). He painted his Madonnas in different postures. 4) Because of his Madonnas with sweet expressions, he came to be known as the elegant Raphael.
6．High Renaissance（文艺复兴全盛时期）: 1) The Renaissance in Italy reached its height in the 16th century with its center moving to Milan, then to Rome, and created High Renaissance(1490-1530). 2) meantime by the beginning of the 16th century, Venetian art had come into being in full glory. 3) the representatives in this period were da Vinci, Michelangelo. Raphael and Titian.
7．Reformation（宗教改革）（北京市２００１年自考真题名词解释）：１）The Reformation was a 16th century religious movement as well as a socio-political movement. ２）It was led by Martin Luther and wept over the whole Europe. 3) This movement was aimed at opposing the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church and replacing it with the absolute authority of the Bible. 3) The Reformists believed in direct communication between the individual and God, engaged themselves in translating the Bible into their mother tongues, urged the Church to have institutional reforms and were interested in liberation national economy and politics from the interference of the Roman Catholic Church and carrying out wars in the interests of peasants and revolution of the bourgeoisie. 4) The Reformation dealt the feudal theocracy a fatal blow and
1）He was the German leader of the Protestant Reformation.
2) His doctrine marked the first break in the unity of the Catholic Church. 3) His doctrines were: men are redeemed by faith and not by the purchase of indulgence; Bible was the supreme authority and man was only bound to the law of the word of God, not the word of the clergy; all believers were priests, and all occupations were holy.
9. John Calvin（约翰?加尔文）: 1) He was a French theologian who put his theological thoughts in his Institues of the Christian Religion, which was called as Calvinism. 2) He rejected the papal authorities and devoted himself to the work of reformation in Geneva, where he set himself the task of constructing a government based on the subordination of the state to the church, a type of government which later came to be know as the Presbyterian government. 3) Calvin’s influence was widespread, particularly in England and Scotland, and the Netherlands.
10. Calvinism（加尔文主义）（北京市２００３年自考真题名词解释）:1)Calvinism was established by Calvin in the period of Renaissance. 2)Calvinism held that the absolute authority of the God’s will, holding that only those specially elected by God are saved, and that any form of sinfulness was a likely sigh of damnation whereas hard work and thrifty way of life could be a sign of salvation. 3) This belief serves so well to help the rising bourgeoisie on its path that many historians have suggested that Calvinism was one of the main courses the capitalist spirit.
11. Counter-Reformation（反宗教改革）: 1)By late 1520 the Roman Catholic Church had lost its control over the church in Germany and the movement against the Roman Catholic Church had swept over the whole of Europe, shaking the very foundation of the Roman Catholic Church. 2) The Roman Catholic Church did not stay idle. They gathered their forces to examine the Church institutions and introduce reforms and improvements, to bring back its life. 3) In time, the roman
Catholic Church did re-establish itself as a dynamic force in European affairs. 4) This recovery of power is often called by historians the Counter-Reformation.
12. Jesuits/The Society of Jesus（耶酥会）: 1) In the Counter-Reformation, a Spaniard Ignatius and his followers called themselves the Jesuits, members of the Society of Jesus. 2) The Jesuits went through strict spiritual training and organized their own colleges to train selected youth who would be centre of their influence in the next generation.3) The Jesuits made it their life long work
13. 1) Don Quixote is the greatest work by Spanish novelist Cervanes..2) The novel depicts the various adventures of Don Quixote and his servant Sancho Panza and offers a picture of Spain in the 17th century with various characters and landscapes. 3) it was a parody satirizing a very popular type of literature at the time, the romance of chivalry. 4)
1) Shakespeare is the greatest poet and dramatist in English literature. 2) He was a man of the late Renaissance who gave the fullest expression to humanist ideals. 3) He produced a lot of works, including Hamlet, O thello, King Lear and Macbeth, which exerted great impact on the world literature and was regarded as one of the two reservoirs of modern English language.
15. Columbus（哥伦布）:1) He was a Italian navigator. 2) Under the patronage of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, He sailed west to reach the orient. 3) He left Palos in 3 August, 1492 with three ships and reached the Bahamas on 12 October 1492, which was claimed to be the New World. 16. Copernicus（哥白尼）: 1) He was a Polish astronomer who put forward revolutionary ideas in astronomy in 17th century. 2) He believed that the earth and other planets orbit about the sun and that earth is not at the centre of the universe. 3) He set forth his beliefs in the book The Revolution of the Heavenly Orbs and came to be known as father of modern astronomy. 4) He was also the forerunner of modern science.
Division Five The Seventeenth Century
1. Kepler’s Laws（开普勒定律）: 1) The first important astronomer after Copernicus to adopt the heliocentric theory was the German scientist Kepler. 2)Kepler is best known for his discovery of the three laws of planetary motion, the three laws being called Kepler’s Laws. 3) They may be stated as follows each planet moves in an ellipse, with sun at one focus; each planet moves more rapidly when near the sun than farther from it; the distance of each planet from the sun bears a definite relation to the time period of its revolution around the sun. 4. :They formed the basis of all
.
1）The law of the universal gravitation is considered to be one of the most important discoveries in the history of science. 2) It was discovered by English scientist, Isaac Newton. 3) It states that the sun, the moon, the earth, the planets, and all the other bodies in the universe move in accordance with the same basic force, which is called gravitation.4) From his law of universal gravitation Newton was able to deduce the orbits of comets, the tides, and even the minute departures from elliptical orbits on the part of the planets.
3. the Great Instauration（伟大的复兴）: 1) To expect any great advancement in science, English philosopher Francis Bacon held, we must begin anew. 2) The fresh start required the mind to overcome all the preconceptions, all the prejudices, all the assumptions, sweep away all the fallacies and false beliefs. In a word it is to break with the past, and to restore man to his lost mastery of the natural world. This was what Bacon called the Great Instauration.
4．Inductive method（归纳法）：1）Inductive method was established by English philosopher Francis Bacon in 17th century. 2) Induction means reasoning from particular facts or individual cases to a general conclusion.3). Induction was put over against deductive method.
5. Thomas Hobbes’s political thought（霍布斯的政治思想）（北京市2004年真题名词解释）: 1) Thomas Hobbes held that men are enemies and at war with each other. 2) In odrder to get men out of the miserable condition of war, there should be a common power or government backed by force and able to punish. 3) He preferred monarchy.
6. Lock’s Social Contract（洛克的社会契约论）：1）He believed that political society and government rest on a rational foundation. 2) He emphasized that the social contract must be understood as involving the individual’s consent to submit to the will of the majority and that the will of the majority must prevail. 3) Absolute monarchy is contrary to the original social contract and dangerous to liberty. 4) The ruler of government is one partner of the social contract. 5) The people shall be judge when circumstances render rebellion legitimate.
7. The English Revolution:1) The English Revolution took place in the middle of the 17th century. 2) Among the causes of this revolution were the growth of capitalism,, the break-up of serfdom and the Puritan Movement. 3) 1in 1642, the Civil War broke out between the king and the Parliament. Led by Cromwell, the English bourgeoisie won the victory, and Charles I was
1) During the restoration in England, many revolutionary leaders and those who had supported the Revolution were persecuted and Charles II was planning to turn England into a Catholic country. 3) In 1688, the representatives of the Parliament went to Holland to negotiate with the Dutch king William and his wife Mary, who was a member of the English royal family and a Protestant. Thus the English throne was offered to William and Mary, and the short-lived restoration ended. 4) There was no bloodshed in this event of 1688, so it was called the Glorious Revolution.
9. The Bill of Rights（权利法案）: 1) In 1889, the Bill of Rights was enacted by the English Parliament. 2) It established the supremacy of the Parliament and put an end to divine monarchy in England. 3) The bill of Rights limited the Sovereign’s power in certain important directions: ①the power of suspending the laws by royal authority was declared to be illegal; Parliament was responsible for all the law making.②The king should levy no money except by grant of Parliament. ③The king should not keep a standing army in time of peace without consent of Parliament; ④.No Roman Catholic, nor anyone marrying a Roman Catholic should succeed to the throne. 4) The Bill is the foundation on which the conditional monarchy of England rests.
10. Descartes’Theory of Knowledge（笛卡儿的认知论）: 1) Descartes employed methodic doubt with a view to discovering whether there was any indubitable truth. 2) His motto is ―I doubt, therefore I think: I think, therefore I am‖. 3) Doubting is thinking, thinking is the essence of the mind. 4) Descartes concluded that all tings that we conceive very clearly and distinctly are true, and that knowledge of things must be by the mind.
11. French Classicism（北京市2003年自考真题名词解释）: Classicism implies the revival of the forms and traditions of the ancient world, a return to works of old Greek literature from Homer to Plato and Aristotle. 2). It intended to produce a literature, French to the core, which was worthy of Greek and classical ideals. 3)This neoclassicism reached its climax in France in the 17th century. 4) Three characteristics were: ①In The French Classical literature, man was viewed as a social being consciously and willingly subject to discipline;
②Rationalism was believed to be able to discover the best principles of human conduct and the universal principles of natural laws. French classicism was fond fo using classical forms, classical themes and values.
12：1）The term ―baroque‖ was first applied to the architecture of the period, with its proliferation of ornament, and then extended to its elaborate paintings and music.2) Baroque Art, flourished first in Italy, and then spread to Spain, Portugal, France in south Europe and to Flander and the Netherlands in the North. 3)It was characterized by dramatic intensity and sentimental appeal with a lot of emphasis on light and color.
Division Six The Age of Enlightenment
1.Enlightenment(启蒙运动)(北京市2004年自考真题名词解释):1)Enlightenment was an intellectual movement originating in France, which attracted widespread support among the ruling and intellectual classes of Europe and North America in the second half of the 18th century. 2）It characterizes the efforts by certain European writers to use critical reason to free minds from prejudice, unexamined authority and oppression by Church or State. 3）Therefore the Enlightenment is sometimes called the Age of Reason.
2．Deism（自然神论）：1) Deism was prevalent in the Enlightenment. 2) It holds that the universe is set in motion by God as a self-regulation mechanism and that everything operates according to natural laws, which can be understood by the human mind.
1) The First Industrial Revolution took place in England between 1760 and 1840. 2) It began with the invention of the steam engine and rapidly changed the face of the world, ushering in a completely new age. 3) The revolution is marked by the following developments: ①the introduction of machines which reduced the need for hand labor in making goods;②the substitution of steam power for water, wind and animal power;③the change from manufacturing in the home to the factory system; ④new and faster method of transportation on land and on water;⑤ the growth of modern capitalism and the working class.
4. French Revolution: 1) Montesquieu, V oltaire, and Rousseau, the three great philosophers and thinkers of France in the 18th century prepared theoretically for the French revolution. 2) In 1789, the people in Paris seized the Bastille. This event marked the end of the French monarchy. 3) The first French Republic was born in 1792. 4) Guiding the revolution is a document called Declaration of the Rights of Man.5) It established bourgeois democracy with its slogans of liberty,
1) It was written by French philosopher Montesquieu in 18 century. 2) It is one of the great works in the history of political theory and in the history of jurisprudence. 3) It is an investigation of the environmental and social relationships that lie behind the laws of civilized society. 4) Montesquieu redefined law as ― the necessary relationships which derive from the nature of things‖. 5) He believed that the legislative, executive and judicial powers must be confided to different individuals or bodies, acting independently. 6) The book was well accepted by the philosophers of the Enlightenment and his theories and has a great influence in the Western world even to this day.
6．1) 1) Rousseau expressed his views in his most important work, the Social Contract. 2) It Proposed a society able to cultivate the individual’s moral stature without injuring his freedom. 3) He believed that a social contract is established when each individual gave his rights to a general will. 4) Then he was as free after this contract as he had
been in the state of nature. 5) he sacrificed his natural freedom for a civil freedom. 6) The book ended with a claim for social democracy.
7. Henry Fielding（亨利?费尔丁）: 1) He was an English novelist, dramatis and essayist, and was called by Sir Walter Scott the ―Father of the English novel‖. 2) He was instrumental in the creation and development of the modern novel- a new art form which is realistic, comic, unsentimental, showing contemporary life and manners. 3) He was also the first person to approach the genre
Tom Jones.
81）It is not only Goethe’s own masterpiece but the greatest work of German literature. 2) It is a tragedy chiefly in verse. 3) It utilizes a broad variety of styles to underscore its theme of total human experience. 4) In Faust, Goethe draws on a immense variety of cultural material-theological, mythological philosophical, political, economic, scientific, aesthetic, musical, and literary.
9. Wilhelm Tell（《威廉?退尔》）（北京市2002年自考真题名词解释）:1) It was German dramatist Schiller’s last completed play. 2) It deals with the justifiability of violence in political
1) The three great composers of the Classical Period, Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, are known as the Viennese School. 2) It was through the achievements of these three men that the sonata for solo instruments for orchestra came to occupy the position of first importance that had formerly belonged to the opera. 3) Beethoven, leaning much of his work towards the romantic Movement occupied a pivotal position of the three.
Division Seven Romanticism
1) Romanticism was a movement in literature, philosophy, music and art which developed in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. 2)Starting from the ideas of Rousseau in France and from the Storm and Stress movement (狂飙运动) in Germany. Romanticism emphasized individual values and aspirations above those of society. 3) As a reaction to the industrial revolution, it looked to the Middle Ages and to direct contact with nature for inspiration5) Romanticism gave impetus to the national liberation movement in 19th century
The two great English Romantic poets Wordsworth and Coleridge were known as Lakers because they were living in the Lake District.
3．Byronic hero（拜伦式英雄）：1）Byronic hero was created by Byron in the Romantic period of the English literature. 2）The Byronic hero is characterized by ardent love of liberty and a fierce hared of tyranny. Don Juan was the representative of such a hero. 3) It became an idol of the
1) Les Miseralbes is considered one of Hugo’s masterpiece. 2) This novel is packed with exciting incidents and is a sociological study of poverty and slum life. 3) The core of this long novel is the life story of man called Jean Valjean. 4) Love of humanity is one of the themes of the book.
4．Engene Onegin(《叶甫盖尼?奥涅金》):1) It is generally recognized as the masterpiece of the Russian poet Pushkin. 2) It is a verse-novel based on Byron’s model Don Juan. 3) In the book Tatyana embodies all the Slavic virtues while Onegin sets up the type of the ―superfluous man‖ for ht numerous Russian novels come. 4) What stands in the way of their love seems to be a conflict between Onegin’s dissatisfaction with the imperfect Russian society and his cynic. 5) It reflects upon the impact of western decadence and corruption on Russian youths with progressive
thinking.
1) The Romantic Movement in music dominated the period about 1830 to about 1900. 2) It was merely part of a general movement, which, all over Europe, especially in Germany and France, affected all arts. 3)The Romantic Music is divided into two periods: The early Romantic Music represented by Beethoven, Schubert, Chopin, Schumann, and the later Romantic Music represented by Brahms and Tchaikovsky.
6. Three B’s: Brahmas belongs with Bach and Beethoven in the mighty triumvirate of the ―Three B’s‖.
Division Eight Marxism and Darwinism
1.Hegelian dialectics（黑格尔辩证法）：1) Hegel was a German philosopher. 2) He maintained that the universe is subject to a constant progress of change and that activity is basic; progress is rational and logic is the basic of world progress. 3) Such thoughts were in his book Phenomenology.
2.Utopian Socialism（空想社会主义）: 1) When modern capitalist society appeared in Europe, various socialist doctrines began to arise as a reflection of and protest against the new form of oppression. 3) This early socialism was utopian in nature. It criticized capitalist society; it condemned it and damned it; it dreamed of its destruction; it indulged in fancies of a better order and endeavored to convince the rich the immorality of exploitation. 4) But they failed to observe the antagonism between the interests of the bourgeoisie and the interests of the proletariat. They would not even admit the idea that the workers should act as an independent social force. They only dreamed of socialism without a struggle. 5) The representatives are Owen, Saint-Simon and Fourier. 6) Their thoughts are the source of Marx’s scientific socialism.
3. Scientific Socialism: 1）Marx and Engels developed utopian socialism to scientific socialism. 2）They declared that socialism would be realized through class struggle, and that only the proletariat was a really revolutionary class.
4．Darwinism: 1) Darwinism mainly refers to Darwin’s theory of evolution, the essence of which is natural selection. 2) The idea of evolution had been touched upon by several scientists, rom whom Darwin inherited much. 3) These scientists are Lamarck, Lyell, Marx, etc. 4) Darwinism exerted great influence on biology, theology, and social science.
5. Social Darwinism: 1) Darwin’s demonstration of evolution by natural selection made a great impression on English philosopher Spencer with unfortunate results. 2) For the term‖natural selection‖ Spencer substituted the ―survival fo the fittest‖. 3) Spencer’s term, however, became a slogan for those who sought to apply to society the principle by which Darwin had shown that biological evolution had occurred. 4) The result was so-called social Darwinism. This theory advocated free play for all processes involved in the struggle for existence.
Division Nine Realism
In art and literature the term realism is used to identify a literary movement in Europe and the United States in the last half of the 19th century and the early years of the 20th century. 2) In Europe, the Realist movement arose in the 50s of the 19th century and had its origin in France. 3) The realists wanted a truthful representation in their works of contemporary life and manners. They thought of their method as observational and objective. 4) By the 1850s the term ―realism‖was applied to the art of Courbet,who used everyday scenes for his subject matter. 5) In art and literature realism came as a protest against the falseness and sentimentality which realists thought they saw in romantic fiction. 6) Realism means more than a literary method;
it defines a particular kind of subject matter-the surface details, the common-place actins and the tragedies of the ordinary people constitute the chief matter of the realist movement.7) Its language was usually simple, clear and direct, while the tone was often comic, frequently satiric.
1) Balzac is particularly celebrated for his monumental The Human Comedy inspired by that of Dante’s Divine Comedy. 2) It is the title given by Balzac to the whole collection of his 90 novels. 3) His project was to present in a series of books, a comprehensive picture of contemporary French society. 4) Among the best-known individual novels of the seris are Eugenie Garndet, Le Pere Goriot and La Cousinee Bette. 5) Their detailed settings, minute descriptions, and analyses of such dominating passions as social climbing and money-making mark the beginnings of French realism. 6) In these 90 novels and short stories, T he Human Comedy realistically studies every social class and touches on most fields of knowledge.
3. Naturalistic Novel: 1) The naturalistic novel is not only a record of men and manners. To the naturalists, the novel is a demonstration of social law. The novelist is not an historian who observes merely; he is a scientist, a biologist, who observes, and on the basis of his observation, draws a general theory of human conduct. The novel is thus the experiment which demonstrates the truth of his general theory. 2) Naturalism changed the technique of the novelist. The naturalist was not permitted to invent. 3) The language he used must be the actual language used by the people he was describing. 4) He must not only collect all the possible facts, but must present these facts as exactly as they had occurred.
1) Ibsen was a great Norwegian dramatist. 2) he looked to ordinary social and domestic relationships and situations for the subject-matter of his plays. His work is sharply critical of the hypocrisy and seamy politics of Norwegian provincial life. 3) The success of Ibsen’s problem plays was international.4) His plays are viewed as the fountainhead of much modern drama.5) His major works include A Doll’s House, An Enemy of the People, The Visionary. 5．Impressionism in Art: 1) The term ― impressionism‖ was taken directly from the title Monet’s Impression: Sunrise. The chief characteristics of the impressionist style were first seen in Monet’s landscapes in which the forms are broken by loose brushstrokes and the colors of objects are reflected into other objects throughout the painting. By about 1880 a pervasive colored atmosphere was dissolving objects into hovering and shimmering images. 2) The artists frequented the scenes they portrayed: seaside resorts, forests and rivers, sidewalk cafes, race tracks, and the theatre and ballet.3) Generally speaking, the impressionists aimed at capturing the fleeting image of a scene taken in by the eye in real life and recreating the transitory experience with brushstrokes which are eventually transformed into a web of infinitely varied, tiny units that dissolve solid objects into a dense, colored atmosphere.
Division Ten Modernism
arts, originating about the end of the 19th century. It provided the greatest creative renaissance of the 20th century. 2) It was made up of many facets, such as symbolism, surrealism, cubism, expressionism, futurism, ect.
2. Id(本我)：1）Freud divided human personality into three functional parts —Id, Ego and Superego. 2）The Id is the container of the instinctual urges.3）It is the unconscious part of mind, which seeks immediate satisfaction of desires.4）Id is concerned with what a person wants to do. 3．Ego（自我）：1）Freud divided human personality into three functional parts — Id, Ego and Superego. 2）Ego is the rational, thoughtful, realistic personality process.3）It is characterized
by a desire for independence, autonomy and self-direction. Ego is concerned with ability. 4．superego（超我）:1)Freud divided human personality into three functional parts — Id, Ego and Superego. 2)Superego is the idealized image that a person builds of himself in response to authority and social pressures.
5. Oedipus Complex（北京市2003年自考真题）:1) Oedipus Complex is a Freudian term originating from a Greek tragedy, in which King Oedipus unknowingly killed his father and married his mother. 2) According to Freud’s psychosexual development theory, children are born with powerful sexual urges. From 3 to 5, they become especially aware of the differences between themselves and members the opposite sex. In this period, a child becomes a rival for the affections of the parent of the opposite sex. The boy wants to win his mother for himself, so the tends to be hostile to his father. The girl does exactly the opposite. 3) However, neither the parent nor their children are aware of this. It is an unconscious process.
1) It is a long poem by great English modernist poet T.S. Eliot. 2) It is a rich and complex poem about spiritual emptiness and emotional impoverishment common to both dying genteel world and the new urban materialist world. 3）In this poem, Eliot brings in allusions to mythology, classical literature, such as the Bible and Dante’s Divine Comedy.
1) Ulysses is the masterpiece of Irish novelist James Joyce. 2) It is considered the single best fiction ever written since the beginning of the 20th century. 3) The book’s title alludes to Homer’s epic ―Odyssey‖. 4) He describes the events a single day in Dublin. 5) In it Joyce used the steam of consciousness skill profusely to depict the three main characters in great detail. 6) Thematically, the Odyssey myth is employed to show modern man’s voyage and adventures in life.
7) Hue to his innovations in narrative technique, the book is difficult to read.
8. The Lost Generation:1) The Lost generation refers to a group of young intellectuals who came back from WWI, were injured both physically and mentally. 2)They lived by indulging themselves in the Bohemian way of life.3) Their American dream was disillusioned.4) The best representative of the lost generation was Ernest Hemingway.
9. 1) Hemingway, American novelist short story writer, was one of the most celebrated and influential authors of the 20th century. He was awarded the Noble Prize in 1954 for mastery of the art of modern narration. 2) Hemingway helped to accomplish a revolution in literary style and language;. He tried to cut out all words that were not strictly necessary. 3) His style is characterized by short and simple sentences with very few adjectives and adverbs. But they are full of emotion. 4) Hemingway rote quite a few works of fiction, most of which are well-know today. Among them are The sun Also Rises, A farewell to Arms, for whom the Bell Tolls, the Old Man and the Sea.
10 The Beat Generation(垮掉的一代): 1)The Beat Generation in America refers to a group of American youngsters who refused to accept ―respectability‖ and conventional social behaviors and who cultivated a rootless manner of living. 2)The distinctive features of the Beat Generation is that they used a special slang language and loved jazz. 3) The Beat Generation was represented by Ginsberg’s Howl and Jack Keroual’s On The Road.
10. Angry Young Men: 1) Angry Young Men was a term referring to a group of English writers who found themselves to be social misfits. 2)They felt they were socially stateless, even though they were university graduates. 3)They were very sensitive to the undesirable things of the society. 4)Angry Young Men was represented by John Osborne’s play Look Back in Anger and Amis’ novel Lucky Jim.
11. Nouveau Roman（新小说派）：1）Nouveau Roman refers to some 20th –century French novels. 2）The term Nouveau Roman came into being with the publication of some essays by Grillet, a French writer.3）The New Novel tends to be objective. 4）Human characters are on an equal footing with things. 5）The New Novelists try to avoid taking sides when they come to the description of characters, making no distinction between good and bad or between important and trivial. 6)Therefore, their characters are often shapeless and sometimes even nameless
12. Existentialism(北京市2002年自考真题名词解释)：1）Existentialism is a philosophy that became a self-conscious movement in the 20th century. 2）Its basic concern is human existence。3）.
A key concept of existentialism is that man is only what he makes of himself. 4）Existentialism in literature was represented b y Bernard Shaw’s problem plays a nd Sartre’s Being and Nothingness (
1)The Theatre of the absurd is a term referring to the works of some European, particularly French, playwrights of the 1950s and 60s. 2)The word ―absurd‖ originated from the works of Camus. 3)The play writers of the Theatre of the absured employed many techniques used by the popular theatre such as: acrobatics. 4) Their language is very often dislocated, with plenty of jargon, clichés and repetitions. 5)The Theatre of the Absurd of represented by Beckett’s Waiting for Godot (等待戈多).
14．Black Humor ：1）Black Humor is a term derived from Black Comedy. Its origin can be trac ed back to Shakespeare’s time. But now the term is usually used to refer to some Western, especially American Post-World WarⅡwriters. 2）Black humor is kind of desperate humor. 3）In Black humor, man’s fate is decided by incomp rehensible powers. 4）Black humor was
15 1) It is American writer Joseph Heller’s best-selling novel, which has been considered the major work of Black Humor. 2) Catch-22 is, according to the novel, an army regulation designed to trap the pilots of the Air Force into flying more missions. 3) It says an officer can only be sent away from war when he is mad. But if he says he is mad, the doctor will say no madman will admit he is mad. There the has to fly more missions. 4) This book is a bitter attack on the dehumanizing military institutions in the U.S.A.
16.Fauvism（野兽派）：1)The Fauvism expressed their emotional reaction to the subject in the boldest colour and strongest pattern of lines. 2) They preferred this to objective representation.
3)In this way the Fauves freed colour from its tradition.
17. Expressionism: 1) Expressionist art is marked by the expression of reality by means of distortion to communicate one’s inner vision. 2)The artists of this school used bright colours to bring out their pessimistic views on life. 3) They showed a world of subconsciousness.
18. Cubism(立体主义):1)Cubism is a type of abstract painting which aims to penetrate beyond surface appearances and single vision and depict persons and objects from varying angles simultaneously and three-dimensionally 2)The Cubism was represented by Picasso (毕加索). 19. Futurism:1) The works of futurism portray the dynamic life of the 20th century. They glorify war, danger, machine age and attack museums and academies. 2) They are interested in expressing the speed, progress and even the violence of modern life..
20. Dadaism: 1) Dadaism created works that were anti-war, anti-modern life, and indeed, anti-art.
2)When they held exhibitions the Dadaists sometimes encouraged the public to destroy their displays. 3) They thought that the world had become insane and art too serious. 4) One of the most important ideas to develop out of the movement was automatism—the automatic production of art.
21.Surrealism:1) Surrealism was a which combined the Dada idea of automatism with the psychology of Sigmund Freud. 2) The surrealists felt that the job of the artist was to show an unconscious world.
传播学教程名词解释(完整版)郭庆光 传播：是指社会信息的传播或社会信息系统的运行l 传播学：研究社会信息系统及其运行规律的科学l 信息：看作是消除事物的不确定性，从而获得确知的讯息或关于事物的确定状态、l 双重偶然性：是德国社会学家鲁曼提出的概念，指的是传播的双方都存在着不确定性，因此，通过传播所做出的选择有受到拒绝的可能性。l 传播障碍：包括结构与功能障碍，如传播制度是否合理，传播渠道是否畅通，信息系统的各部分的功能是否正常等等。l 传播隔阂：包括个人之间的隔阂，个人与群体的隔阂，成员与组织的隔阂，以及群体与群体、组织与组织、世代与世代、文化与文化间的隔阂等等。由于社会信息系统的参与者，无论是个人、群体还是组织，都是具有特定利益、价值、意识形态和文化背景的主体，这里的传播隔阂，既包括无意的误解，也包括有意的曲解。l 信息社会:是指信息成为与物质和能源同等重要甚至比之更加重要的资源，整个社会的政治、经济和文化以信息为核心价值而得到发展的社会。l 社会关系论:着重分析受众成负日常的社会关系对其媒介信息接收行为的影响（受众成员的种种社会关系，左右着他们对媒介信息的选择），从而制约着大众传播的效果。l 社会责任理论:传播媒介在享有充分自由的前提下，在社会为它提供自由保障的环境中，还应主动地积极地承担相应的社会责任，换句话说，在没有“他律”的情况下自觉地进行
“自律”，在没有外来约束、外来控制的条件下自觉地进行自我约束，自我控制。l 符号：是信息的外在形式或物质载体，是信息表达和传播中不可缺少的一种基本要素 l 意义：是人对自然事物或社会事物的认识，是人给对象事物赋予的含义，是人类以符号形式传递和交流的精神内容。l 象征行为：是用具体事物来表示某种抽象概念或思想感情的行为。这种行为一般是通过使用象征符来传达象征意义实现的。l 象征性社会互动：是指人与人之间通过传递象征符和意义而相互作用、相互影响的过程。 它是一种通过象征符来交流或交换意义的活动。象征性社会互动具有价值性、动机性和行为取向性，对实际社会生活产生多方面的影响。l “5W”模式：传播学奠基人拉斯韦尔在1948 年提出。该模式首次将传播活动解释为由传播者、传播内容、传播渠道、传播对象和传播效果五个环节和要素构成的过程，为人们理解传播过程的结构和特性提供了具体的出发点。意义： 1、传播史上第一个关于传播过程的模式，开传播学模式研究的先河。 2、确定了传播学研究的五大领域。局限性：角色和关系固定化，认为传播过程是传播者有意图的劝服受传者的过程。单向直线传播模式缺乏互动性。l 香农>意见领袖 Step flowhyPothesis）。它使人们认识到大众媒介渠道和人际传播渠道在人们信息获取和决策（态度形成和转变以及具体的行
Epic: A long narrative poem telling about the deeds of a great hero and reflecti ng the values of the society from which it originated. The style of epic is grand宏伟的 and elevated高尚的. John Milton wrote three great epics:Paradise Lost,Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes. Sonnet(十四行诗 A sonnet is a lyric consisting of 14 lines, usually in iambic pentameter restricted to a definition rhyme scheme Renaissance the activity, spirit, or time of the great revival复活 of art, literature, and learning in Europe beginning in the 14th century and extending to the 17th century, marking the transition过渡from the medieval to the modern world.the essence of the Renaissance is Humanism The Renaissance Period A period of drama and poetry. The Elizabethan drama is the real mainstream of the English Renaissance. Humanism人文主义 Humanism is the essence of the Renaissance. 2>it emphasizes the dignity of human beings and the impo rtance of the present life.Humanists voiced their belie fs that man was the center of the universe and man did not
行政管理学（A）—名词解释B B B B 办公自动化是指行政机关工作中，以计算机为中心，采用一系列现代化的办公设备和先进的通信技术，广泛、全面、迅速地收集、整理、加工、存 储和使用信息，为科学管理和决策服务，从而达到提高行政效率的目的。 办公自动化系统是指为提高办公效率而建立的，面向特定工作部门，支持其综合办公业务的集成化信息系统。 标杆管理是指公共组织通过瞄准竞争的高目标，不断超越自己，超越标杆，追求卓越，成为强中之强组织创新和流程再造的过程。 C C C C 层级制又称分级制，是指公共组织在纵向上按照等级划分为不同的上下节制的层级组织结构，不同等级的职能目标和工作性质相同，但管理范围和管理权限却随等级降低变小的组织类型。 程序性决策也叫常规性决策，是指决策者对所要决策的问题有法可依，有章可循，有先例可参考的结构性较强，重复性的日常事务所进行的决策。财政支出，也称为公共支出或政府支出，是指政府为履行其职能，将筹集与集中的资金我，进行有计划的社会再分配的过程。 D D D D 地方政府体制是地方政府按照一定的法律或标准划分的政府组织形式。 电子政府是指在政府内部采用电子化和自动化技术的基础上，利用现代信息技术和网络技术，建立起网络化的政府信息系统，并利用这个系统为政府机构、社会组织和公民提供方便、高效的政府服务和政务信息。 F F F F 分离制又称多元领导制，是指一个公共组织的同一个层级的各个组织部门或同一组织部门，隶属于两个或两个以上公共组织或行政首长领导、指挥和监督的组织类型。 分权制是指上级行政机关或行政首长给予下级充分的自主权，下级可以独自进行决策和管理，上级不予干涉的公共组织类型。 风险型决策是指决策者对决策对象的自然状态和客观条件比较清楚，也有比较明确的决策目标，但是实现决策目标结果必须冒一定风险。 非程序性决策也叫非常规性决策，是指决策者对所要决策的问题无法可依，无章可循，无先例可供参考的决策，是非重要性的、非结构性的决策。非正式沟通是一种通过正式规章制度和正式组织程序以外的其他各种渠道进行的沟通。 法制监督，又称对行政的监督，是指有权国家机关对行政机关及其工作人员是否合法正确地行使职权所进行的监督与控制。 G G G G 公共组织结构，是指公共组织各要素的排列组合方式，是由法律所确认的各种正式关系的模式。 公共组织绩效评估是指公共组织通过一定的绩效信息和评价标准，对公共组织所提供的公共物品和公共服务的效率和质量进行全面的控制和监测活动，是公共组织的一项全面的管理措施。 公共组织纯净评估指公共组织通过一定的纯净信息和评价标准，对公共组织所提供的公共物品和公共服务的效率和质量进行全面的控制和监测活动，是公共组织的一项全面的管理措施。 公共行政环境是指直接或间接地作用或影响公共组织、行政心理、行政行为和管理方法与技术的行政系统内部和外部和各种要素的总和。 公权制是指上级行政机关或行政首长给予下级充分的自主权，下级可以独自进行决策和管理，上级不予干涉的公共组织类型。 公文是指行政机关在行政管理活动中产生的，按照严格的、法定的生效程序和规范的格式制定的具有传递信息和记录作用的载体。 公文管理就是对公文的创制、处置和管理，即在公文从形成、运转、办理、传递、存贮到转换为档案或销毁的一个完整周期中，以特定的方法和原则对公文进行创制加工、保管料理，使其完善并获得功效的行为或过程。 公共财政指的是仅为市场经济提供公共服务的政府分配行为，它是国家财政的一种具体存在形态，即与市场经济相适应的财政类型。 在西方，国家公务员是指通过非选举程序而被任命担任政府职务的国家工作人员。 公务员（中国）是指依法履行公职、纳入国家行政编制、由国家财政负担工资福利的工作人员。 国家公务员的辞职，是指国家公务员按照一定的法定程序，主动地提出解除与其所服务的行政机关工作关系的申请，并经过有关部门批准而辞去所担任的行政职务的制度。 国家预算制度是国家政权内部立法机构与行政机构划分财政权限并且由立法机构对行政机构的财政行为予以根本约束和决定的一种制度。 国家决算是按照法定程序编制，用以反映国家年度预算执行结果的会计报告，由决算报表和文字说明两部分构成。 国家财政支出也称为公共支出或政府支出，是指政府为履行其职能，将短筹集与集中的资金，进行有计划的社会再分配的过程。 管理层次是指公共组织内部划分管理层级的数额。 管理幅度是指领导机关或领导者直接领导下属的部门或人员的数额。 广义的行政监督是指政党、立法机关、司法机关、社会组织、社会舆论和公民以及行政系统内部，依法对政府和行政人员的行政行为的合法性，公平性和有效性的监察和督促的行为。 J J J J 机能制又称职能制,是指公共组织在横向上按照不同职能目标划分为不同职能部门的组织类型。 机关行政就是指综合办事机构对机关的日常事务、规章制度和工作秩序等所进行的自身事务管理。 集权制是指行政权力集中在上级政府或行政首长手中，上级政府或行政首长有决策、指挥、监督的权力，下级处于服从命令听从指挥的被动地位，一切行政行为要按照上级政府或行政首长的指令来行动，自主权很少。 集体决策是指在进行行政决策时,由行政领导集体所做出的决策。 经验决策是指决策者对决策对象的认识与分析，以及对决策方案的选择，完全凭借决策者在长期工作中所积累的经验和解决问题的惯性思维方式进行的决策。 具体环境具体行政环境也叫组织环境，是指具体面直接地影响和作用于公共组织、行政行为和组织凝聚力的公共组织的内部与外部环境和总和。 K K K K 考任制是指专门的机构根据统一的，客观的标准，按照公开考试，择优录取的程序产生行政领导者的制度。
1. In the medieval period ， it is Chaucer alone who ， for the first time in English literature ， presented to usa comprehensive __picture of the English society of his time and created a whole galery of vivid ___ from all walks of life in his masterpiece “the Canterbury Tales ”。 A. visionary / women B. romantic /men C. realistic / characters D. natural / figures 2. Although ____ was essentially a medieval writer, he bore marks of humanism and anticipated a new era of literature to come. A. William Langland B. John Gower C. Geoffrey Chaucer D. Edmund Spenser 3. Humanism spume from the endeavor to restore a medieval reverence for the antique authors and is frequently taken as the beginning of the Renaissance on its conscious ，intellectual side ，for the Greek and Roman civilization was based on the conception that man is the ____ of all things . A. measure B. king C. lover D. rule 4. The essence of humanism is to ______. A. restore a medieval reverence for the church B. avoid the circumstances of earthly life C. explore the next world in which men could live after death D. emphasize human qualities 5. Many people today tend to regard the play “ The Merchant of Venice ” as a satire of the hypocrisy of ___ and their false standards of friendship and love ， their cunning ways of pursuing worldliness and their unreasoning prejudice against _________ . A. Christians / Jews B. Jews / Christians C. oppressors / oppressed D. people / Jews 6. In “ Sonnet 18 ”， Shakespeare has a profound meditation on the destructive power of _________ and the eternal __________ brought forth by poetry to the one he loves . A. death/ life B. death/ love C. time / beauty D. hate / love 7.In The Pilgrim’s Progress, John Bunyan describes The Vanity Fair in a ______ tone. A. delightful B. satirical C. sentimental D. solemn 8. The religious reformation in the early 16th-century England was a reflection of the class struggles waged by the _____. A. rising bourgeoisie against the feudal class and its ideology B. working class against the corruption of the bourgeoisie C. landlord class against the rising bourgeoisie and its ideology D. feudal class against the corruption of the Catholic Church 9. The ______ was a progressive intellectual movement throughout western Europe in the 18th century . A. Renaissance B. Enlightenmrent C. Religious Reformation D. Chartist Movement 10.The 18th century witnessed a new literary form -the modern English novel, which, contrary to the medieval romance, gives a ______ presentation of life of the common English people. A. romantic B. idealistic C. prophetic D. realistic 1. The title of the novel “ A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man ” written by James Joyce suggests a character study with strong _________ elements .
word 公共管理学一一名词解释 B 1.办公自动化：是指在行政机关工作中，以计算机为中心，采用一系列现代化 的办公设备和先进的通信技术，广泛，全面，迅速的收集，整理，加工，存储和使用信息，为科学管理和决策服务，从而达到提高行政效率的目的. 2.办公自动化系统：是指为提高办公效率而建立的，面向特定工作部门，支持 其综合办公业务的集成化信息系统. 3.不确定型决策：是指决策者对决策对象的自然状态和客观条件都不清楚， 决策目标也不够明确，对决策的结果也不能控制和预测. 4.标杆管理：是指公共组织通过瞄准竞争的高目标，不断超越自己，超越标杆, 追求卓越,成为强中之强组织创新和流程再造的过程. C 1.层次管理:是指公共组织内部划分管理层次的数额. 2.层级制：又称分级制，是指公共组织在纵向上按照等级划分为不同的层级 组织结构，不同等级的职能目标和工作性质相同，但管理范围和管理权限却随着等级降低而逐渐变小的组织类型. 3.财政支出：也称为公共支出或政府支出，是指政府为履行其职能，将筹集与 集中的资金，进行有计划的社会在分配的过程. 4.创新型组织:认为通过持续学习创新是一种组织功能，而不是创意活动和 脑力激荡.创新应该成为组织流程，并能产生持续的新价值.创新应该是在每个部门进行，整个组织就像爵士乐队一样发挥即兴演奏的效果. 5.程序性决策：也叫常规性决策，是指决策者对所要决策的问题有法可依，有 章可循,有先例可参考的结构性较强，重复性的日常事务所进行的决策. D 1.地方政府体制：是地方政府按照一定的法律或标准划分的政府组织形式. 2.地方分权制：也称多元制和分离制.它是指中央政府将一些行政权授予下级政 府,地方政府有较大的自治权和自主权的行政体制3.单向沟通：是一种一方只发出信息，另一方只接收信息而不反馈信息的沟 通.故亦称无反馈沟通. 4.电子政府：是指在政府内部采用电子化和自动化技术的基础上，利用现代信息技术和网络技术，建立起网络化的政府信息系统，并利用这个系统为政府机构，社会组织和公民提供方便，高效的政府服务和政务信息. F 1.非正式沟通：是一种通过正式规章制度和正式组织程序以外的其他各种渠 道进行的沟通. 2.非程序性决策：也叫非常规性决策，是指决策者对所要决策的问题无法可依, 无章可循,无先例可供参考的决策，是非重复性的，非结构性的决策. 3.非营利组织是指组织的设立和经营不是以营利为目的且净盈余不得分配由志愿 人员组成实行自我管理的独立的,公共或民间性质的组织团体 4.分权制：是指上级行政机关或行政首长给予下级充分的自主权，下级可以 独自进行决策和管理，上级不予干涉的公共组织类型. 5.分离制：又称多元领导制，是指一个公共组织的同一层级的各个组织部门 或同一组织部门，隶属于两个或两个以上公共组织或行政首长领导，指挥和监督的组织类型. 6.法制监督：又称对行政的监督，是指有监督权的国家机关对行政机关及其 工作人员是否合法正确的行使职权所进行的监督与控制. 7.风险型决策：是指决策者对决策对象的自然状态和客观条件比较清楚，也 有比较明确的决策目标，但是实现决策目标必须冒一定的风险. G 1.公共组织结构：是指公共组织各要素的排列组合方式，由法律所确认的各 种正式关系的模式. 2.公共组织绩效评估：公共组织通过一定的绩效信息和评价标准，对公共组 织所提供的公共物品和公共服务的效率和质量进行全面的控制和监测活动,是公共组织的一项全面的管理措施.
新闻学——名词解释1、全球化——某个场所发生的事物受到遥远地方发生的食物的制约和影响，或者反过来某个场所发生的食物对遥远地方发生的事物具有指向意义，此种关系将远隔两地的地区相互联结，并在全世界范围内不断加强这种关系。（吉登斯提出） 2、新闻专业主义——在新闻传播活动中新闻从业者必须持有的新闻职业精神或职业规范。 3、新新闻主义——主张运用文学创作的手法来写新闻。（指运用记者自己的感受和访问手法从人物的内心获得对某一事件的观点，而不是依靠一般采集材料，提出老一类问题的手法，它把重点放在写作风格和描绘方面。 4、公共新闻理论——主张新闻媒介应积极介入与公众切身利益相关的公共事务，由公众而非新闻从业者设置新闻报道的议程。 5、报刊的集权主义理论——主张“报刊是国家的公仆，任何时候它的主要内容都要对当权者负责”。 6、报刊的自由主义理论——就是新闻自由理论，主张社会的主体公民都享有言论和出版自由。 7、报刊的社会责任理论——主张报刊在享有新闻自由权利的同时，应承担应有的社会责任和义务。 8、新新闻自由主义理论——是报刊的社会责任论对报刊的自由主义理论所作的一种新的解释。它摒弃了“自由是一种自认权利”的先验论观点，强调自由的后验性或社会性，并主张新闻从业者所享有的自由即新闻自由既是一种道德权利，又是一种法律权利。 9、新闻理论范畴——它是对新闻现象进行理论思维时所使用的最基本的概念，它反映和表现出新闻现象最本质的特性，最根本的方面和最一般的关系。 10、“陆氏定义”（01、04考）——它是陆定一于1943年9月1日发表在《解放日报》的《我们对于新闻学的基本观点》中所提出来的新闻观念，即认为“新闻是已经发生或正在发生的事实的报道”，此观念在清除新闻理论中诸如“性质说”等唯心主义观点的同时，科学回答了“新闻是什么”的问题。 11、新闻——新闻就是及时报道新近发生的事实。 12、新闻背景——指新闻事实产生和发展的历史过程、条件和动因，以及它与周围事物的联系。 13、新闻事实（00、01考）——指被报道的新近发生的事实。 14、新闻真实——新闻完全符合现实中相对应的客观事实，也就是通过新闻媒介所报道的内容与现实生活中新近发生的那件对应着的事实完全一致。 15、新闻真实性（98、00、05考）——指新闻具有的最基本的特性，即与现实中对应着的事实相符合的那种本质特性。 16、现象真实——指新闻事实与现实原型在外部形态上完全相符。 本质真实——指新闻事实与现实原型在内在本质上完全一致。 现实真实——指新闻事实真是再现了现实中新近发生的事实。 历史真实——指新闻事实的真实性为历史所肯定。 17、客观报道——在新闻传播过程中，不偏不倚、公正平衡地报道新闻事实，而不发表任何意见。 18、新闻客观性——指新闻事实在本质上是一种打上了传播者思想烙印的客观事实，但它不
传播学名词解释 第一章：传播学的对象和基本问题 1、社会信息：社会信息是除人的生物和生理活动以外的，与人类的社会活动有关的一切信 息，是指人类社会在生产和交往活动中所交流或交换的信息。 2、传播：传播学结合社会学和信息科学视点将传播概念的定义为传播即社会信息的传递或 社会信息系统的运行。 3、系统：指由相互联系和相互制约的若干组成部分结合在一起并且具有特定功能的有机整 体。 4、传播隔阂：包括个人之间、个人与群体、成员与组织的隔阂，群体之间、组织之间、世 代之间、文化之间等社会信息系统的参与者在特定利益、价值、意识形态和文化背景方便的隔阂，及有无意的误解和有意的曲解。传播隔阂是社会信息系统运行不畅的结果之一。 5、传播障碍：包括结构与功能障碍，如传播制度是否合理、传播渠道是否畅通、信息系统 的各部分功能是否正常等，传播障碍是社会信息系统运行不畅的结果之一。 6、传播学：传播学是研究社会信息系统及其运行规律的科学。既是社会科学，也是应用科 学。 7、精神生产：即表现在某一民族的政治、法律、宗教、道德、形而上学等的语言的生产中， 精神交往是以“语言”为媒介的人与人的精神交往关系。与之相应的是人与人之间的精神交往。 8、社区：由地缘关系和社会关系构成的共同体。 ) 第二章：人类传播的历史和发展 1、示现的媒介系统：即人们面对面传递信息的媒介，是由人的感官或器官本身来执行功能 的媒介系统。 2、再现的媒介系统：包括文字、绘画、摄影等。这一系统对信息的生产和传播者来说需要 使用物质工具或机器，而对信息的接收者来说则不需要 3、机器媒介系统：包括电话、电视、广播、计算机通信系统等。这些媒介，要求传播者和 接收者都必须使用机器。 4、信息社会是指信息成为与物质和能源同等重要甚至比之更重要的资源，整个社会的政 治、经济和文化以信息为核心价值而得到发展的社会。 第三章；人类传播的符号和意义 1、人类传播：人类传播是一种交流和交换信息并由此发生社会联系和社会互动的行为。 2、符号化（编码）：传播者将自己要传递的讯息或意义转换为语言、音声、文字或其他符 号的活动。 3、— 4、符号解读（解码）：传播对象对接收到的符号加以阐释和理解，读取其意义的活动。 5、能指：也叫意符，指语言的声音形象。它通常表现为声音或图像，能够引发人们对特定 对象事物的概念联系 6、所指：也叫意指，指语言所反映的事物的概念。 7、符号：是指能够独立存在，并和另一事物有联系，而且可以被”解释“的事物。符号具有 的三个特征：一是代表事物的形式，而是被符号指涉的对象，三是对符号意义的解释8、意义：是人对自然事物和社会事物的认识，是人为对象事物赋予的含义，是人类以符号 形式传递和交流的精神内容。人在与自然和社会打交道的过程中，不断地认识和把握对象事物的性质和规律，并从中抽象出意义。 9、情景意义：是由一系列情景符号及其相互组合所形成的意义。 10、传播情境：指的是对特定的传播行为直接或间接产生影响的外部事物、条件或因素的 总称，它包括具体的传播活动进行的场景，广义上也包括传播行为的参与人多处的环
Romanticism began in the mid-18th century and reached its height in the 19th century.It was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in Europe.The ideologies and events of the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution laid the background for Romanticism. The Enlightenment also had influence on Romanticism .It was a revolt against the aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment and a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature.The movement validated strong emotion as an authentic source of aesthetic experience, placing new emphasis on such emotions as apprehension, horror and terror, and awe.The Romantic literature of the nineteenth century concentrating on emotion, nature, and the expression of "nothing".famous romanticism writers are such as william Wordsworth:lyrical ballods、william whitman ：leaves of grass Realism beginning with mid nineteenth-century French literature and extending to late-19th- and early-20th-century .It was a reaction againest romanticism and paved the way to modernism.the realism is product of europe capitalist system?s establishment and development.the philosophy and science of europe in 19th century has promated its production authors trend to depictions of contemporary life and society as it was, or is. In the spirit of general "realism" ,realist authors opted for depictions of everyday and banal activities and experiences, instead of a romanticized or similarly stylized
行政管理学历年真题 一、导论 （一）名词解释： 1、行政与行政管理学。 2、行政管理 3、威尔逊 4、（政治与行政）二分法。 （二）简答题： 1、行政管理学在西方国家兴起的原因。 2、简述（政治与行政）二分法。 3、行政管理学在中国的发展情况 （三）论述题 1、试述行政管理学的研究对象与方法。 2、试述科学发展观与行政管理的关系。 二、行政环境 （一）名词解释： 1、行政环境。 2、行政外部环境与行政管理 （二）简答题： 1、简述行政环境及其意义。 2、简述行政管理与行政环境的辩证关系。 3、简述经济环境对行政系统的影响。 4、简述政治环境与行政系统的影响。 5、分析怀特关于“现代国家的行政作用也深受时代的、一般政治与文化环境的影响”的观点。
1、联系实际谈谈我国现阶段行政环境的主要特点。 2、论述行政系统和行政外部环境的互依性。 3、从行政系统与行政环境相互作用的原理阐述中国行政学发展的趋势和主要方面。 4、试论文化环境对行政系统的影响。 5、试论如何创造良好的外部环境。 三、行政职能 （一）名词解释： 1、行政职能。 2、行政管理的政治职能。 3、决策职能。 4、市场失灵与政府失灵。 5、“守夜人”。 6、行政职能扩张。 （二）简答题： 1、简述行政职能的特点。 2、简述市场经济中政府的经济职能。 3、分析行政管理的运行职能。 4、行政管理中的协调职能及其作用。 5、简述我国的行政职能体系及意义。 6、简述西方国家行政职能的演变过程。 7、简述当代西方国家行政职能的发展趋势。 8、凯恩斯经济理论的要点。 9、我国行政职能转变的主要内容。
1、解析“政府干预经济只能限制在一定的范围内，这个范围是市场长久失败的地方以及政府去干预并不会带来‘政府失败’的方面”的观点。 2、结合实际阐述政府监管职能及其有效实现方式。 3、联系我国逐步建立服务型政府的实际，论述中国行政管理的基本职能。 4、试分析中国政府“经济调节、市场监管、社会管理和公共服务”职能的主要内容与实现途径。 5、结合实际，论述我国政府与社会关系中存在的问题及其改革与完善的措施。 6、从政府职能转变出发论述政府和社会关系的调整。 7、案例分析（略）。 四、行政组织 （一）名词解释： 1、行政组织。 2、行政组织与公共责任。 3、行政目标。 4、行政组织与民间组织的区别。 5、非正式组织。 6、行政组织结构。 7、编制。8、行政组织的编制管理。 （二）简答题： 1、行政组织的基本要素有哪些。 2、行政组织有哪些基本特性。 3、简述行政组织的法制化特征。 4、简要回答行政机关与权力机关、司法机关、社会团体的区别。
传播学名词解释 模式 59 所谓模式，是科学研究中以图形或程式的方式阐释对象事物的一种方法。这种方法具有双重性质：1．模式与现实事物具有对应关系，但又不是对现实事物的单纯描述，而具有某种程度的抽象化和定 理化性质。 2．模式与一定的理论相适应，又不等于理论本身，而是对理论的一种解释或素描，因此，一种理论 可以有多种模式与之相对应。 模式虽然具有不完全性，但它是人们理解事物、探讨理论的一种有效方法。 抽样 280 抽样调查是从调查对象总体中抽选出部分样本，以这部分样本作为对象实施的调查，其结果可用于推论对象总体。抽样方法可分为两种，一种是有意抽样，另一种是随机抽样。随机抽样又有简单随机抽样、系统抽样、分层抽样以及多级抽样。由于各种原因，抽样调查在部分与总体之间不可避免地会存在误差。大众传播 111 所谓大众传播，就是专业化的媒介组织运用先进的传播技术和产业化手段，以社会上一般大众为对象而进行的大规模的信息生产和传播活动。如现代社会中的电视、报纸、广播等。 传播媒介 59 传播媒介大致有两种含义： 第一，它指信息传递的载体、渠道、中介物、工具或技术手段； 第二，它指从事信息的采集、加工制作和传播的社会组织，即传媒机构。 信息 42 信息是符号和意义的统一体，符号是信息的外在形式或物质载体，而意义则是信息的精神内容。 《塔罗瓦尔宣言》 247 该宣言是1981年由代表西方国家垄断大媒介利益的国际性院外活动集团——“世界自由出版委员会”在法国的塔罗瓦尔召集的“自由之声”集会上所发表的。该宣言认为，教科文组织决议将会导致各国政府对新闻出版自由的控制，关于新世界流通秩序的“论争本身对报道自由和言论自由的基本原则就是有害的”，西方国家在这个问题上付出了过于昂贵的代价，必须坚决予以抵制和反对。 容器人 151 “容器人”是日本学者中野收所提出的观点。他认为，在大众传播特别是以电视为主的媒介环境中成长起来的现代日本人的内心世界类似于一种“罐状”的容器，这个容器是孤立的、封闭的；“容器人”为 了摆脱孤独状态也希望与他人接触，但这种接触只是一种容器外壁的碰撞，不能深入到对方的内部。“容 器人”注重自我意志的自由，对任何外部强制和权威都不采取认同态度，但却很容易接受大众传播媒介的影响。现代社会中忽起忽落、变幻不定的各种流行和大众现象正是“容器人”心理和行为特征的具体写照。受众参与理论139 即民主参与理论，该理论是在20世纪70年代以后随着社会信息化的发展和媒介集中垄断程度达到新的高度，在美国和欧洲、日本等一些发达国家出现的一种新的媒介规范理论。该理论是在一般民众要求自主利用媒介的意识不断提高，而现实中又缺乏可以利用的传播资源的矛盾状态下出现的。民主参与理论要求大众传播媒介向一般民众开放，允许民众个人和群体的自主参与，其核心价值是多元性、小规模性、双向互动性传播关系的横向性或平等性。 “上限效果”假说232 该假说由艾蒂玛和克莱因与1977年提出，其观点是：个人对特定知识的追求并不是无止境的，达到 某一“上限”后，知识量的增加就会减速乃至停止下来。社会经济地位高者获得知识的速度快，其“上限”到来的也就早；那些经济地位低者虽然知识增加的速度慢，但随着时间推移最终能够在“上限”上赶上前者。这个假说意味着，大众传播的信息传达活动的结果并不是带来社会“知沟”的扩大，而是它的缩小。
传播学重点名词 一、拟态环境（李普曼《公众舆论》） 早在20世纪20年代，美国著名政论家李普曼就在其所著的《公众舆论》一书中，论及拟态环境问题。并首次使用“Pseudo-environment”一词。拟态环境有如下特点：一方面，拟态环境不是现实环境“镜子式”的摹写，不是“真”的客观环境，或多或少与现实环境存在偏离。另一方面，拟态环境并非与现实环境完全割裂，而是以现实环境为原始蓝本。李普曼认为，在大众传播极为发达的现代社会，人们的行为与三种意义上的“现实”发生着密切的联系：一是实际存在着的不以人的意志为转移的“客观现实”，二是传播媒介经过有选择地加工后提示的“象征性现实”（即拟态环境），三是存在于人们意识中的“关于外部世界的图像”，即“主观现实”。人们的“主观现实”是在他们对客观现实的认识的基础上形成的，而这种认识在很大程度上需要经过媒体搭建的“象征性现实”的中介。经过这种中介后形成的“主观现实”，已经不可能是对客观现实“镜子式”的反映，而是产生了一定的偏移，成为了一种“拟态”的现实。 二、把关人（库尔特·卢因） “把关人”理论是由美国社会心理学家、传播学四大先驱之一的卢因率先提出的。他在《群体生活的渠道》（1947年）一文中，首先提出“把关”（gate keeping）一词。他指出：“信息总是沿着含有门区的某些渠道流动，在那里，或是根据公正无私的规定，或是根据‘守门人’的个人意见，对信息或商品是否被允许进入渠道或继续在渠道里流动做出决定。”“信息传播网络中布满了把关人。”他认为在群体传播过程式中，存在着一些把关人，只有符合群体规范或把关人价值标准的信息内容才能进入传播的渠道。1950年，传播学者怀特将社会学中的这个概念引入新闻传播，发现在大众传播的新闻报道中，传媒组织成为实际中的"把关人"，由他们对新闻信息进行取舍，决定哪些内容最后与受众见面。从此，新闻选择的"把关人"理论从人们的不自觉行为成为大众传媒组织的有意操作，在更大范围和程度上或明或暗的影响新闻实践。经怀特、麦克内利等众多学者的深入挖掘研究，最终成为传播学控制分析领域最具科学性的理论之一。 三、传播效果的魔弹论和皮下注射论 媒介本身被认为是根据媒介和媒介内容的控制者的意志，以强大的力量去形成舆论和信念、改变人们的生活习惯并指导人们的行为（Bauer and Bauer，1960）。核心观点，传播媒介拥有不可抵抗的强大力量，它们所传递的信息在受传者身上就像子弹击中躯体，药剂注入皮肤一样，可以引起直接速效的反应；它们能够左右人们的饿态度和意见，甚至直接支配他们的行为。对第一次世界大战中宣传心理战的效果研究则进一步促成了这样一种观点：媒介是万能的，可以随心所欲地影响受众，从而产生巨大的传播效果。在两次世界大战之间的几十年内，大众传媒如报刊、电影、广播等迅速发展并普及，对人们的日常生活产生了巨大的冲击力，人们普遍认为大众传播具有惊人的强大效果，传播研究者认为大众媒介具有"魔弹式"的威力。代表这种观点的理论被称为"枪弹论"、"魔弹论"或"皮下注射论"。这种观点产生的理论背景是当时西方盛行的本能心理学和大众社会理论。本能心理学认为，人的行为正如动物的遗传本能反应一样，是受"刺激—反应"机制主导的，施以某种特定的刺激就必然会引起某种特定的反应。大众社会理论是在孔德、斯宾塞的社会有机体思想和韦伯等有关工业化社会理论的基础上形成的。他们认为，大众社会中的个人，在心理上陷于孤立，对媒介的依赖性很强，因而导致媒介对社会的影响力很大。 有关这一理论的研究大都是建立在观察基础上的结论，并未经过严密的科学调查与验证。这种理论过分夸大了大众媒介的影响力，同时也忽视了受众对大众传播的自主权的前提。受众是具有高度自觉的主人，他们对信息不仅有所选择，而且还会自行决定取舍。此外，这一理论还忽视了影响传播效果的各种社会因素。传播效果与当时当地的社会环境、媒介环境、群体心态、政治军事经济及文化背景密切相关。不能把传播效果放到"真空"中去考察。 除此之外，欧洲国家的广告客户、内战时期的独裁国家以及俄国新革命制度对媒介的利用都证实了媒介万能这样一种观点。人们已经倾向于认为媒介具有非常强大的力量。同时期盛行的本能心理学和社会学理论也从另一个角度支持了媒介万能的说法。实际上，这种效果观是很片面的，是“不分时间和地点，不讲环境条件和对象，将传播效果绝对化和神化的错误观点…”
01. Humanism(人文主义) Humanism is the essence of the Renaissance.2> it emphasizes the dignity of human beings and the importance of the present life. Humanists voiced their beliefs that man was the center of the universe and man did not only have the right to enjoy the beauty of the present life, but had the ability to perfect himself and to perform wonders. 02. Renaissance(文艺复兴) The word “Renaissance”means “rebirth”, it meant the reintroduction into westerm Europe of the full cultural heritage of Greece and Rome.2>the essence of the Renaissance is Humanism. Attitudes and feelings which had been characteristic of the 14th and 15th centuries persisted well down into the era of Humanism and reformation.3> the real mainstream of the English Renaissance is the Elizabethan drama with william shakespeare being the leading dramatist. 03. Metaphysical poetry(玄学派诗歌) Metaphysical poetry is commonly used to name the work of the 17th century writers who wrote under the influence of John Donne.2>with a rebellious spirit, the Metaphysical poets tried to break away from the conventional fashion of the Elizabethan love poetry.3>the diction is simple as compared with that of the Elizabethan or the Neoclassical periods, and echoes the words and cadences of common speech.4>the imagery is drawn from actual life. Metaphysical poets(玄学派诗人） It is the name given to a diverse group of 17th century english poets whose work is notable for its ingenious use of intellectual and theological concepts in surprising conceits, strange paradoxes and far-fetched imagery. The leading Metaphysical poets was John Donne, whose colloquial, argumentative abruptness of rhythm and tone distinguishes his style from the conventions of Elizabethan love lyrics. 04. Classcism(古典主义) Classcism refers to a movement or tendency in art, literature, or music that reflects the principles manifested in the art of ancient Greece and Rome. Classicism emphasizes the traditional and the universal, and places value on reason, clarity, balance, and order. Classicism, with its concern for reason and universal themes, is traditionally opposed to Romanticism, which is concerned with emotions and personal themes. 05. Enlightenment(启蒙运动) Enlightenment movement was a progressive philosophical and artistic movement which flourished in france and swept through western Europe in the 18th century.2> the movement was a furtherance of the Renaissance from 14th century to the mid-17th century.3>its purpose was to enlighten the whole world with the light of modern philosophical and artistic ideas.4>it celebrated reason or rationality, equality and science. It advocated universal education.5>famous among the great enlighteners in england were those great writers like Alexander pope. Jonathan swift.etc. 06.Neoclassicism(新古典主义)