黄山学院
毕 业 设 计
系 别：_________________________
班 级：_________________________ 姓 名：_________________________ 指 导 教 师：_______郭富__________________ 2010年5月8 日 刘星 10土对本（2）班 土木工程系
目录
1 中文翻译 (1)
1.1钢筋混凝土 (1)
1.2土方工程 (2)
1.3结构的安全度 (3)
2 外文翻译 (6)
2.1 Reinforced Concrete (6)
2.2 Earthwork (7)
2.3 Safety of Structures (9)
1 中文翻译
1.1钢筋混凝土
素混凝土是由水泥、水、细骨料、粗骨料（碎石或；卵石）、空气，通常还有其他外加剂等经过凝固硬化而成。将可塑的混凝土拌合物注入到模板内，并将其捣实，然后进行养护，以加速水泥与水的水化反应，最后获得硬化的混凝土。其最终制成品具有较高的抗压强度和较低的抗拉强度。其抗拉强度约为抗压强度的十分之一。因此，截面的受拉区必须配置抗拉钢筋和抗剪钢筋以增加钢筋混凝土构件中较弱的受拉区的强度。
由于钢筋混凝土截面在均质性上与标准的木材或钢的截面存在着差异，因此，需要对结构设计的基本原理进行修改。将钢筋混凝土这种非均质截面的两种组成部分按一定比例适当布置，可以最好的利用这两种材料。这一要求是可以达到的。因混凝土由配料搅拌成湿拌合物，经过振捣并凝固硬化，可以做成任何一种需要的形状。如果拌制混凝土的各种材料配合比恰当，则混凝土制成品的强度较高，经久耐用，配置钢筋后，可以作为任何结构体系的主要构件。
浇筑混凝土所需要的技术取决于即将浇筑的构件类型，诸如：柱、梁、墙、板、基础，大体积混凝土水坝或者继续延长已浇筑完毕并且已经凝固的混凝土等。对于梁、柱、墙等构件，当模板清理干净后应该在其上涂油，钢筋表面的锈及其他有害物质也应该被清除干净。浇筑基础前，应将坑底土夯实并用水浸湿6英寸，以免土壤从新浇的混凝土中吸收水分。一般情况下，除使用混凝土泵浇筑外，混凝土都应在水平方向分层浇筑，并使用插入式或表面式高频电动振捣器捣实。必须记住，过分的振捣将导致骨料离析和混凝土泌浆等现象，因而是有害的。
水泥的水化作用发生在有水分存在，而且气温在50°F以上的条件下。为了保证水泥的水化作用得以进行，必须具备上述条件。如果干燥过快则会出现表面裂缝，这将有损与混凝土的强度，同时也会影响到水泥水化作用的充分进行。
设计钢筋混凝土构件时显然需要处理大量的参数，诸如宽度、高度等几何尺寸，配筋的面积，钢筋的应变和混凝土的应变，钢筋的应力等等。因此，在选择混凝土截面时需要进行试算并作调整，根据施工现场条件、混凝土原材料的供应情况、业主提出的特殊要求、对建筑和净空高度的要求、所用的设计规范以及建筑物周围环境条件等最后确定截面。钢筋混凝土通常是现场浇注的合成材料，它与在工厂中制造的标准的钢结构梁、柱等不同，因此对于上面所提到的一系列因素必须予以考虑。
对结构体系的各个部位均需选定试算截面并进行验算，以确定该截面的名义强
度是否足以承受所作用的计算荷载。由于经常需要进行多次试算，才能求出所需的截面，因此设计时第一次采用的数值将导致一系列的试算与调整工作。
选择混凝土截面时，采用试算与调整过程可以使复核与设计结合在一起。因此，当试算截面选定后，每次设计都是对截面进行复核。手册、图表和微型计算机以及专用程序的使用，使这种设计方法更为简捷有效，而传统的方法则是把钢筋混凝土的复核与单纯的设计分别进行处理。
1.2土方工程
由于和土木工程中任何其他工种的施工方法与费用相比较，土方挖运的施工方法与费用的变化都要快得多，因此对于有事业心的人来说，土方工程是一个可以大有作为的领域。在1935年，目前采用的利用轮胎式机械设备进行土方挖运的方法大多数还没有出现。那是大部分土方是采用窄轨铁路运输，在这目前来说是很少采用的。当时主要的开挖方式是使用正铲、反铲、拉铲或抓斗等挖土机，尽管这些机械目前仍然在广泛应用，但是它们只不过是目前所采用的许多方法中的一小部分。因此，一个工程师为了使自己在土方挖运设备方面的知识跟得上时代的发展，他应当花费一些时间去研究现代的机械。一般说来，有关挖土机、装载机和运输机械的唯一可靠而又最新的资料可以从制造厂商处获得。
土方工程或土方挖运工程指的是把地表面过高处的土壤挖去（挖方），并把它倾卸到地表面过低的其他地方（填方）。为了降低土方工程费用，填方量应该等于挖方量，而且挖方地点应该尽可能靠近土方量相等的填方地点，以减少运输量和填方的二次搬运。土方设计这项工作落到了从事道路设计的工程师的身上，因为土方工程的设计比其他任何工作更能决定工程造价是否低廉。根据现有的地图和标高，道路工程师应在设计绘图室中的工作也并不是徒劳的。它将帮助他在最短的时间内获得最好的方案。
费用最低的运土方法是用同一台机械直接挖方取土并且卸土作为填方。这并不是经常可以做到的，但是如果能够做到则是很理想的，因为这样做既快捷又省钱。拉铲挖土机。推土机和正铲挖土机都能做到这点。拉铲挖土机的工作半径最大。推土机所推运的图的数量最多，只是运输距离很短。拉铲挖土机的缺点是只能挖比它本身低的土，不能施加压力挖入压实的土壤内，不能在陡坡上挖土，而且挖。卸都不准确。
正铲挖土机介于推土机和拉铲挖土机的之间，其作用半径大于推土机，但小于拉铲挖土机。正铲挖土机能挖取竖直陡峭的工作面，这种方式对推土机司机来说是危险的，而对拉铲挖土机则是不可能的。每种机械设备应该进行最适合它的性能的作业。正铲挖土机不能挖比其停机平面低很多的土，而深挖坚实的土壤时，反铲挖
土机最适用，但其卸料半径比起装有正铲的同一挖土机的卸料半径则要小很多。
在比较平坦的场地开挖，如果用拉铲或正铲挖土机运输距离太远时，则装有轮胎式的斗式铲运机就是比不可少的。它能在比较平的地面上挖较深的土（但只能挖机械本身下面的土），需要时可以将土运至几百米远，然后卸土并在卸土的过程中把土大致铲平。在挖掘硬土时，人们发现在开挖场地经常用一辆助推拖拉机（轮式或履带式），对返回挖土的铲运机进行助推这种施工方法是经济的。一旦铲运机装满，助推拖拉机就回到开挖的地点去帮助下一台铲运机。
斗式铲运机通常是功率非常大的机械，许多厂家制造的铲运机铲斗容量为8 m 3，满载时可达10 m3。最大的自行式铲运机铲斗容量为19立方米（满载时为25 m 3），由430马力的牵引发动机驱动。
翻斗机可能是使用最为普遍的轮胎式运输设备，因为它们还可以被用来送混凝土或者其他建筑材料。翻斗车的车斗位于大橡胶轮胎车轮前轴的上方，尽管铰接式翻斗车的卸料方向有很多种，但大多数车斗是向前翻转的。最小的翻斗车的容量大约为0.5立方米，而最大的标准型翻斗车的容量大约为4.5m3。特殊型式的翻斗车包括容量为4 m3的自装式翻斗车，和容量约为0.5 m3的铰接式翻斗车。必须记住翻斗车与自卸卡车之间的区别。翻斗车车斗向前倾翻而司机坐在后方卸载，因此有时被称为后卸卡车。
1.3结构的安全度
规范的主要目的是提供一般性的设计原理和计算方法，以便验算结构的安全度。就目前的趋势而言，安全系数与所使用的材料性质及其组织情况无关，通常把它定义为发生破坏的条件与结构可预料的最不利的工作条件之比值。这个比值还与结构的破坏概率（危险率）成反比。
破坏不仅仅指结构的整体破坏，而且还指结构不能正常的使用，或者，用更为确切的话来说，把破坏看成是结构已经达到不能继续承担其设计荷载的“极限状态”。通常有两种类型的极限状态，即：
（1）强度极限状态，它相当于结构能够达到的最大承载能力。其例子包括结构的局部屈曲和整体不稳定性；某此界面失效，随后结构转变为机构；疲劳破坏；引起结构几何形状显著变化的弹性变形或塑性变形或徐变；结构对交变荷载、火灾和爆炸的敏感性。
（2）使用极限状态，它对应着结构的使用功能和耐久性。器例子包括结构失稳之前的过大变形和位移；早期开裂或过大的裂缝；较大的振动和腐蚀。
根据不同的安全度条件，可以把结构验算所采用的计算方法分成：
（1）确定性的方法，在这种方法中，把主要参数看作非随机参数。
（2）概率方法，在这种方法中，主要参数被认为是随机参数。
此外，根据安全系数的不同用途，可以把结构的计算方法分为：
（1）容许应力法，在这种方法中，把结构承受最大荷载时计算得到的应力与经过按规定的安全系数进行折减后的材料强度作比较。
（2）极限状态法，在这种方法中，结构的工作状态是以其最大强度为依据来衡量的。由理论分析确定的这一最大强度应不小于结构承受计算荷载所算得的强度（极限状态）。计算荷载等于分别乘以荷载系数的活载与恒载之和。
把对应于不乘以荷载系数的活载和恒载的工作（使用）条件的应力与规定值（使用极限状态）相比较。根据前两种方法和后两种方法的四种可能组合，我们可以得到一些实用的计算方法。通常采用下面两种计算方法：
确定性的方法，这种方法采用容许应力。
概率方法，这种方法采用极限状态。
至少在理论上，概率法的主要优点是可以科学的考虑所有随机安全系数，然后将这些随机安全系数组合成确定的安全系数。概率法取决于：
（1）制作和安装过程中材料强度的随机分布（整个结构的力学性能数值的分散性）；
（2）截面和结构几何尺寸的不确定性（由结构制作和安装造成的误差和缺陷而引起的）；
对作用在结构上的活载和恒载的预测的不确定性；
所采用的近似计算方法有关的不精确性（实际应力与计算应力的偏差）。
此外，概率理论意味着可以基于下面几个因素来确定允许的危险率，例如：建筑物的重要性和建筑物破坏造成的危害性；
（2）由于建筑物破坏使生活受到威胁的人数；
（3）修复建筑的可能性；
（4）建筑物的预期寿命。
所有这些因素均与经济和社会条件有关，例如：
（1）建筑物的初始建设费；
（2）建筑物使用期限内的折旧费；
就给定的安全系数而论，所有这些参数的确定都是以建筑物的最佳成本为依据的。但是，应该考虑到进行全概率分析的困难。对于这种分析来说，应该了解活载及其所引起的盈利的分布规律、材料的力学性能的分散性和截面的结构几何尺寸的分散性。此外，由于强度的分布规律和应力的分布规律之间的相互关系是困难的。这些实际困难可以采用两种方法来克服。第一种方法对材料和荷载采用不同的安全系数，而不需要采用概率准则；第二种方法是引入一些而简化假设的近似概率方法
（半概率方法）。
2 外文翻译
2.1 Reinforced Concrete
Plain concrete is formed from a hardened mixture of cement ,water ,fine aggregate, coarse aggregate (crushed stone or gravel),air, and often other admixtures. The plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to facilitate the acceleration of the chemical hydration reaction lf the cement/water mix, resulting in hardened concrete. The finished product has high compressive strength, and low resistance to tension, such that its tensile strength is approximately one tenth lf its compressive strength. Consequently, tensile and shear reinforcement in the tensile regions of sections has to be provided to compensate for the weak tension regions in the reinforced concrete element.
It is this deviation in the composition of a reinforces concrete section from the homogeneity of standard wood or steel sections that requires a modified approach to the basic principles of structural design. The two components of the heterogeneous reinforced concrete section are to be so arranged and proportioned that optimal use is made of the materials involved. This is possible because concrete can easily be given any desired shape by placing and compacting the wet mixture of the constituent ingredients are properly proportioned, the finished product becomes strong, durable, and, in combination with the reinforcing bars, adaptable for use as main members of any structural system.
The techniques necessary for placing concrete depend on the type of member to be cast: that is, whether it is a column, a bean, a wall, a slab, a foundation. a mass columns, or an extension of previously placed and hardened concrete. For beams, columns, and walls, the forms should be well oiled after cleaning them, and the reinforcement should be cleared of rust and other harmful materials. In foundations, the earth should be compacted and thoroughly moistened to about 6 in. in depth to avoid absorption of the moisture present in the wet concrete. Concrete should always be placed in horizontal layers which are compacted by means of high frequency power-driven vibrators of either the immersion or external type, as the case requires, unless it is placed by pumping. It must be kept in mind, however, that over vibration can be harmful since it could cause segregation of the aggregate and bleeding of the concrete.
Hydration of the cement takes place in the presence of moisture at temperatures above 50°F. It is necessary to maintain such a condition in order that the chemical hydration reaction can take place. If drying is too rapid, surface cracking takes place. This would result in reduction of concrete strength due to cracking as well as the failure to attain full chemical hydration.
It is clear that a large number of parameters have to be dealt with in proportioning a reinforced concrete element, such as geometrical width, depth, area of reinforcement, steel strain, concrete strain, steel stress, and so on. Consequently, trial and adjustment is necessary in the choice of concrete sections, with assumptions based on conditions at site, availability of the constituent materials, particular demands of the owners, architectural and headroom requirements, the applicable codes, and environmental reinforced concrete is often a site-constructed composite, in contrast to the standard mill-fabricated beam and column sections in steel structures.
A trial section has to be chosen for each critical location in a structural system. The trial section has to be analyzed to determine if its nominal resisting strength is adequate to carry the applied factored load. Since more than one trial is often necessary to arrive at the required section, the first design input step generates into a series of trial-and-adjustment analyses.
The trial-and –adjustment procedures for the choice of a concrete section lead to the convergence of analysis and design. Hence every design is an analysis once a trial section is chosen. The availability of handbooks, charts, and personal computers and programs supports this approach as a more efficient, compact, and speedy instructional method compared with the traditional approach of treating the analysis of reinforced concrete separately from pure design.
2.2 Earthwork
Because earthmoving methods and costs change more quickly than those in any other branch of civil engineering, this is a field where there are real opportunities for the enthusiast. In 1935 most of the methods now in use for carrying and excavating earth with rubber-tyred equipment did not exist. Most earth was moved by narrow rail track, now relatively rare, and the main methods of excavation, with face shovel, backacter, or dragline or grab, though they are still widely used are only a few of the many current methods. To keep his knowledge of earthmoving equipment up to date an engineer must therefore spend tine studying modern machines. Generally the only reliable up-to-date
information on excavators, loaders and transport is obtainable from the makers.
Earthworks or earthmoving means cutting into ground where its surface is too high ( cuts ), and dumping the earth in other places where the surface is too low ( fills). Toreduce earthwork costs, the volume of the fills should be equal to the volume of the cuts and wherever possible the cuts should be placednear to fills of equal volume so as to reduce transport and double handlingof the fill. This work of earthwork design falls on the engineer who lays out the road since it is the layout of the earthwork more than anything else which decides its cheapness. From the available maps ahd levels, the engineering must try to reach as many decisions as possible in the drawing office by drawing cross sections of the earthwork. On the site when further information becomes available he can make changes in jis sections and layout,but the drawing lffice work will not have been lost. It will have helped him to reach the best solution in the shortest time.
The cheapest way of moving earth is to take it directly out of the cut and drop it as fill with the same machine. This is not always possible, but when it canbe done it is ideal, being both quick and cheap. Draglines, bulldozers and face shovels an do this. The largest radius is obtained with the dragline,and the largest tonnage of earth is moved by the bulldozer, though only over short distances.The disadvantages of the dragline are that it must dig below itself, it cannot dig with force into compacted material, it cannot dig on steep slopws, and its dumping and digging are not accurate.
Face shovels are between bulldozers and draglines, having a larger radius of action than bulldozers but less than draglines. They are anle to dig into a vertical cliff face in a way which would be dangerous tor a bulldozer operator and impossible for a dragline. Each piece of equipment should be level of their tracks and for deep digs in compact material a backacter is most useful, but its dumping radius is considerably less than that of the same escavator fitted with a face shovel.
Rubber-tyred bowl scrapers are indispensable for fairly level digging where the distance of transport is too much tor a dragline or face shovel. They can dig the material deeply ( but only below themselves ) to a fairly flat surface, carry it hundreds of meters if need be, then drop it and level it roughly during the dumping. For hard digging it is often found economical to keep a pusher tractor ( wheeled or tracked ) on the digging site, to push each scraper as it returns to dig. As soon as the scraper is full,the pusher tractor returns to the beginning of the dig to heop to help the nest scraper.
Bowl scrapers are often extremely powerful machines;many makers build scrapers
of 8 cubic meters struck capacity, which carry 10 m 3 heaped. The largest self-propelled scrapers are of 19 m 3 struck capacity ( 25 m 3 heaped )and they are driven by a tractor engine of 430 horse-powers.
Dumpers are probably the commonest rubber-tyred transport since they can also conveniently be used for carrying concrete or other building materials. Dumpers have the earth container over the front axle on large rubber-tyred wheels, and the container tips forwards on most types, though in articulated dumpers the direction of tip can be widely varied. The smallest dumpers have a capacity of about 0.5 m 3, and the largest standard types are of about 4.5 m 3. Special types include the self-loading dumper of up to 4 m 3and the articulated type of about 0.5 m 3. The distinction between dumpers and dump trucks must be remembered .dumpers tip forwards and the driver sits behind the load. Dump trucks are heavy, strengthened tipping lorries, the driver travels in front lf the load and the load is dumped behind him, so they are sometimes called rear-dump trucks.
2.3 Safety of Structures
The principal scope of specifications is to provide general principles and computational methods in order to verify safety of structures. The “ safety factor ”, which according to modern trends is independent of the nature and combination of the materials used, can usually be defined as the ratio between the conditions. This ratio is also proportional to the inverse of the probability ( risk ) of failure of the structure.
Failure has to be considered not only as overall collapse of the structure but also as unserviceability or, according to a more precise. Common definition. As the reaching of a “ limit state ” which causes the construction not to accomplish the task it was designed for. There are two categories of limit state :
(1)Ultimate limit sate, which corresponds to the highest value of the load-bearing capacity. Examples include local buckling or global instability of the structure; failure of some sections and subsequent transformation of the structure into a mechanism; failure by fatigue; elastic or plastic deformation or creep that cause a substantial change of the geometry of the structure; and sensitivity of the structure to alternating loads, to fire and to explosions.
(2)Service limit states, which are functions of the use and durability of the structure. Examples include excessive deformations and displacements without instability; early or excessive cracks; large vibrations; and corrosion.
Computational methods used to verify structures with respect to the different safety
conditions can be separated into:
(1)Deterministic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as nonrandom parameters.
(2)Probabilistic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as random parameters.
Alternatively, with respect to the different use of factors of safety, computational methods can be separated into:
(1)Allowable stress method, in which the stresses computed under maximum loads are compared with the strength of the material reduced by given safety factors.
(2)Limit states method, in which the structure may be proportioned on the basis of its maximum strength. This strength, as determined by rational analysis, shall not be less than that required to support a factored load equal to the sum of the factored live load and dead load ( ultimate state ).
The stresses corresponding to working ( service ) conditions with unfactored live and dead loads are compared with prescribed values ( service limit state ) . From the four possible combinations of the first two and second two methods, we can obtain some useful computational methods. Generally, two combinations prevail:
(1)deterministic methods, which make use of allowable stresses.
(2)Probabilistic methods, which make use of limit states.
The main advantage of probabilistic approaches is that, at least in theory, it is possible to scientifically take into account all random factors of safety, which are then combined to define the safety factor. probabilistic approaches depend upon :
(1) Random distribution of strength of materials with respect to the conditions of fabrication and erection ( scatter of the values of mechanical properties through out the structure );
(2) Uncertainty of the geometry of the cross-section sand of the structure ( faults and imperfections due to fabrication and erection of the structure );
(3) Uncertainty of the predicted live loads and dead loads acting on the structure;
(4)Uncertainty related to the approximation of the computational method used ( deviation of the actual stresses from computed stresses ).
Furthermore, probabilistic theories mean that the allowable risk can be based on several factors, such as :
(1) Importance of the construction and gravity of the damage by its failure;
(2)Number of human lives which can be threatened by this failure;
(3)Possibility and/or likelihood of repairing the structure;
(4) Predicted life of the structure.
All these factors are related to economic and social considerations such as：
(1) Initial cost of the construction;
(2) Amortization funds for the duration of the construction;
The definition of all these parameters, for a given safety factor, allows construction at the optimum cost. However, the difficulty of carrying out a complete probabilistic analysis has to be taken into account. For such an analysis the laws of the distribution of the live load and its induced stresses, of the scatter of mechanical properties of materials, and of the geometry of the cross-sections and the structure have to be known. Furthermore, it is difficult to interpret the interaction between the law of distribution of strength and that of stresses because both depend upon the nature of the material, on the cross-sections and upon the load acting on the structure. These practical difficulties can be overcome in two ways. The first is to apply different safety factors to the material and to the loads, without necessarily adopting the probabilistic criterion. The second is an approximate probabilistic method which introduces some simplifying assumptions ( semi-probabilistic methods ) .
中英文对照外文翻译 (文档含英文原文和中文翻译) Create and comprehensive technology in the structure global design of the building The 21st century will be the era that many kinds of disciplines technology coexists , it will form the enormous motive force of promoting the development of building , the building is more and more important too in global design, the architect must seize the opportunity , give full play to the architect's leading role, preside over every building engineering design well. Building there is the global design concept not new of architectural design,characteristic of it for in an all-round way each element not correlated with building- there aren't external environment condition, building , technical equipment,etc. work in coordination with, and create the premium building with the comprehensive new technology to combine together. The premium building is created, must consider sustainable development , namely future requirement , in other words, how save natural resources as much as possible, how about protect the environment that the mankind depends on for existence, how construct through high-quality between architectural design and building, in order to reduce building equipment use quantity and
forced concrete structure reinforced with an overviewRein Since the reform and opening up, with the national economy's rapid and sustained development of a reinforced concrete structure built, reinforced with the development of technology has been great. Therefore, to promote the use of advanced technology reinforced connecting to improve project quality and speed up the pace of construction, improve labor productivity, reduce costs, and is of great significance. Reinforced steel bars connecting technologies can be divided into two broad categories linking welding machinery and steel. There are six types of welding steel welding methods, and some apply to the prefabricated plant, and some apply to the construction site, some of both apply. There are three types of machinery commonly used reinforcement linking method primarily applicable to the construction site. Ways has its own characteristics and different application, and in the continuous development and improvement. In actual production, should be based on specific conditions of work, working environment and technical requirements, the choice of suitable methods to achieve the best overall efficiency. 1、steel mechanical link 1.1 radial squeeze link Will be a steel sleeve in two sets to the highly-reinforced Department with superhigh pressure hydraulic equipment (squeeze tongs) along steel sleeve radial squeeze steel casing, in squeezing out tongs squeeze pressure role of a steel sleeve plasticity deformation closely integrated with reinforced through reinforced steel sleeve and Wang Liang's Position will be two solid steel bars linked Characteristic: Connect intensity to be high, performance reliable, can bear high stress draw and pigeonhole the load and tired load repeatedly.
The future of the tall building and structure of buildings Zoning effects on the density of tall buildings and solar design may raise ethical challenge. A combined project of old and new buildings may bring back human scale to our cities. Owners and conceptual designers will be challenged in the 1980s to produce economically sound, people-oriented buildings. In 1980 the Level House, designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merril1 (SOM) received the 25-year award from the American Institute of Architects “in recogn ition of architectural design of enduring significance”. This award is given once a year for a building between 25and 35 years old .Lewis Mumford described the Lever House as “the first office building in which modern materials, modern construction, modern functions have been combined with a modern plan”. At the time, this daring concept could only be achieved by visionary men like Gordon Bunshaft, the designer , and Charles Luckman , the owner and then-president of Lever Brothers . The project also include d a few “first” : (1) it was the first sealed glass tower ever built ; (2) it was the first office building designed by SOM ;and (3) it was the first office building on Park Avenue to omit retail space on the first floor. Today, after hundreds of look-alike and variations on the grid design, we have reached what may be the epitome of tall building design: the nondescript building. Except for a few recently completed buildings that seem to be people-oriented in their lower floors, most tall buildings seem to be arepletion of the dull, graph-paper-like monoliths in many of our cities. Can this be the end of the design-line for tall buildings? Probably cannot. There are definite signs that are most encouraging. Architects and owners have recently begun to discuss the design problem publicly. Perhaps we are at the threshold of a new era. The 1980s may bring forth some new visionaries like Bunshaft and Luckman. If so, what kinds of restrictions or challenges do they face? Zoning Indications are strong that cities may restrict the density of tall buildings, that is, reduce the number of tall buildings per square mile. In 1980 the term
Study on Project Cost Control of Construction Enterprises By: R. Max Wideman Abstract With the increasing maturity of construction market, the competition between construction enterprises is becoming fierce. The project profit is gradually decreasing. It demands that all construction enterprises enhance their cost control, lower costs, improve management efficiency and gain maximal profits. This paper analyses the existing problems on project cost control of Chinese construction enterprises, and proposes some suggestions to improve project cost control system. Key Words ：Construction enterprises, Project management, Cost control After joining the WTO, with Chinese construction market becoming integrated, the competition among architectural enterprises is turning more intense. Construction enterprises must continually enhance the overall competitiveness if they want to develop further at home and abroad construction market. Construction Enterprises basically adopt the "project management-centered" model, therefore, it is particularly important to strengthen project cost control. 1.The Current Domestic Project Cost Classification and Control Methods Cost refers to the consumption from producing and selling of certain products, with the performance of various monetary standing for materialized labor and labor-consuming. Direct and indirect costs constitute the total cost, also known as production cost or manufacturing cost. Enterprise product cost is the comprehensive indicator to measure enterprise quality of all aspects. It is not only the fund compensation scale, but also the basis to examine the implementation of cost plan. Besides, it can provide reference for product pricing According to the above-mentioned definition and current domestic cost classification, construction project cost can be divided into direct costs and indirect costs. Direct costs include material cost, personnel cost, construction machinery cost, material transportation cost, temporarily facility cost, engineering cost and other direct cost. Indirect costs mainly result from project management and company's cost-sharing, covering project operating costs (covering the commission of foreign projects), project's management costs (including exchange losses of
专业资料 学院： 专业：土木工程 姓名： 学号： 外文出处：Structural Systems to resist (用外文写) Lateral loads 附件：1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文 抗侧向荷载的结构体系 常用的结构体系 若已测出荷载量达数千万磅重，那么在高层建筑设计中就没有多少可以进行极其复杂的构思余地了。确实，较好的高层建筑普遍具有构思简单、表现明晰的特点。 这并不是说没有进行宏观构思的余地。实际上，正是因为有了这种宏观的构思，新奇的高层建筑体系才得以发展，可能更重要的是：几年以前才出现的一些新概念在今天的技术中已经变得平常了。 如果忽略一些与建筑材料密切相关的概念不谈，高层建筑里最为常用的结构体系便可分为如下几类： 1.抗弯矩框架。 2.支撑框架，包括偏心支撑框架。 3.剪力墙，包括钢板剪力墙。 4.筒中框架。 5.筒中筒结构。 6.核心交互结构。 7. 框格体系或束筒体系。 特别是由于最近趋向于更复杂的建筑形式，同时也需要增加刚度以抵抗几力和地震力，大多数高层建筑都具有由框架、支撑构架、剪力墙和相关体系相结合而构成的体系。而且，就较高的建筑物而言，大多数都是由交互式构件组成三维陈列。 将这些构件结合起来的方法正是高层建筑设计方法的本质。其结合方式需要在考虑环境、功能和费用后再发展，以便提供促使建筑发展达到新高度的有效结构。这并
不是说富于想象力的结构设计就能够创造出伟大建筑。正相反，有许多例优美的建筑仅得到结构工程师适当的支持就被创造出来了，然而，如果没有天赋甚厚的建筑师的创造力的指导，那么，得以发展的就只能是好的结构，并非是伟大的建筑。无论如何，要想创造出高层建筑真正非凡的设计，两者都需要最好的。 虽然在文献中通常可以见到有关这七种体系的全面性讨论，但是在这里还值得进一步讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论中。 抗弯矩框架 抗弯矩框架也许是低，中高度的建筑中常用的体系，它具有线性水平构件和垂直构件在接头处基本刚接之特点。这种框架用作独立的体系，或者和其他体系结合起来使用，以便提供所需要水平荷载抵抗力。对于较高的高层建筑，可能会发现该本系不宜作为独立体系，这是因为在侧向力的作用下难以调动足够的刚度。 我们可以利用STRESS，STRUDL 或者其他大量合适的计算机程序进行结构分析。所谓的门架法分析或悬臂法分析在当今的技术中无一席之地，由于柱梁节点固有柔性，并且由于初步设计应该力求突出体系的弱点，所以在初析中使用框架的中心距尺寸设计是司空惯的。当然，在设计的后期阶段，实际地评价结点的变形很有必要。 支撑框架 支撑框架实际上刚度比抗弯矩框架强，在高层建筑中也得到更广泛的应用。这种体系以其结点处铰接或则接的线性水平构件、垂直构件和斜撑构件而具特色，它通常与其他体系共同用于较高的建筑，并且作为一种独立的体系用在低、中高度的建筑中。
中英文资料对照外文翻译 Design phase of the project cost management Abstract Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost. Described the current stage of the project cost management situation on the strengthening of the various stages of construction cost management of the importance of and raised a number of key initiatives. Keywords：cost of the construction project cost management status investment decision phase of the design phase of the implementation phase of the cost management in a market economy, Even under the WTO and China's accession to the world community, China's construction industry how to effectively control construction cost of the construction and management of an important component part. However, the current budget for the construction projects - estimate, budget, Super budget accounts for the "super three" is still widespread and that eventually led to a serious loss of control of project investment. Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost. As the project cost to the project runs through the entire process, stage by stage can be divided into Investment Decision stage, the design and implementation phases. The so-called Project Cost effective control is the optimization of the construction plans and design programs on the basis of in the building process at all stages, use of certain methods and measures to reduce the cost of the projects have a reasonable control on the scope and cost of the approved limits.
《文献检索》课程教学设计 目录 绪论：文献（信息）检索的意义及基础 (2) 项目一科技文献检索方法和图书馆的科学利用 (8) 项目二常见化学化工科技论文的写作 (11) 项目三美国化学文摘的使用 (14) 项目四专利文献的查询 (17) 项目五标准文献的查询 (20) 项目六计算机信息检索的应用 (23) 项目七信息检索策略综合应用训练 (26)
徐州工业职业技术学院教学设计（讲稿）
教学内容与设计 绪论：文献（信息）检索的意义及基础 自我介绍 提问一：你会检索吗？ 如果会，那么会用检索以下毕业专题的相关资料吗？ ?杜仲叶中绿原酸的提取分离 ?有机废水处理工艺设计 ?蚕丝蛋白制备工艺研究 ?铁矿石含铁量测定方法新工艺 ?基因工程干扰素生产工艺研究 提问的目的：突出检索技术直接是为毕业专题服务，这是一门技术。提问二：信息检索课是什么？ 学生如是说： 文献检索课程是井底之蛙的升降机，是雄鹰的翅膀，是横跨天堑的桥梁。 针对某一课题，通过电子检索查阅有关资料，才知道知识的浩瀚，才知道世界的宽广，才知道“山外青山，楼外楼”。 它是我在大学期间所学的最重要，最有用的课程之一，有了它，我们将会受益终生。教会我们一种方法，一种主动 了解外界，提高自己，放眼世界的方法。 检索不仅是我们学习的制胜法宝，更是一条贯穿我们生活的红线。正因为有了这门课的学习，现在大脑的检索意识 就比较强烈，越搜越快！前几天，问同学借自行车，他告 诉我车子大致地点，是永久牌，有车栏，略有一点蓝。到 了现场，脑海中一下就有了先找有栏的，再找蓝颜色的， 最后确定是不是永久的，很快就找到了。 我爱检索，就像爱自己的生命一样。 最后我想说，我们是幸运的！我们学到了一门真正有用的课，它对我的影响和帮助将是伴随我一身的。 提问三：借鉴与创新的关系？ 科学研究是“站在前人肩膀上”的事业，而创新又是科学研究的灵魂，即要求“前无古人”。 时间分配 2min 引导学生回答 8min 10min 通过往届学生对信息检索课的评价能够激起学生学习这门课的兴趣，也可以突出这门课对个人的作用。 10min 通过提问让学生
Commercial Buildings Abstract: A guide and general reference on electrical design for commercial buildings is provided. It covers load characteristics; voltage considerations; power sources and distribution apparatus; controllers; services, vaults, and electrical equipment rooms; wiring systems; systems protection and coordination; lighting; electric space conditioning; transportation; communication systems planning; facility automation; expansion, modernization, and rehabilitation; special requirements by occupancy; and electrical energy management. Although directed to the power oriented engineer with limited commercial building experience, it can be an aid to all engineers responsible for the electrical design of commercial buildings. This recommended practice is not intended to be a complete handbook; however, it can direct the engineer to texts, periodicals, and references for commercial buildings and act as a guide through the myriad of codes, standards, and practices published by the IEEE, other professional associations, and governmental bodies. Keywords: Commercial buildings, electric power systems, load characteristics 1. Introduction 1.1 Scope This recommended practice will probably be of greatest value to the power oriented engineer with limited commercial building experience. It can also be an aid to all engineers responsible for the electrical design of commercial buildings. However, it is not intended as a replacement for the many excellent engineering texts and handbooks commonly in use, nor is it detailed enough to be a design manual. It should be considered a guide and general reference on electrical design for commercial buildings. 1.2 Commercial Buildings The term “commercial, residential, and institutional buildings”as used in this chapter, encompasses all buildings other than industrial buildings and private dwellings. It includes office and apartment buildings, hotels, schools, and churches, marine, air, railway, and bus terminals, department stores, retail shops, governmental buildings, hospitals, nursing homes, mental and correctional institutions, theaters, sports arenas, and other buildings serving the public directly. Buildings, or parts of buildings, within industrial complexes, which are used as offices or medical facilities or for similar nonindustrial purposes, fall within the scope of this recommended practice. Today’s commercial buildings, because of their increasing size and complexity, have become more and more dependent upon adequate and reliable electric systems. One can better understand the complex nature of modern commercial buildings by examining the systems, equipment, and facilities listed in 1.2.1. 1.2.2 Electrical Design Elements In spite of the wide variety of commercial, residential, and institutional buildings, some electrical design elements are common to all. These elements, listed below, will be discussed generally in this section and in detail in the remaining sections of this recommended practice. The principal design elements considered in the design of the power, lighting, and auxiliary systems include: 1) Magnitudes, quality, characteristics, demand, and coincidence or diversity of loads and load factors 2) Service, distribution, and utilization voltages and voltage regulation 3) Flexibility and provisions for expansion
Construction of rock or soil in the construction. It is a modern city of high-speed product development, the city will again ease the contradictions of the role to improve the living environment, but also opened up new human life. Rational development and utilization of human natural and artificial excavation of the underground space, not only help to ease the development of modern urban contradictions, to improve the living environment, but also to open up a new human life. Because of the large-scale development of underground construction, underground architecture is taking shape, its research includes the history of development of underground construction and development of underground space development and utilization of underground space in urban planning, various types of underground construction planning and design, as well as underground construction and related environmental, physiological, psychological and technical issues. Underground construction has a good protective performance, better thermal stability and confined, as well as an integrated economic, social and environmental benefits. Underground construction in a certain thickness of rock or soil, you can avoid or reduce nuclear weapons, conventional weapons, chemical and biological weapons of destruction, while at the same time more effectively to resist earthquakes, hurricanes and other natural disasters. Underground construction in and around the confined environment of relatively stable existence of the temperature field, temperature, or for creating ultra-clean manufacturing environment and at low temperatures or under high-temperature storage of materials, pollution prevention, especially for energy conservation as well. In the city planned the construction of underground construction, urban land use for savings, lower building density, to improve urban transportation, the
毕业设计（论文） 外文文献翻译 文献、资料中文题目：研究建设项目的工程造价 文献、资料英文题目： 文献、资料来源： 文献、资料发表（出版）日期： 院（部）： 专业：工程管理 班级： 姓名： 学号： 指导教师： 翻译日期： 2017.02.14
科技文献翻译 题目：研究建设项目的工程造价 研究建设项目的工程造价 摘要 在工程建设中，中国是拥有世界最大投资金额和具有最多建设项目的国家。它是一 项在建设项目管理上可以为广泛的工程管理人员进行有效的工程造价管理，并合理 确定和保证施工质量和工期的条件控制施工成本的重要课题。 在失去了中国建筑的投资和技术经济工程，分离的控制现状的基础上，通过建设成 本控制的基本理论为指导，探讨控制方法和施工成本的应用，阐述了存在的问题在 施工成本控制和对决心和施工成本的控制这些问题的影响，提出了建设成本控制应 体现在施工前期，整个施工过程中的成本控制，然后介绍了一些程序和应用价值工 程造价的方法在控制建设项目的所有阶段。 关键词：建设成本，成本控制，项目 1.研究的意义 在中国，现有的工程造价管理体系是20世纪50年代制定的，并在1980s.Traditional 施工成本管理方法改进是根据国家统一的配额，从原苏联引进的一种方法。它的特 点是建设成本的计划经济的管理方法，这决定了它无法适应当前市场经济的要求。 在中国传统建筑成本管理方法主要包括两个方面，即建设成本和施工成本控制方法 的测定方法。工程造价的确定传统的主要做法生搬硬套国家或地方统一的配额数量 来确定一个建设项目的成本。虽然这种方法已经历了20多年的改革，到现在为止，计划经济管理模式的影响仍然有已经存在在许多地区。我们传统的工程造价控制的
外文文献—动画
Animation Animation is the rapid display of a sequence of images of 2-D or 3-D artwork or model positions to create an illusion of movement. The effect is an optical illusion of motion due to the phenomenon of persistence of vision, and can be created and demonstrated in several ways. The most common method of presenting animation is as a motion picture or video program, although there are other methods. Early examples An Egyptian burial chamber mural, approximately 4000 years old, showing wrestlers in action. Even though this may appear similar to a series of animation drawings, there was no way of viewing the images in motion. It does, however, indicate the artist's intention of depicting motion. Five images sequence from a vase found in Iran There is no single person who can be considered the "creator" of film animation, as there were several people working on projects which could be considered animation at about the same time. Georges Méliès was a creator of special-effect films; he was generally one of the first people to use animation with his technique. He discovered a technique by accident which was to stop the camera rolling to change something in the scene, and then continue rolling the film. This idea was later known as stop-motion animation. Early examples of attempts to capture the phenomenon of motion drawing can be found in paleolithic cave paintings, where animals are depicted with multiple legs in superimposed positions, clearly attempting to convey the perception of motion. An Egyptian burial chamber mural , approximately 4000 years old, showing wrestlers in action. Even though this may appear similar to a series of animation drawings, there was no way of viewing the images in motion. It does, however, indicate the artist's intention of depicting motion. A 5,000 year old earthen bowl found in Iran.It has five images of a goat painted along the sides. This has been claimed to be an example of early animation. However, since no equipment existed to show the images in motion, such a series of images cannot be called animation in a true sense of the word. A Chinese zoetrope-type device had been invented in 180 AD. The phenakistoscope, praxinoscope, and the common flip book were early popular animation devices invented during the 19th century. These devices produced the appearance of movement from sequential drawings using technological means, but animation did not really develop much