Chapter One Exercise 1 语言学

语言学第一章Chapter 1 Invitation to linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageJacobson——language has six functions:1. Referential指称功能: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative意动功能: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic寒暄功能: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual元语功能: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday ——that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to thehearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spokenand written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.Hu Zhuanglin——language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 Performative施为功能The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day,etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, suc h as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” t o talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealtsolely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 Psycholinguistics心理语言学Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances (and in language acquisition for example).1.8.2 Sociolinguistics社会语言学Sociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties1, the characteristics of their functions2, and the characteristics of their speakers3. (123相互作用构成一个speech community 语言社团)1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics人类语言学Anthropological linguistics studies the history and structure of formerly unwritten language, the emergence of language and the divergence of languages.1.8.4 Computational linguistics计算语言学Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive描写vs. Prescriptive规定A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses the facts observed.It is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for the “correct” use of language.1.9.2 Synchronic共时vs. Diachronic历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study.The description of a language as it changes through the time is a diachronic study.The distinction between synchronic and dischronic studies is only theoretically clear.原因：①Languages are in a constant state of changing.②The language of any speech community is never uniform.③When a language changes, one set o f features are not suddenly replaced by another set of features.1.9.3 Langue 语言& parole言语Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole refers to the actualized language, or realization of langue.区别：①Langue is abstract but parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs.②Langue is not actually spoken by anyone; parole is alwaysa naturally occurring event.③Langue is relatively stable and systematic; parole is subject to personal and situational constraints.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concretesituations is called performance.Competence is the ideal language user`s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances.。

语言学练习（一,二）Exercises of LinguisticsChapter 2Multiple choices (3*15=45?)1. Which of the following feature cannot be used to describe English consonants?A. voicelessB. oralC. alveolarD. lateral2. Which of the following statements about allophone is NOT correct?A. Allophones are different forms of the same phonemeB. Allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution.C. Allophones distinguish meaning.D. Allophones are language-specific.3. The word _____ contains a high vowel.A. matB. mudC. dotD. boot4. Phoneticians adopt the following standards in describing English consonants. Which of the following is NOT correct about [s] sound?A. fricativeB. voicelessC. alveolarD. affricate5. The syllabic structure of “blade” can be described as______.A. CCVCB. CCVCVC. CVCD. CVCV6. _______ refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound.A. Addition of soundB. Loss of soundC. AssimilationD. Metathesis7. Assimilation includes the following phenomena except________.A. nasalizationB. palatalizationC. dentalizationD. transmutation8. Which of the following statements is correct? ( )A. Diacritics added to letter-symbols bring out finer distinctions than the letters alone can do.B. The lips are the most flexible part in articulation, only secondary to tongue.C. The [e] sound in English is a front, semi-close, unrounded, tense vowel.D. Minimal pairs are created in order to show the distinctive value of one phone.9. Which is not a suprasegmental feature? ( )A. stressB. toneC. intonationD. conjuncture10. About phone, phoneme and allophone, which statement is wrong? ( )A. Phones are speech sounds we actually hear and produce during linguistic communication.B. Phones do not necessarily have distinctive values but phonemes do.C. Allophones in some cases also have distinctive values.D. Phones in complementary distribution are not necessarily allophones.11. Which one is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [?]C. [e]D. [I]12. _____ doesn?t form a minimal pair.A. meter-metreB. ill-isC. pad-patD. ton-tongue13. Conventionally, a ____ is put in slashes (/ /). A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme14. In the word______, [l] is velarized.A. leadB. stealC. lethalD. glide15. There are ____ syllables and _____ phonemes in the wordgentlemanly.A. 4, 9B. 3, 10C. 4, 10D. 3, 9Blank-filling (2*10=20?)16. If a sound can be a substitute for the other in a word in the same environment without changing the meaning, the two sounds are in__________ _________ (two words).17. The maximal numbers of consonants in coda position and onset position are respectively _____ and_____ (e.g. ________ and _______).18. The [g] sound is silent in design and paradigm but present in their corresponding forms signature and paradigmatic. This is due to a _______ rule which could be stated as: when occurring before a final consonant, a[g] sound is not pronounced.19. In terms of places of articulation, [θ] and [e ] can be classified into the category _______.20. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit which has distinctive value.21. When the vocal cords are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be _______. True or false (T for true and F for false 1*10=10?)22. Linguists are concerned with all the sounds produced by the human speech organs. ( )23. English has four basic types of intonation. ( )24. Suprasegmental features cannot distinguish meaning. ( )25. Phonology is language specific but phonetics is not. ( )26. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception ofspeech sounds. ( )27. The stress can be laid on different syllables of a word, resulting in different meanings. ( )28. Because of assimilation, the negative forms of legal and possible are illegal and impossible. ( )29. All vowels are voiceless. ( )30. [m] sound is both a labiodental and a nasal. ( )31. The sound segments are grouped into consonants and vowels. ( )Brief definitions (3*5=15?)32. phonology33. articulatory phonetics34. complementary distributionSound Description (2*5=10?)Describe the following speech sounds according to the criteria that we have learnt.35. [Λ]____________________________________________36. [ j ]____________________________________________37. [d?]____________________________________________38. [ h ]____________________________________________39. [ I ]____________________________________________Exercises of LinguisticsChapter 1Multiple choices (4*10=40?)1.Which of the following does not fall into the core of linguistics?A. phoneticsB. syntaxC. sociolinguisticsD. semantics2.Of the following statements, which is incorrect?A.Applied linguistics in a narrow sense refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching.B.The study of language variation in terms of gender and psychology belongs to the category ofpsycholinguistics.C.Modern linguistics takes a descriptive attitude rather than a prescriptive one in language study.D.The ultimate goal of language is not just to generate grammatically well-formed sentences but to createmeaningful sentences.3.Which of the following statements are problematic?A.Modern linguistics is supposed to be scientific and objective, which seeks to describe the language people actually use.B.According to F. de Saussure, langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of acommunity, while parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.C. A diachronic approach in modern linguistics is given priority over a synchronic one.D.N. Chomsky thinks what a linguist should study is an ideal speaker’s performance instead of his competence.4.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in some different ways except ____.A.Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is laying down rules of “correctness”.B.Spoken language is given prominence, not the written language in modern linguistics. The situation wasreverse in traditional grammar.C.Traditional grammar only examined one aspect of language while modern linguistics studies language in a comprehensive way.D.Modern linguists are opposed to the notion that any one language can provide an adequate framework for all others while traditional grammarians proposed a universal framework.5.“A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.”--The famous quotation from Shakespeare's playRomeo and Juliet demonstrates that language and objects in physical world are associated by _____.A. conventionB. rulesC. arbitrarinessD. symbols6.Choose correct statements about arbitrariness of language.______/doc/fd6908020.html,nguage is not entirely arbitrary.B.Onomatopoeic words in language are motivated.C.Some compounds in language are not formed entirely arbitrarily.D.Different sounds may refer to the same object in different languages.7. A professor is employing the _____ function when he says, “Next, I will explain what …Paleozoic? means.”A. referentialB. conativeC. metalinguisticD. poetic8.Human language can be used to refer to situations removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.This design feature is called _____.A. productivityB. displacementC. discretenessD. duality 9.According to Halliday, when we use language to organize our experience of the real or imaginary world, we are performing the _____ function of language.A. textualB. interpersonalC. ideationalD. evaluative10.We can understand abstract words like happiness and motivation. This shows language has the propertyof _______.A. dualityB. creativityC. arbitrarinessD. displacementTrue or false (T for true and F for false) (4*6=24?)11. Recursiveness, as seen in some sentences, well illustrates the creativity of language. ( )12. Some animal communication systems do show the feature of duality. ( )13. The sentence “I like the idea that Joseph proposed at the conference” shows referential function of language.( )14. Human child must learn a specific language after s/hewas born though genetically endowed with the ability to learn. ( )15. The distinction between syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation was made by N. Chomsky. ( )16. A linguistic study is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for the correct use of language. ( )Brief Definitions17. What is language? (6’)18. What is called general linguistics? (10’)Thought-provoking Question (20’)19. Is it necessary to make a distinction between speech and writing in linguistic study? Why?。

语⾔学练习1Chapter 2 Speech Sounds (Phonetics and phonology)I. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decidewhich one of the four choices best completes the statement and choose the letter A, B, C or D.1. The pharynx refers to the space of cavity between the larynx and the end of .A. tongueB. hard palateC. soft palateD. vocal cords2. The vowel [u:] in [fu:d] (food ) is a (an) vowel.A. backB. frontC. unroundedD. central3. is formed by a narrowing of the air passage at some point so that the air in escaping makes a kind of hissing sound.A. A plosiveB. A fricativeC. An affricateD. A lateral4. The vowel [i:] in [fi:d] (feed) is a (an) vowel.A. close front unroundedB. close back unroundedC. open front roundedD. close front rounded5. Of all the speech organs, the is/are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords6. sounds are produced by a radical constriction at somepoint in the vocal tract.A. ConsonantalB. VowelC. ContinuantD. Voiceless7. The sound “s” and “z” are the result of air escaping under fricationbetween the tongue and before passing through the teeth.A. hard palateB. uvulaC. alveolar ridgeD. soft palate8. Vowels that are produced between the positions for a front and back vowel are called vowels.A. openB. frontC. centralD. close9. The vowel [i:] in [fi:d] and [u:] in [fu:d] are both vowels.A. openB. closeC. roundedD. unrounded10. Palatal semi-vowel refers to the sound .A. [n]B. [h]C. [w]D. [j]11. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as .A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula12. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called .A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones13. is a combination of a plosive and a fricative.A. A stopB. A palatalC. A rollD. An affricate14. A sound pronounced with the vocal cords vibrating is said to be a sound.A. resonantB. voicelessC. voicingD. consonant15. Conventionally a (an) is put in slashes.A. allophoneB. phonemeC. phoneD. morpheme16. Of the following sound combinations, only is permissibleaccording to the sequential rules in English.A. kiblB. bkilC. ilkbD. ilbk17. All the back vowels in English are pronounced with rounded-lips. i. e.rounded, EXCEPT .A. [a:]B. [u:]C. [?:]D. [u]18. The consonant [f] in English can be correctly described as having thefollowing phonetic features: .A. viewless, bilabial, stopB. voiceless, labiodental, fricativeC. voiced, bilabial, stopD. voiced, labiodental, fricative II. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word,the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in ONE word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given.1. Of the three branches of phonetics, the longest established, and untilrecently the most highly developed, is a phonetics.2. The four sounds [p],[b], [m] and [w] have one feature in common, i.e.,they are all b .3. In English there is a number of d , which are produced bymoving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.4. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in differentphonetic environments are called the a of that phoneme.5. Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the v area results in the pronunciation of [k] and [g].6. A vowel is a voiced sound in forming which the air issues in a continuous stream through the p and mouth, there being no audible friction.7. Conventionally a phoneme is put in slashes, and phones are placedwithins brackets.8. The basic unit in phonology is called p ; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.9. P is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language.10. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are calleds features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence.11. When the v is raised, the air cannot escape through thenose and the sound [m], [n], and [ ] cannot be made.12. Clear [1] and dark [1] are allophones of the same one phoneme [1].They never take the same position in sound combinations, thus they are said to be inc distribution.13. An essential difference between consonants and vowels is whetherthe air comingup from the lungs meets with any o when a sound is produced.14. Phonological rules that govern the combination of sounds in aparticular languageare called s rules.III. Directions: Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets in front of each statement.( ) 1. If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel.( ) 2.Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.( ) 3.The consonant sound [p]is described as voiceless alveolar stop. ( ) 4. Palatals are sounds articulated by the back of the tongue against the soft palate.( ) 5. If the vocal cords of the larynx are made to vibrate, the accompanying sounds are called voiceless consonants.( ) 6. Phonology provides the means for describing speech sounds. ( ) 7. The three voiceless stops [p] [t] [k] are aspirated when preceded by [s] and followed by a vowel.( ) 8. The consonant sound [f] is a voiceless labiodental affricate. ( ) 9. When the soft palate is lowered, the air cannot escape through the nose and the nasal sound cannot be made.( ) 10. The stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress. ( ) 11.A sound made with the glottis wide open is called a voicedsound.( ) 12. The *p+ sound in “peak” and “speak” is an unaspirated *p+. ( ) 13. The affricates [t ] and [dЗ] can be followed by another sibilant.( ) 14. We use clear [l] before a vowel, such as loaf, and dark[l] at the end of a word after a vowel or before a consonant, such astell, quilt.( ) 15. English is a tone language.( ) 16. The vowel [u:] in [fu: d] is an open back rounded vowel. ( ) 17. In English, long vowels are also tense vowels because when we pronounce a long vowel such as [i:], the larynx is in a stateof tension.( ) 18. A general difference between phonetics and phonology is that phonetics is focused on the production of speech soundswhile phonology is more concerned with how speech soundsdistinguish meaning.( ) 19. In classifying the English consonants and vowels, the same criteria can be applied.IV: underline the words that begin with a sound as required.⑴A bilabial consonant: mad, sad, bad, cad, pad, had, lad⑵A velar consonant: nod, god, cod, pod, rod⑶A labiodental consonant: rat, fat, sat, mat, chat, vat, pat⑷An alveolar consonant: nick, lick, sick, tick, kick, quick⑸A palatoalveolar consonant: sip, ship, tip, chip, lip, zip⑹A dental consonant: lie, buy, thigh, thy, tie, rye⑺A glide: one, war, yolk, ruchV: underline the words that end with a sound as required.⑴A fricative: pay, horse, tough, rice, breath, push, sing, wreathe, hang, cave, message⑵A nasal: train, bang, leaf, limb⑶A plosive: drill, pipe, fit, crab, fog, ride, laugh, rack, through, tip⑷An affricate: rack, such, ridge, boozeVI: underline the words that contain with a sound as required.⑴A central vowel: mad, lot, but, boot, word⑵A front vowel: reed, pad, load, fate, bit, bed, cook⑶A rounded vowel: who, he, bus, her, hit, true, boss, bar, walk⑷A back vowel: paid, reap, fool, top, good, fatherVII: describe the underlined consonants according to three dimensions.。

英语专业语言学第一章练习Chapter 1 IntroductionI. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which oneof the four choices best completes the statement and choose the letter A, B, Cor D.1. deals with how language is acquired, understood and produced.A. SociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. PragmaticsD. Morphology2. The fact that ability to speak a language is transmitted from generation to generation by aprocess of learning, and not genetically is usually referred to asA. performanceB. language acquisitionC. cultural transmissionD. competence3. made the distinction between langue and parole.A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. SapirD. Hall4. Modern linguistics, i, e., linguistic study carried out in this century is mostlythat is, it describes and analyses language.A. descriptiveB. prescriptiveC. synchronicD. diachronic5. Writing is a secondary language form based upon .A. speechB. gestureC. emotionD. sounds6. deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic geographyB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics7. As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not tolay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior, it is said to beA. prescriptiveB. sociolinguisticC. descriptiveD. psycholinguistic8. Many modern linguists have criticized grammarians for adopting a approachto language study.A. analyticalB. descriptiveC. prescriptiveD. pedagogical9. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”, the famous quotation from Shakespeare’splay “Romeo and Juliet” well illustrates .A. the conventional nature of languageB. the creative nature of languageC. the universality of languageD. the big difference between human language and animal communication10. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is good proof thathuman language is .A. arbitraryB. non-arbitraryC. logicalD. non-productive11. Linguistics is the scientific study of .A. a particular languageB. the English languageC. human languages in generalD. the system of a particular languageII. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in ONE word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given.1. Language is a system of a vocal symbols used for human communication.2. S is concerned with the diversity of language as it relates to various sociological factors.3. The description of a language as it changes through time is a d study.4. L refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.5. Language is p in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of newsignals by its users.6. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what d means.7. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to bed .8. Chomsky defines “competence” as the ideal user’s k of the rules of his language.9. Language is v because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter howwell developed their writing systems are.10. In the course of time, the study of language has come to establish close links with otherbranches of s studies, such as sociology and psychology.11. Language exists in time and changes through tine. The description of language at some pointof time is called a s study of language.12. As the first step of their scientific investigation of language, linguists have to observe andcollect linguistic f before they can do anything else.III. Directions: Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets in front of each statement.( ) 1. Competence means the actual saying of something, or the act of speech itself.( ) 2. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive.( ) 3.Writing is the quickest and the most efficient of the three human communication systems. ( ) 4. Language is a system of arbitrary written symbols used for human communication. ( ) 5. In modern linguistics, the written form of language is given more emphasis than the spoken form for a number of reasons.( ) 6. Language is a purely human and instinctive method of communicating ideas by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols.( ) 7. Language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages.( ) 8. In modern linguistics, diachronic study seems to enjoy priority over synchronic study. ( ) 9. In the history of any language the writing system always came into being before the spoken form.( ) 10. Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i. e. we are all born with the ability to acquire language and details of a language system are genetically transmitted.( ) 11. An important difference between traditional grammarians and modern linguists in theirstudy of language is that the former tended to over-emphasize the written form oflanguage and encourage people to imitate the “best authors” for language usage.IV. Explain the following linguistic terms or notions in English.1．design features2．langue and parole3．competence and performance4.duality5.displacement6.synchronic descriptionV. Revision Exercises : 2, 3, 6, 8。

语言学作业班级：姓名：Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsI. Please illustrate the following terms.1. Arbitrariness:The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.The different levels of arbitrariness:(1) Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words(2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.(3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.2. DualityThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.3. Phatic communionPhatic communion refers to the social interaction of language.4. Synchronic linguistics:A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.II. Please distinguish the following terms:1. Langue vs. ParoleLangue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, that is, the lexicon, grammar, and phonology implanted in each individual, and it is the linguist’s proper object;Parole refers to the realization of langue, the immediately accessible data. While parole constitutes the immediately accessible data, and it is a mass of confused facts, so it is not suitable for systematic investigation..(1) Langue is abstract, while parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs.(2) Langue is not actually spoken by anyone, while parole is always a naturally occurring event.(3) Langue is relatively stable, systematic and social, while parole is subject to personal, individual and situational constraints.(4) Langue is essential while parole is accessory and accidental.2. Descriptive vs. PrescriptiveThe distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Traditional grammar was very strongly normative in grammarians tried to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all. That is prescriptive.These attitudes are still with us, though people realize nowadays the facts of usage count more than the authority-made “standards”. Thenature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.3. Synchronic vs. DiachronicSynchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.Actually synchrony is a fiction since any language is changing as the minutes pass.Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.4. Competence vs. PerformanceAccording to Chomsky:A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language or the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances in concrete situations.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors, so a speaker’s performance does not always or equal his supposed competence.He believes that linguists ought to study competence rather than performance.5. Langue vs. CompetenceAccording to Chomsky:Langue is a social product, a systematic inventory of rules of the language, a set of conventions for a speech community.Competence is defined from the psychological point of view, is deemedas a property of the mind of each individuals, or underlying competence as a system of generative processes.According to Hymes:He approaches language from a socio-cultural viewpoint with the aim of studying the varieties of ways of speaking on the part of individual and the community.He extended notion of competence, restricted by Chomsky to a knowledge of grammar, to incorporate the pragmatic ability for language use. This extended idea of competence can be called communicative competence.III. Answer the following questions in brief:1. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge thesynchronic or diachronic orientation just from the titles1) English Examined: Two Centuries of Comment on the Mother Tongue2) Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage3) Pejorative Sense Development in English4) The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation5) Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular 1) diachronic 2）synchronic 3）diachronic 4）synchronic5）We can’t judge whether it is synchronic or diachronic orientation just from the titles.2. What is language What is linguisticsLanguage can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication and interaction.Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. The aims of linguistic theory: 1) what is knowledge of language (Competence) 2) howis knowledge of language acquired (Acquisition) 3) how is knowledge of language put to use (Performance/language processing). Main branches of linguistics:Phonetics, Phonology Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics.3. How do you understand performative function of languageThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons or the situations of events, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an as a means of controlling the invisible forces which the believers feel might affect their lives adversely.IV. Discuss the following question in detail.How do you interpret the viewpoint that “arbitrariness is a matter of degree”1)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words:The dog barks bow wow in English but “汪汪汪” in Chinese.2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.He came in and sat down.He sat down and came in.He sat down after he came in.3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.Arbitrariness of language makes it potentiallycreative.Conventionality of language makes learning a languagelaborious.Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Complete the following statements.1. Human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events andconcepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as __________.2. The sound [p] can be described with “voiced, __________, stop.”3. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phoneticallydifferent but do not make one word different from another in meaning,, are_________.4. Both semantics and ________ investigate linguistic meaning, but theyfocus on different aspects.5. If certain linguistics tries to lay down rules for the correct useof language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all, it is ___________ linguistics.6. Phones that fall into allophones of a phoneme have to satisfy twoconditions, one is they are ___________________, and another is that they should be in _____________________.7. The vowel ________ is high front tense unrounded.8. A dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days,because its language does not have the feature of ___________.9. Computational linguistics often refers to the problems of________________, information retrieval, and ______________.10. Halliday proposed a theory of metafunctions of language, that is,language has ___________, ____________ and _____________ functions. II. Define the following terms.1. Manner of articulation:2. Distinctive features:3. Intonation:4. Assimilation:III. Answer the following questions briefly.1. Specify the difference between each pair of sounds using distinctivefeatures.1) [l] [ł] 2) [p h] [p] 3) [b] [d] 4) [k] [g] 5) [I][u]2. Work out the features of the following sounds.1) [t h] ________________________________________2) [w] ________________________________________3) [v] ________________________________________4) [ð] _________________________________________5) [l] __________________________________________3. In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels,as shown by the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.A B. Cbite [bʌit] bide [ba i d] tie [ta i]rice [rʌis] rise [ra i z] by [ba i]type [tʌip] bribe [b r aib] sigh [s a i]wife [wʌif] wives [wa i vz] die [d a i]tyke [tʌik] time [ta i m] why [wa i]1) What is the difference of the sounds that end the words in columnsA and B2) How do the words in column C differ from those in column A and B3) Are [ʌi] and [a i] in complementary distribution Give your reasons.4) What are the phonetic transcriptions of (a) life and (b) lives5) What would the phonetic transcriptions of the following words be inthe dialects of English shown in the data(a) trial (b) bike (c) lice(d) fly (e) mine6) State the rule that will relate the phonemic representations to bephonetic transcriptions of the words given above.IV. Discuss the questions in details.1. Illustrate phoneme, phone and allophone.2. To what extent is phonology related ot phonetics and how do they differ。

语言学作业班级：姓名：Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsI. Please illustrate the following terms.1. Arbitrariness:The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.The different levels of arbitrariness:(1) Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words(2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.(3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. 2. DualityThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.3. Phatic communionPhatic communion refers to the social interaction of language.4. Synchronic linguistics:A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.II. Please distinguish the following terms:1. Langue vs. ParoleLangue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, that is, the lexicon, grammar, and phonology implanted in each individual, and it is the linguist’s proper object;Parole refers to the realization of langue, the immediately accessible data. While parole constitutes the immediately accessible data, and it is a mass of confused facts, so it is not suitable for systematic investigation..(1) Langue is abstract, while parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs.(2) Langue is not actually spoken by anyone, while parole is always a naturally occurring event.(3) Langue is relatively stable, systematic and social, while parole is subject to personal, individual and situational constraints.(4) Langue is essential while parole is accessory and accidental.2. Descriptive vs. PrescriptiveThe distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Traditional grammar was very strongly normative in character.The grammarians tried to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all. That is prescriptive.These attitudes are still with us, though people realize nowadays the facts of usage count more than the authority-made “standards”. The nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.3. Synchronic vs. DiachronicSynchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.Actually synchrony is a fiction since any language is changing as the minutes pass.Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.4. Competence vs. PerformanceAccording to Chomsky:A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language or the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances in concrete situations.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors, so a speaker’s performance does not always or equal his supposed competence.He believes that linguists ought to study competence rather than performance. 5. Langue vs. CompetenceAccording to Chomsky:Langue is a social product, a systematic inventory of rules of the language, a set of conventions for a speech community.Competence is defined from the psychological point of view, is deemed as a property of the mind of each individuals, or underlying competence as a system of generative processes.According to Hymes:He approaches language from a socio-cultural viewpoint with the aim of studying the varieties of ways of speaking on the part of individual and the community.He extended notion of competence, restricted by Chomsky to a knowledge of grammar, to incorporate the pragmatic ability for language use. This extended idea of competence can be called communicative competence.III. Answer the following questions in brief:1. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the synchronic ordiachronic orientation just from the titles1) English Examined: Two Centuries of Comment on the Mother Tongue2) Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage3) Pejorative Sense Development in English4) The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation5) Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular1) diachronic 2）synchronic 3）diachronic 4）synchronic5）We can’t judge whether it is synchronic or diachronic orientation just from the titles.2. What is language What is linguisticsLanguage can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication and interaction.Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. The aims of linguistic theory: 1) what is knowledge of language (Competence) 2) how is knowledge of language acquired (Acquisition) 3) how is knowledge of language put to use (Performance/language processing). Main branches of linguistics:Phonetics, Phonology Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics.3. How do you understand performative function of languageThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons or the situations of events, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an as a means of controlling the invisible forces which the believers feel might affect their lives adversely.IV. Discuss the following question in detail.How do you interpret the viewpoint that “arbitrariness is a matter of degree”1)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words:The dog barks bow wow in English but “汪汪汪” in Chinese.2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.He came in and sat down.He sat down and came in.He sat down after he came in.3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative.Conventionality of language makes learning a languagelaborious.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds I. Complete the following statements.1. Human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and conceptswhich are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.This quality is labeled as __________.2. The sound [p] can be described with “voiced, __________, stop.”3. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically differentbut do not make one word different from another in meaning,, are_________.4. Both semantics and ________ investigate linguistic meaning, but they focus ondifferent aspects.5. If certain linguistics tries to lay down rules for the correct use of language andsettle the disputes over usage once and for all, it is ___________ linguistics.6. Phones that fall into allophones of a phoneme have to satisfy two conditions,one is they are ___________________, and another is that they should be in _____________________.7. The vowel ________ is high front tense unrounded.8. A dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days, because itslanguage does not have the feature of ___________.9. Computational linguistics often refers to the problems of ________________,information retrieval, and ______________.10. Halliday proposed a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has___________, ____________ and _____________ functions.II. Define the following terms.1. Manner of articulation:2. Distinctive features:3. Intonation:4. Assimilation:III. Answer the following questions briefly.1. Specify the difference between each pair of sounds using distinctive features.1) [l] [ł ] 2) [p h] [p] 3) [b] [d] 4) [k] [g] 5) [I] [u]2. Work out the features of the following sounds.1) [t h] ________________________________________2) [w] ________________________________________3) [v] ________________________________________4) [ð] _________________________________________5) [l] __________________________________________3. In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shownby the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.A B. Cbite [bʌit]bide [ba i d]tie [ta i] rice [rʌis]rise [ra i z]by [ba i] type [tʌip]bribe [b r aib] sigh [s a i] wife [wʌif]wives [wa i vz]die [d a i]tyke [tʌik]time [ta i m]why [wa i]1) What is the difference of the sounds that end the words in columns A and B2) How do the words in column C differ from those in column A and B3) Are [ʌi] and [a i] in complementary distribution Give your reasons.4) What are the phonetic transcriptions of (a) life and (b) lives5) What would the phonetic transcriptions of the following words be in thedialects of English shown in the data(a) trial (b) bike (c) lice(d) fly (e) mine6) State the rule that will relate the phonemic representations to be phonetictranscriptions of the words given above.IV. Discuss the questions in details.1. Illustrate phoneme, phone and allophone.2. To what extent is phonology related ot phonetics and how do they differ。

2006学年秋季《普通语言学教程》讲义 ―― 第以章Chapter one本章共 5 页Introduction to linguistics1. What is linguistics? ( definition of linguistics) Linguistics: is generally defined as the scientific study of (human) language. 1. The word language preceded by zero article in English implies that linguistics studies not any particular language, e.g. English , Chinese , French and Japanese, but languages in general. 2. The word study does not mean “learn” but “investigate”. 3. The word scientific refers to the way in which language is studied. 2. Why study linguistics ? 1. Linguistics takes an analytical approach to the study of language, and focus on developing skills in data analysis, problem solving, and logical thinking that can be applied to many fields. 2. It is a interdisciplinary subject. 3. Linguistics is a science that is still in its infancy but undergoing rapid development, and it is “a pilot science” 3. What and how linguists study language? 1. nature of language (focus on language itself) 2. nature of acquisition (focus on learners) 3. nature of teaching (focus on teachers) The process of linguistic study can be summarized as follows: .First, certain linguistic facts are observed, and generalizations are made about them; .Next, based on these generalizations, hypotheses are tested by further observations; .And finally a linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.4.Scope of linguistics 1. General linguistics: The study of language as a whole, it deal with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. 2. Micro-linguistics includes 6 parameters, namely, phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. It studies language itself. 3. Marco-linguistics conclude other disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, and artificial intelligence. It studies language in use--- practical usage.12006学年秋季《普通语言学教程》讲义 ―― 第以章本章共 5 页5Micro- linguistics 1. Phonetics: The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds. 2. Phonology: The description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. 3 Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words. 4. Syntax: The study of those rules that govern the combination of words to from permissible sentences. 5. Semantics: The study of meaning in abstraction. 6. Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use. Micro- linguistics61. Sociolinguistics: It studies the relations between language and society. 2. Psycholinguistics: The study of language and mind.– the mental structures and processes. 3. Stylistics: The study of how literary effects can be related to linguistic features. ( Written language) 4. Text linguistics: The study of the relationship between language and the contexts in which language is used. 5. Computational linguistics: 6. Cognitive linguistics: 7. Applied linguistics:Most linguistics, however, would agree on a tentative definition like this: 7 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition is widely accepted because it includes some of the important characteristics of human language. The design features of language The following 7 design features of human language have been identified by C.F.Hockett(1958): 1.productivity, 2. arbitrariness, 3. duality, 4. displacement, 5.interchangeability, 6.specialization, 7.cultural transmission. The characteristics of language 1. Language as system ---The key word in the definition is "system". Language is systematic. Otherwise we would not be able to learn or use it consistently. Each language system contains two subsystems: a system of sound and a system of meaning. 2. Language as arbitrary ---There is no natural relationship between the sound and what it means in a certain22006学年秋季《普通语言学教程》讲义 ―― 第以章本章共 5 页language. we cannot predicate exactly what specific features we will find in a particular language if we are not familiar with it. 3. Language as vocal ---By "vocal" we mean that the primary medium of all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing system might be.The Elements of Language8Origin of language 1. The evolution of man’s social life paved the way for the evolution of language. Society is both the creator and the container of language.. 2. And various theories are proposed to account for or speculate about its origin, such as the bow-wow theory, the pooh-pooh theory, and the yo-he-ho theory, etc.The functions of language 1. Phatic( ) By phatic we mean that language can be used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas. Greetings, farewells, and comments on weather serve this function. 2. Informative( ): Language severs an informative function when it is used to tell what the speaker believes, to give information about facts or to reason things out. Informative function is met through declarative sentences. Such informative statements are either true or false. 3. Expressive( ) : Language severs an expressive function when it is used to reveal the feelings and attitudes of the speaker. Ejaculations like: "Good heavens!"寒暄信息表达The functions of language 4. Directive ( ): Language serves a directive function when it is used to get the hearer do something. Most imperative sentences have this function. "Get out!" "Close the window, please.", "Walk slowly" are a few examples.指令5. Interrogative(疑问) :Language severs an informative function when it is used to get information from32006学年秋季《普通语言学教程》讲义 ―― 第以章本章共 5 页others. All questions that expect answers have this function, such as: "When will the meeting begin?" 6. Evocative( ) :The evocative function is the use of language to arouse certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is to amuse, startle, anger, soothe, worry or please. 7. Performative ( ): Language is used to do things or to perform acts. Some Major Concepts in Linguistics Descriptive and prescriptive grammars Synchronic and diachronic linguistics Langue and parole Competence and performance Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relation Functionalism and formalism情感施为9 Some Major Concepts in Linguistics 1. Most modern linguistics is descriptive. It attempts to describe what people actually say. As traditional grammars tried to lay down rules, they are often called prescriptive. Descriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language, while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the language. The functions of language 2. When we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics. SL focuses on the state of language at any point in history while DL focuses on the differences in two or more than 2 states of language over decades or centuries.3LangueParoleThe functions of language42006学年秋季《普通语言学教程》讲义 ―― 第以章本章共 5 页4. Competence and performance American linguist Noam Chomsky distinguishes competence and performance so as to idealize language data and to define the scope of linguistic study. Competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of abstract formal relations. Performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is ,the actual use of this knowledge.The functions of language 5. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations Saussure has put forward another pair of concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. Syntagmatic relations refers to the horizontal relationship between linguistic elements,which form linear sequences. Paradigmatic relations means the vertical relationship between forms,which might occupy the same particular place in a structure.→6. Functionalism and formalism Generally speaking, schools of linguistics can be divided into 2 major camps: functionalism and formalism. Functionalism or functional linguistics refers to the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function in communication. Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations.5。