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英语专四专八语法规则辨析整理总结全
英语专四专八是一项考试，语法是考试的重点之一。
以下是对英语语法中一些常见的规则进行梳理和辨析总结，以便备考时准确掌握。
时态
英语中有多种时态，包括现在时、过去时、将来时等。
时态在语法中很重要，因为它可以表达行动的时间和状态。
一般来说，英语语法中最基本的时态是现在时、过去时和将来时。
主谓一致
主谓一致是英语语法中的重点之一，指的是主语和谓语必须在人称和数上保持一致。
例如，单数主语需要用单数谓语动词，而复数主语需要用复数谓语动词。
冠词
英语语法中有三种冠词：a、an和the。
a和an是不定冠词，表示单数可数名词，而the是定冠词，表示特定的人、物、地点等。
名词
英语语法中有三种名词：可数名词、不可数名词和集合名词。
可数名词可以与数词连用表示数量，不可数名词不能与数词连用，集合名词表示由众多相似个体组成的群体。
动词
动词是英语语法中最重要的部分之一。
动词有时态、语态和语气等方面的变化，动词的不同形式反映了不同的语法含义。
形容词和副词
英语语法中的形容词和副词是修饰词，用于描述名词和动词。
形容词一般在名词前面使用，副词则用于修饰动词、形容词和其他副词。
介词
英语语法中的介词用于表示时间、空间和关系等。
介词通常出现在名词或代词之前，用于指示它们与其他单词之间的关系。
以上是英语专四专八语法的规则辨析整理总结，希望对备考的同学有所帮助。
英语专八人文知识语言学必背第5讲:句法学第五节句法学Syntax一、基本概念研究句子结构以及词、词组和短语构成的句子的规则the internal structure of sentences and the rules etc.二、几个重要概念1．横组合关系Syntagmatic relations/线形关系Linear relations：即词序word order，指句子中单词的链状顺序关系纵聚合关系Paradigmatic relations：把句子各个位置当成插槽Slot，则同义或相近词都可填入此槽，这就是词间纵聚合关系注：词的横组合及纵聚合关系是其句法理论的重要组成部分Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic relations is important part of 索绪尔Saussure’s syntactic theory.2．直接成分分析法Immediate Constituent Analysis简作IC Analysis：通过多次的二元切割将句子分割为词组、单词的一种句子分析手段3．语法范畴Grammatical Categories：指代名词、动词等此类的标志性特征definding properties名词：性Gender，数Number，格Case【数：单数Singular和双数Dual；性：阴性Feminine和阳性Masculine以及中性Neuter；格：代词主格Nominative，宾格Accusative，名词一般格General和所有格Genitive】动词：时态Tense，体Aspect，语态V oice三、关于句子：the maximum free form最大的语法分析单位1．句子关系：一致关系Agreement：两个或更多单词在某个特定环境下必须保持其某个范畴的一致，主要表现在主谓、修饰语和被修饰语之间。
如this man/these men支配关系Government：一个或几个单词因受到其他相邻词语的支配而必须与或者保持某个范畴的一致，如代词在动词后必须成宾格状态beat him等2. 句子的扩展Extension of sentence三种方法：结合Conjoining，嵌入Embedding和递归Recursiveness3. 句子结构向心结构Endocentric construction：具有核心的结构体。
专八英语知识点总结1. Vocabulary1.1 Synonyms and Antonyms- Synonyms: words with similar meanings.- Antonyms: words with opposite meanings.1.2 Word Formation- Prefixes and Suffixes: change the meaning or grammatical function of words. - Compound Words: words formed by combining two or more words.1.3 Idioms and Collocations- Idioms: phrases with a figurative meaning.- Collocations: words frequently used together.1.4 Phrasal Verbs- Verbs combined with adverbs or prepositions to create new meanings.2. Grammar2.1 Verb Tenses- Present, Past, Future Tenses- Present Perfect, Past Perfect Tenses2.2 Modals- Can, Could, May, Might, Must, Should, Would, Will2.3 Articles- Definite and Indefinite Articles (the, a, an)2.4 Adjectives and Adverbs- Comparative and Superlative Forms2.5 Prepositions- Usage and common prepositional phrases3. Reading Comprehension3.1 Main Idea and Supporting Details3.2 Inference and Interpretation3.3 Vocabulary in Context3.4 Text Structure and Organization4. Listening Comprehension4.1 Listening for Main Ideas4.2 Identifying Details4.3 Inference and Interpretation4.4 Note-taking and Summarizing5. Writing5.1 Essay Structure- Introduction, Body, Conclusion5.2 Cohesion and Coherence5.3 Paragraph Development- Topic Sentences, Supporting Details, Transitions5.4 Grammar and Vocabulary Usage6. Speaking6.1 Fluency and Pronunciation6.2 Vocabulary and Grammar Accuracy6.3 Speaking with Confidence6.4 Responding to Questions and Prompts7. Test-taking Strategies7.1 Time Management7.2 Effective Note-taking7.3 Skimming and Scanning7.4 Elimination of Answer ChoicesIn summary, the Special English Examination tests various language skills including vocabulary, grammar, reading comprehension, listening comprehension, writing, speaking, and test-taking strategies. It is important for test-takers to review and practice each of these knowledge points in order to achieve success on the examination.。
专八人文语言学部分题集C1. Which of the following feature is NOT one of the design features of language?a. Language is a system,b. Language is symbolic.c. Animal also have language,d. Language is arbitrary.a2. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is good proof that human language is .a. arbitraryb. non-arbitraryc. logicald. non-productive a3. Which of the following terms best describes the "-ate" in the word "affectionate"?a. Derivational morpheme,b. Inflectional morpheme.c. Free morpheme,d. Prefix.a4. Which of the following teerms best describes the pair of words kill and dill?a. Minimal pair.b. A phonemic contrast.c. Closed class words,d. Bound morphemes.c5. What is the basic lexical relation between piece and peace?a. Synonymy.b. Antonymy.c. Homonymy.d. Polysemy.c6. /p/ is different from /b/ in .a. the manner of articulationb. the shape of the lips.c. the vibration of the vocal cords.d. the place of articulation.c7. Of all the speech organs, the is/are the most flexible.a. mouthb. lipsc. tongued. vocal cordsc8. The phonological features, the consonant /t/ are .a. voiced stopb. voiceless stopc. voiced fricatived. voiceless fricativeb9. The branch of linguistics that studies show context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called .a. semanticsb. pragmaticsc. sociolinguisticsd. psycholinguisticsb10. The utterance "We' ve abeady eaten ten tons. " Obviously violatesthe maxim of .a. qualityb. quantityc. relationd. mannera11. All the back vowels in English are pronounced with rounded-lips, i. e. rounded, Except .a./a:/b./u/c./3: /d./u/b12. The semantic relationship between the two sentences "Mary' s son is an engineer" and "Mary has a son" is .a. entailmentb. presuppositionc. synonymyd. inconsistencyd13. Which of the following sentences is a commissive?a. The earth is round.b. I now pronounce you husband and wife.c. I' m really sorry !d. I' 11 be here tomorrow.a14. Semantic feature analysis attempts to account for the of a word according to the presence or absence of a specific semantic feature in the word.a. conceptual meaningb. social meaningc. connotative meaningd. affective meaningc15. act is the extra meaning of the utterance produced on the basis of its literal meaning.a. Speechb. Locutionaryc. Illocutionaryd. Perlocutionarya16. is a group of people using a given language or dialect. They use the same kind of language or dialect which is highly stratified in terms of social division.a. Speech communityb. Individual dialectc. Regional dialectd. Social dialecta17. The situation where two very different varieties of the same language are used side by side for two different sets of functions is termed asa. diglossiab. bilingualismc. muhilingualismd. registera18. A is a variety of a language that is not a native language of anyone, but is learned on contact situation such as trading.a. pidginb. creolec. dialectd. lingua francac19. The word "lab" is formed througha. back formationb. blendingc. clippingd. derivation d20. Which of the following items is not one of the grammatical categories of English pronouns ?a. Genderb. Numberc. Cased. V oiceb21. The pair of words "lend" and "borrow" area. gradable oppositesb. converse oppositesc. co-hypinymsd. synonymsb22. "Big" and "Small" are a pair of opposites.a. complementaryb. gradablec. completed. converseb23. is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.a. Semanticsb. Pragmaticsc. Sociolinguisticsd. Psycholinguisticsa24. A variety of a language used recognizably in a specific region or by a specific social class is called aa. dialectb. registersc. creolesd. pidginsb25. In a speech community people have something in common---a language or a particular variety of language and rules for using it.a. sociallyb. linguisticallyc. culturallyd. pragmaticllya26. [1] and [r] function in a minimal pair ofa. lid and ridb. lad and redc. peel and peard. Both a, b and c.c27. Man' s linguistic ability enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in his native language, including the sentences which were never heard before. This design feature of language is .a. specializationb. cultural transmissionc. productivityd. arbitrarinessb28. The study of language development over a period of time is generally termed as linguistics, which focuses on the changesand developments of language.a. comparativeb. appliedc. synchronicd. diachronicd29. Human language operates on two levels of structure. At on elevel are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. This design feature of language is calleda. displacementb. dualityc. arbitrarinessd. interchangeabilitya30. If three consonants could cluster together at the beginning of a word, the first phoneme must bea. [s]b.[t]c.[1]d.[p]c31. A is the smallest meaningful phonetic segment of an utterance on the level of parole.a. morphemeb. phonec. phonemed. morphc32. There are different types of affixes or morphemes. The affix "ed" in the word learned is known as a (n) .a. derivational morphemeb. free morphemec. inflectional morphemed. free formb33. is a sub-field of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.a. Morphologyb. Syntaxc. Semanticsd. Pragmatics a34. The concept of the minimal pair is proposed for identifying .a. phonemesb. allophonesc. morphemesd. allomorphs c35. In the following conversation:A: Beirut is in Peru, isn' t it?B: And Rome is in Romania, 1 suppose.B violates thea. Quality Maximb. Quantity Maximc. Relation Maximd. Manner Maximb36. The semantic relationship between flower and rose isa. hyponymsb. hyponymyc. co-hymonymsd. superodinatec37. The word " unhappiness" has morphemes.a. oneb. twoc. threed. foura38. Which of the following sound is diphthong?a. [ai]b. [t]c. [dv]d. [A]c39. "Hot dog" with the first element stressed means .a. a dog which is notb. a barking dogc. a kind of foodd. a dead dogb40. The plural affix in the word table is a(n) .a. inflectional suffixb. derivational suffixc. free morphemed. rootc41. In first language acquisition children usually grammatical rules from the linguist information they hear.a. useb. acceptc. generalized. reconstructd42. According to Krashen, refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.a. learningb. competencec. performanced. acquisitiond43. The criterion used in IC analysis isa. transformationb. conjoiningc. groupingd. substitutabilityb44. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?a. Acoustic phoneticsb. Articulatory phoneticsc. Auditory phoneticsd. Neither of themd45. refers to the study and analysis of the mistakes made by second and foreign language learners.a. Contrastive analysisb. Error analysisc. Interlanguaged. The behaviorist approach参考答案1-5 caaac 6-10 cccbb 11-15 abdac 16-20 aaacd 21-25 bbbab 26-30 acdba 31-35 ccbac 36-40 bcacb 41-45 cddbb。
语言学部分一、语言与语言学1, which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language ? (2005) A. arbitrariness. B. productivity. C. cultural transmission. D. finiteness.考点: 语言的区别性特征（design features）记忆：CD PAD. Cultural transmission. Displacement. Productivity (creativity). Arbitrariness. Duality.2. The distinction between parole and langue was made by _____. (2006)A. Halliday.B. Chomsky.C. BloomfieldD. Saussure.考点：语言流派的主要代表人物、四对儿概念的区分。
记忆：四对概念分别是：descriptive & prescriptive. Synchronic & diachronic. Langue & Parole. Competence & performance.代表人物：Saussure对应parole & Langue。
Chomsky对应Competence & performance3. language is a tool of communication. The symbol “high way closed” on a high way serves _____. (2010)A. an expressive function.B. an informative function.C. a performative function.D. a persuasive function.考点：语言的基本功能。
第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）1. 任意性Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式2. 层结构Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（thestructure of sounds and meaning）3. 多产性productive：语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and createunlimited number with sentences）4. 移位性Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等5. 文化传播性Cultural Transmission：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）1. 传达信息功能Informative：最主要功能The main function2. 人际功能Interpersonal：人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能establish and maintain theiridentity3. 行事功能performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses4. 表情功能Emotive：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatory expressions5. 寒暄功能Phatic：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！” 等等6. 元语言功能Metalingual：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学Core linguistic（1）语音学Phonetics：关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程，着重考察人类语言中的单音。
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
语言学——戴炜栋 （牟杨译本的学习指南） 重要人物汇总 1. Ferdinand de Saussure索绪尔the founding father of modern structural linguistics现代结构主义语言学创始人 ●提出语言language和言语speech的区别 ●词的横组合及纵聚合是其句法理论的重要部分Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic relations is important part of Saussure’s syntactic theory. 2. Noam Chomsky乔姆斯基：the founder of generative grammar生成语法创始人 ●提出关于语言能力competence 与 语言运用performance的区分概念 ●1957年提出转换生成语法：Transformational-Generative grammar简作TG Grammar的研究模式 ●普遍语法的概念 3．Daniel Johns琼斯：the most famous system of Cardinal vowels最有名的标准元音系统 4． Halliday英国语言学家韩礼德：系统功能语法Systemic-functional Grammar，与Chomsky提出的转换生成语法：Transformational-Generative grammar相区分 5. Geoffrey Leech利奇：提出语义学Semantics的七种意义 6. C. Morris he R. Carnap美国哲学家:将符号学Semiotics划分为三个分支 7. J. Austin 和 J. Searle英国哲学家： Speech Act Theory：20世纪50年代认为语言不仅可以用来表述，更可以用来“做事doing things”，即“to do things with words” 8. 格莱斯——美国哲学家：合作原则The Cooperative Principles 9. Ogden and Richards 奥登和理查兹——semantic triangle or triangle of significance语义三角理论p63 Chapter one Introduction 1.语言学的定义:对语言进行的科学研究(the scientific study of language) 2.语言学的范围 语音学 音位学 语言学内部的主要分支 形态学 句法学 语义学 语用学
社会语言学 跨学科分支 心理语言学 应用语言学
规定性与描写性 共时性与历时性 言语与文字 3.语言学中的一些重要区分 语言与言语 语言能力与语言运用 传统语法与现代语言学 4.语言的定义 5.语言的识别特征 6.语言的作用 术语双解 (语言学)：Linguistics refers to the scientific study of language.对语言进行科学研究的学科。 linguistics(普通语言学)：the study of language as a whole. (语音学)：the study of sounds used in linguistic communication. (音韵/系/位学)：从功能的角度出发对出现在某种特定语言中的语音及其组合、分布规律进行研究的语言学分支。The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns from function perspective. （形态学）：研究单词的内部构造the internal structure of words （句法）：研究组词造句的规则the rules governing the combination of words into sentences. (语义学)：the study of meaning；对语言产生的意义的方法的系统研究，以研究词义和句义为主it’s the systemic studies on the meaning-producing mechanism in languages, including words and sentences meaning (语用学/论): 从语言同使用者之间的关系出发，研究在实际交际in real-time communication contexts中影响人们语言使用的各种因素mainly in terms of the relationship between language and language-users。 (社会语言学)： (心理语言学)： linguistics(应用语言学) ①广义： ②in a narrow sense: 12. descriptive(描写性)： Prescriptive(规定性)： 13. Synchronic(共时性)：以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象
Diachronic(历时性)：研究语言各个阶段的发展变化，研究语言的历史发展规律 and writing（言语与文字）
Langue（语言）：指语言系统的整体the whole linguistic system，所有语言使用个体头脑15. 中存储的词语-形象word-image的总和，这个整体相对比较稳定。 Parole（言语）：指代某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语actual use of language，是随时间和地点变化的一个动态的、偶然性很大的实体 competence语言能力：指理想语言使用者关于语言规则的知识储备 16. performance语言运用：指真实的语言使用者在实际场景中的语言使用 注与索绪尔的区别——索绪尔着重于从社会的角度social perspective来研究语言，乔姆斯基则从语言使用者的知识构成the knowledge base of the language users来看待语言，如乔从心理学的角度来分析语言 区别：
grammar : 1)Regards the written language as primary 2)Force language gets into a Latin-based framework and modern linguistics: 1)Regards the spoken language as primary, not the written 2)Vice versa (3点区别):
（语言）-定义理解及特点： features of language语言的识别特征： ㈠design feature识别特征（定义）： ㈡特征：①arbitrariness(任意性)：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式 ②productivity(能产性)：语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences） ③duality(双重性)：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure of sounds and meaning） ④displacement(移位性-不受时空限制的特征)：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等 ⑤cultural transmission(文化传承性)：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握 of language(语言的作用) 第二章Phonology（音韵/系/位学） Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) (语音学)：auditory phonetics(听觉语音学) Acoustic phonetics(声学语音学) 了解Spectrographs(频谱仪) vocal cords(声带) the Pharynx（or pharyngeal cavity）咽腔 voicing(浊化) of speech voiceless（轻音） （发音器官） the oral cavity口腔（关于口腔——舌头，见下表） the nasal cavity鼻腔(何时会鼻音化) 方式 器官 音 Obstruction Back of the tongue （舌后）and velar area(软腭音) [ k ]、[ g ]
Narrow the space Hard palate(硬腭) and front of tongue(舌前) [j] Obstruction The tip of the tongue(舌尖) and alveolar ridge(齿龈) [t]、[d]
Partial obstruction Upper front teeth(前齿上部) and tip of the tongue（舌尖） [θ]、[ð] Obstruction Upper teeth（上齿）and lower lip(下唇) [f]、[v] Obstruction Lips [p]、[b] phonetic alphabet（IPA）国际音标/国际语音字母表：19th 末，western scholars feel the need for a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.(IPA 应运而生)。——the basic principle of IPA is using one letter (selected from major European languages ) to represent one speech sound(语音). 国际音标图IPA chart：全称是International Phonetic Alphabet，由国际语音协会IPA=International Phonetic Association在1888年首次确定.
（变音符）：are symbols which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone can’t possible do. Broad transcription（宽式标音）：is the transcription with
