当前位置:文档之家› 专八语言学整理

专八语言学整理

专八语言学整理
专八语言学整理

语言学——戴炜栋(牟杨译本的学习指南)

重要人物汇总

1. Ferdinand de Saussure索绪尔the founding father of modern structural linguistics 现代结构主义语言学创始人

●提出语言language和言语speech的区别

●词的横组合及纵聚合是其句法理论的重要部分Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic

relations is important part of Saussure’s syntactic theory.

2. Noam Chomsky乔姆斯基:the founder of generative grammar生成语法创始人

●1957简作TG Grammar

的研究模式

●普遍语法的概念

3.Daniel Johns琼斯:the most famous system of Cardinal vowels最有名的标准元音系统

4. Halliday英国语言学家韩礼德:系统功能语法Systemic-functional Grammar,与Chomsky提出的转换生成语法:Transformational-Generative grammar相区分

5. Geoffrey Leech利奇:提出语义学Semantics的七种意义

6. C. Morris he R. Carnap美国哲学家:将符号学Semiotics划分为三个分支

7. J. Austin 和 J. Searle英国哲学家: Speech Act Theory:20世纪50年代认为语言不仅可以用来表述,更可以用来“做事doing things”,即“to do things with words”

8.格莱斯——美国哲学家:合作原则The Cooperative Principles

9. Ogden and Richards 奥登和理查兹——semantic triangle or triangle of significance语义三角理论p63

Chapter one Introduction

1.语言学的定义:对语言进行的科学研究(the scientific study of language)

2.语言学的范围语音学

音位学

语言学内部的主要分支形态学

句法学

语义学

语用学

社会语言学

跨学科分支心理语言学

应用语言学

规定性与描写性

共时性与历时性

言语与文字

3.语言学中的一些重要区分语言与言语

语言能力与语言运用

传统语法与现代语言学

4.语言的定义

5.语言的识别特征

6.语言的作用

术语双解

(语言学):Linguistics refers to the scientific study of language.对语言进行科学研究的学科。

linguistics(普通语言学):the study of language as a whole.

(语音学):the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.

(音韵/系/位学):从功能的角度出发对出现在某种特定语言中的语音及其组合、分布规律进行研究的语言学分支。The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns from function perspective.

(形态学):研究单词的内部构造the internal structure of words

(句法):研究组词造句的规则the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.

(语义学):the study of meaning;对语言产生的意义的方法的系统研究,以研究词义和句义为主it’s the systemic studies on the meaning-producing mechanism in languages, including words and sentences meaning

(语用学/论): 从语言同使用者之间的关系出发,研究在实际交际in real-time communication contexts中影响人们语言使用的各种因素mainly in terms of the relationship between language and language-users。

(社会语言学):

(心理语言学):

linguistics(应用语言学)

①广义:

②in a narrow sense:

12. descriptive(描写性):

Prescriptive(规定性):

13. Synchronic(共时性):以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象

Diachronic(历时性):研究语言各个阶段的发展变化,研究语言的历史发展规律

and writing(言语与文字)

Langue(语言):指语言系统的整体the whole linguistic system,所有语言使用个体头脑15. 中存储的词语-形象word-image的总和,这个整体相对比较稳定。

Parole(言语):指代某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语actual use of language,是随时间和地点变化的一个动态的、偶然性很大的实体competence语言能力:指理想语言使用者关于语言规则的知识储备

16.

performance语言运用:指真实的语言使用者在实际场景中的语言使用

social perspective来研究语言,乔姆斯基则从语言使用者的知识构成the knowledge base of the language users来看待语言,如乔从心理学的角度来分析语言

区别:

grammar : 1)Regards the written language as primary 2)Force language gets into a

Latin-based framework

and modern linguistics: 1)Regards the spoken language as primary, not the written 2)Vice versa

(3点区别):

(语言)-定义理解及特点:

features of language语言的识别特征:

㈠design feature识别特征(定义):

㈡特征:①arbitrariness(任意性):shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念;同样的声音,

各国不同的表达方式

②productivity(能产性):语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子,是由双层结构

造成的结果(Understand and create unlimited number

with sentences)

③duality(双重性):语言由声音结构和意义结构组成(the structure of sounds

and meaning)

④displacement(移位性-不受时空限制的特征):可以表达许多不在场的东西,如

过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情,或者表达根本不存在的东西

⑤cultural transmission(文化传承性):语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握

of language(语言的作用)

第二章Phonology (音韵/系/位学) Articulatory phonetics(

发音语音学)

(语音学):auditory phonetics(听觉语音学)

Acoustic phonetics(声学语音学)

声带)

浊化)

phonetic alphabet (IPA )国际音标/国际语音字母表:19th 末,western scholars feel the

need for a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.(IPA 应运而生)。——the basic principle of IPA is using one letter (selected from major European languages ) to represent one speech sound(语音).

国际音标图IPA chart :全称是International Phonetic Alphabet ,由国际语音协会

IPA=International Phonetic Association 在1888年首次确定.

(变音符):are symbols which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone can ’t possible do.

Broad transcription (宽式标音):is the transcription with

letter-symbols only.

5.两种标音方式:Narrow transcription(严式标音):is the transcription with

letter-symbols together with

Diacritics

6.英语语音的分类(the classification of English speech sounds)

英语元音和辅音的本质区别:发元音(vowel)时气流从肺部出来的气流没有受到任何阻塞。

在辅音(consonants)发出的过程中气流受到了这样或那样的阻塞。

㈠辅音的两种划分标准:发音方式(Manners of articulation)、发音部位(Places of articulation)和【清浊特征】

* 按照发音方式manners of articulation

●* 完全阻塞辅音complete obstruction/爆破音(塞音)plosives(stops): /p/, /b/ /t/, /d/ /k/, /g/

● *擦音fricatives:/f/ /v/ /s/ /z/ /师/ /3/ /6/ /咬舌z/ /h/

● *破(塞)擦音affricates:/t?/ /d?/

● *流音liquids : /r/ /l/

● *鼻音nasals:/m/ /n/ /?/

● *滑音/半元音glides/semivowels:/w/ /j/

●接近辅音approximants

●中央流音central

●边流音lateral:

* 按照发音部位places:

●唇间音/双唇音bilabial:/p/ /b/ /m/ /w/

●唇齿音labiodental:/f/ /v/

●齿(间)音dental:/ θ/ /e/

●齿龈音alveolar:/t/ /d/ /s/ /z/ /n/ /l/ /r/

●硬腭音Palatal:/?/ /?/ /t?/ /d?/ /j/

●喉音glottal:/h/

●软腭音velar:/k/ /g/ /?/

●龈腭音alveo-palatal/post-alveolar:

综合图表:

特征:

* 清浊特征Voicing

●分类:浊辅音voiced consonants 清辅音voiceless consonants

●体现形式:声带是否震动in the vibration of the vocal cords :/p/ 和/d/

* 送气特征Aspiration

●articulated with a strong air stream pushing out

●只有爆破音和破擦音有送气与否的区别

●不造成词义改变,是非区别性特征:/p/ 在please中送气,在speak中不送气

* 区别性特征Distinctive Features

●可以用来区分不同音位(phonetic voicing)如清浊特征,但送气特征就不是

●区别性特征一般都是双元Binary的 (+voicing/ -voicing)

㈡元音的划分:⑴the position of the tongue in the mouth舌的位置(即哪一部位处于最高位置)

⑵the openness of the mouth嘴张开的程度

⑶the shape of the lips唇的形状①rounded圆唇元音包括:后元音中除【a:】

外的所有②unrounded不圆唇元音,为其他所有。

⑷the length of the vowels元音的长短①长元音,发音时喉部处于紧张状

态,又称紧元音②短元音,又称松元音。

根据第一、二个划分标准有下图:

Front central back

Close

Semi-closed

Semi-open

音位学

phonology (音位学):着重语言的自然属性physical properties,关注所有语言中

区分人可能发出的所有声音,是音位学研究的基础

p22 phonetics(语音学):着重强调语音的社会功能social functions,对象是某种

语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音

重要概念

1.2.1音素phone:is a phonetic unit or segment(是一个语音单位或者语音段)

1.2.2音位Phoneme:a phonological unit(音位具有辨音功能)

●在语言中具有区别表义单位作用的最小语音单位the smallest unit that is capable of distinguishing or contrasting words, : pig 和big中的/p/和/b/就是独立的音位。

1.2.3音位变体Allophones:

●没有区分表义单位作用的音段(segment):同样/s/音,在shoe和she中读音却有差别,若把两个有差别的/s/音调换位置,并不会改变单词意义,只是有点别扭。所以,这两音就叫做/s/的音位变体。

注: Phoneme和Allophone的区别:音位具有区别性,是抽象、理想化的单位,具有系统性;音位变体都属于同一个音位,他们共同代表或者源于音位,是音位在实际环境中的体现。

1.2.4最小语音对/最小对立体Minimal Pairs:when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same position in the strings.

●两个词互相之间的差别只是一个音段,:pen 和pin就是M-p,可以确定/e/和/i/

1.2.5.两种分布关系

* ? 对比性分布Contrastive Distribution

●若两个音段出现在同一个语音环境中而产生了两个不同的单词,则处于对比性分布关系。

●最小语音对中的不同音段就是这种关系。1.2.4中的例子

* 互补性分布Complementary distribution

●若两个基本相似的音段绝不会出现在相同的语音环境中,则它们之间就是互补性分布的关系。

●:送气的p(peak)绝不会出现在s之后,而不送气的p(speak)也不会出现在词首

1.2.6音位对立phonemic contrast

一些音位学的规则(注:支持音位模式的规程都是适用于特定语言的)

1.3.1序列规则sequential rules: there are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, these rules are called*.(在某特定语言中存在支配语音组合的规则,这些规则就叫序列规则)

1.3.2同化规则assimilation rule:the rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar(通过“复制”序列中音位的特征来使一个语音同化为另一个,从而使两个音素相似)

1.3.3省略规则deletion rule: it tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented(告诉我们一个拼写上有表现的语音在什么时候应该省略)

超音段特征/超切分特征Suprasegmental features: the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features, these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word and the sentence.(指超出音段层面的语音特征,是指音节、词、句子这些单位的音位学特征)

The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation and tone(重音、语调、声调)

1.4.1●重音stress:分为单词重音和句子重音(注:重音所在的位置可以区别意义)

* 单词重音:位置固定,可分为三级——零zero重音,次secondary重音,和主要primary重音

* 句子重音:refers to the relative force given to the components of a sentence(给

予某个句子成分的相对力量)

——结构重音structural:句语句之间的对比产生的某一个单词重音的变化或某一个一般不重读的单词的重读,如ThirtTEEN girls and thirty boys中的TEEN重读

——强调重音contrastive:指纯粹出于交际需要对句中的任意部分进行强调,句中的任意音节都可能成为重读音节

——语法重音grammatical:约定俗成的语法成分功能决定的重音,如重读实词,轻读虚词等

1.4.2音调/声调tone: tones are pitch variations, which are cause by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords(指由声带振动的不同频率引起的音高变化)——注:音高的变化像音素一样可以区别意义。

1.4.3音调intonation:when pitch,stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation(如果音调,重音和音长与句子而不是单个的词联系起来,它们就被统称为语调)

第三章形态学morphology: it refers to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.( 研究单词内部结构及其构成的规则)

class words(开放性词)与closed class words(封闭词类)

2. 词/语素Morpheme:is the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.

研究的basic unit,不能再进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或者彻底改变词汇/语法意义的单位,desire是a morpheme,desir+able就是two morphemes.

词word: the smallest free form found in language.

自由形式free form:is an element that does not have to occur in a fixed position with respect to its neighboring elements.

自由词/语素free morpheme: is a morpheme which can be a word by itself. 可以独立出现、独立成词的语素。如girl,rely等.

黏着词/语素bound morpheme: is a morpheme that must be attached to another one.

必须与其它语素一起出现的语素,词缀居多。如pre-,-al, dis- 等

语素变体Allomorph:is the variant forms of a morpheme.

相对抽象,是语素的实际体现,不改变词义,但会在形式上有所变化similar to allophone.如:books, bags, judges,在这三个词中s的发音的不同。

3.词根roots: 单词的基础,无法再分割成更小的单位。两类:若词根是自由语素,则为自

由词根(大部分都是free),否则是黏着词根(如-pal,-ceive,-tain,-vert).词缀affix:a letter or sound , or group of letters or sounds, which is added to

a word , and which changes the meaning or function of the word. 一个

或一组字母或语音,附加于一个单词上并改变其意义与功能。

Affixes are bound forms that can be added词缀属黏着形式,附在:

a)to the beginning of a word=a prefix 前缀

b)to the end of a word=a suffix 后缀

c)within a word=an infix 中缀

4.派生词/语素derivational morphemes:is a morpheme, when it is conjoined to other morphemes(or words), new words are formed or derived.将它们和其他词素相连结可以派生或形成新词。

曲折词/语素inflectional morphemes: are bound morphemes which are for the most part

purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on.这些黏着词/语素只是语法标志,表示时态、数、格等概念。

5.构词的形态学规则/词素音位规则 morphological rules of word formation

The ways words are formed called morphological rules. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.词的构成方式被称为形态学规则,这些规则决定了词素怎样组成为词。

能产性形态学规则productive morphological rules: the rules that can be used quite freely to form new words.能相当自由的用来构成新词的形态学规则。

6.派生法Derivation:p37

7.复合法compounds: it forms words by stringing words together.(将词串起来)。(共有16种复合法,即以动、形容、名、介词四种相互搭配而成)

注意以下规律:

① when the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category.若两词属于同一语法范畴,则复合词仍属于该范畴。如:名+名=名。②in many cases, the two words are in different grammatical categories, then the class(范畴) of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound. 若两词属于不同范畴,那么复合词的范畴就会和第二或末尾词的词类相同。(但不绝对,有例外,如undertake, uplift)

③复合词通常与非复合的词序列的重音有所不同。如'greenhouse与green 'house.

④the meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meaning of its parts.形容词的意义并不总是各部分意义之和。

第四章句法(学)syntax:is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentence.是研究如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支。(理解:the internal structure of sentences and the rules etc.)

1.范畴 categories:refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.指在一特定语言中执行相同或相近功能的一组语言项目,如句子、名词短语或动词。

4.1.1.句法范畴syntactic categories:a fundamental fact about words in all human language is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories. 关于所有人类语言中的词,有一个基本事实,即它们能被组成数量上相对较小的类别,称为句法范畴。

4.1.2.传统语法有八种,即词性,之后有补充

Word-level categories:(1)major lexical categories词汇范畴(2)minor lexical categories 次要词汇范畴(两者的区别在于:词汇范畴常常被假定为中心词)(注意:这种划分并不绝对)

4.1.3确定词的范畴的标准p43/中文73

①meaning意义 jane 和 flower 是人与植物

②inflection曲折变化加s/es

③distribution分布名词与限定词,动词与助词

4.1.4 phrase短语:syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase.(围绕某一词范畴构成的句法单位) (如某一短语围绕一名词构成,就是名词短语)

有:NP名词性短语; VP动词性短语; AP 形容词性短语;PP介词性短语

其中单独的如N是词汇层,NP是短语层。

超过一个词构成的短语通常包含以下部分:标志词specifier+中心词head+补语complement.

2.短语结构规则phrase structure rule“PS rule”:such special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.这种对构成短语成分排列进行调节的特殊类型的语法机制就称为*)

4.2.1 XP rule 中心词短语规则

4.2.2 coordination rule 并列规则

Some structure are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or . such phrases are called coordinate structures(并列结构), and this phenomenon is known as coordination(并列关系).

第五章语义学semantics: is the study of meaning.(对意义的研究)

1.关于意义研究的一些观点:p63

⑴the naming theory命名论:最古老的观点之一是古希腊学者柏拉图提出的命名论,认为语言学的形式和符号,即语言中的词语,仅仅标记它们所代表的物体。词汇只是代表物体的名字或标记。

⑵the conceptualist view概念论:认为语言学形式和所指之间没有直接联系,而是通过思维概念彼此联系。

⑶contextualism 语境论:认为通过与之搭配的单词来理解一个词,通过把单词看做行为、事件、习惯,我们的探究就限定在群居生活的客观事物之上。

语境包括:the situational context(时空语境) and the linguistic context(上下文,语言的搭配)

代表人物:. Firth约翰·鲁伯特·弗斯

⑷behaviorism 行为论:说话人的话语在听话人身上引起的反应。代表:Bloomfield布龙菲尔德)。

meaning 词汇意义

⑴①sense意义/思:is concerned with the meaning of a linguistic form, collection

of all its features, it is abstract and de-contextualize.(是语言形式的所有特征的集合,是抽象的,不与语境相关)。

②reference所指关系:means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical

world, it deals with the relation between the linguistic elements and the non-linguistic world of experience.(指语言形式在现实物质世界中所指的事物,是语言成分与经验世界之间的关系)

⑵主要的意义关系major sense relations

①synonymy同义关系

②polysemy多义关系

③homonymy同音异义

④hyponymy上下义关系:意义包含的关系,包容者为上义词Superordinate,被包容者成为

下义词Hyponym,如animals包含dog、cat等许多

⑤antonymy反义关系

3.句子之间的关系sense relations between sentences

of meaning

第六章 Pragmatics语用学:is a study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.(语用学是研究某一语言使用者如何利用句子而达到成功交际)

——研究如何通过Context来理解和使用语言

——语用学研究这些与语言交际相关的主题包括deixis直指; Speech arts言语行为; indirect language间接语言, structure of conversation会话 ; politeness礼貌, cross-culture communication跨文化交际 and presupposition预设.

1.几个重要概念

①语用学Pragmatic: the study of the relationship between signs and their interpreters

②语义学Semantics:研究符号与所代表事物间的关系the relationship between signs and the things they refer to,主要关注语言系统中抽象单位的句子;停留于句子层面;研究是静止的、孤立的static and isolated

③语境context:(John Firth): it is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.(由说话人和听话人共有的知识构成)——it determines the speakers’use of the language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said.它决定了说话人对语言的使用和听话人对所听到的话语的解释。

划分为即时语境immediate context 和社会语境social context

④sentence meaning句子意义

⑤utterance meaning话语意义

④与⑤的区别在于:前者是no context depending; 后者是content depending

act theory言语行为理论

1)the British philosopher John Austin model of speech acts 约翰·奥斯汀(它是对语言交际性质的哲学解释,意在回答“使用语言的时候我们在干什么”)

①constative 述事话语:指用于陈述或描述的话语,是可以证实的;Searle proposed the notion of indirect speech act. There are two speech acts simultaneously happen. ①primary speech act: is the speaker’s goal of communication.②second speech act: the means by which he achieves his goal.

of conversation 会话原则(Paul Grice 保罗·格莱斯 )

1)Cooperative principle(CP)合作原则:进行会话时,参与者最起码得愿意合作,否则交谈就无法进行,这个普遍原则就称为合作原则。

合作原则的四条准则:

①the maxim of quantity量的原则:为对话提供足够信息,不要提供超出必要的信息。

②the maxim of quality质的原则:不说假话,不说缺乏足够证据的话

③the maxim of relation关系原则:有相关性

④the maxim of manner方式原则:避免晦涩,避免歧义,简洁,有条理。Conversational Implicature会话含义:当说话人公然不执行某一条原则,且让听话者也知道了他在违反,这时就很有可能产生会话含义,是为让对方体会到言外之意

pragmatics failure

1)Pragmatic failure: it occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communication purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication.

2)Pragmatic failure mainly occur in cross-cultural communication.

3)Two forms: ①pragmalinguistics语用语言学

②sociopragmatics社会语用学

第七章language change语言变化

Historical linguistics 历史语言学:the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time.

;ogical changes :音系学的变化

and syntactic change形态和句法的变化

1)addition of affixes 词缀的增加

2)loss of affixes词缀的消失

3)change of word order词序变化

4)change in negation rule 否定规则的变化

and semantic change词汇变化和语义变化

1)addition of new words

①coinage创造法

②clipped words截短法

③blending混成法,拼缀法,紧缩法:通过组合其他词的某些部分而构成新词。

④acronyms首字母缩略法:bbc 只能一个一个字母念;apec可拼读

⑤back-formation逆构法:去掉旧词的词缀,以创造新词。

⑥functional shift功能转移:不加词缀就从一个词类转换到另一个词类。

⑦borrowing 借词:borrow from one language to another.

2)loss of words

3)semantic changes词义的变化

①semantic broadening词义的扩大

②semantic narrowing词义的缩小

③semantic shift词义的转变

recent trends p103非正式,美式英语影响,科学技术的进步。

causes of language change:科学技术的发展,政治经济的变革等。

第八章language and society语言与社会

社会语言学:it studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of the language live.主要研究语言与社会的关系,以及语言使用者所在的社会结构与语言的使用之间的关系。

community 语言集团 and speech variety言语变体

speech community 语言集团:一群形成了社区或集团并共享同一种语言或某一种语言的人。

Speech/language variety言语变体:指一个人或者一群人使用的具有区别性的言语形式。(包括地域方言regional dialects、社会方言sociolects和语域registers)

approaches to sociolinguistic studies社会语言学研究的两种途径

1)macro-sociolinguistic宏观社会语言学:把社会看成一个整体,研究语言如何在其中发挥功能以及它是如何反映社会差异的,即对社会中所使用的语言进行一个总观。

2)micro-sociolinguistic微观社会语言学:从社会中的个体角度来观察社会,或者对使用的语言进行一个总观。

4.语言变体:一门语言的变体实际上是语言的一般概念的体现,它们被假定为与语言的使用者和语言的用途相关。与使用者先关的语言变体通常被称为方言,与用途相关的变体被称为语域。

1)dialectal varieties 方言变体

①regional dialect地区方言:居住在同一地理地域的人使用的语言变体。

②sociolect社会方言:characteristic of a particular social class.某种社会阶级特征的语言变体。

RP(Received Pronunciation)标准发音

③language and gender

④language and age

⑤idiolect个人语言:个体的方言,是结合了有关地域、社会、性别、年龄的变体成分。

⑥ethnic dialect民族方言:主要是一些遭受如种族歧视或者被社会孤立而形成的某种弱势群体使用的语言。

2)register语域

Halliday’s register theory韩礼德的语域理论

①定义:“language varies as its function varies ,it differs in different

situations.”the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.语言随着它功能的改变而改变,随着场合的改变而改变。

与场合向符合的语言类型就是语域。

②区分了决定语域的三个社会变体:field of discourse语场——指正在发生的事,语言活动操作的领域,涉及交际的目的和主题;tenor of discourse 语旨——场合中关系的作用(师生等关系);mode of discourse语式——交际的方式(口头、书面)。

of formality(Martin Joes马丁·裘斯)分了五个等级: frozen 冷淡的→formal正式的→consultative客气的→casual随意的→intimate密切的

dialect标准方言:is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language.是一门语言中叠加的,具有社会优越感的方言。

and Creole皮钦语/洋泾浜与克里奥尔语/混合语

1)Pidgin洋泾浜语是一种特殊的语言变体,是语言的融合与混合,也是由说不同语言的人为了有限的目的,如贸易。该术语源于英语词business 在汉语洋泾浜英语中的发音。

2)Creole:当洋泾浜语称为一个语言集团的主要语言,而且为那个社区的儿童作为母语习得时,它就成了克里奥尔语(如jamaica-英语-牙买加和 Haiti-法语-海地)。

双语制/现象 and diglossia双言制/现象

Bilingualism双语现象:两种语言并存,每一种有其不同的地位和作用。

diglossia双言现象(Ferguson 弗格森):双语是两种语言变体,而非两种语言,每一种有其不同的地位和作用。一种变体只用于正式场合,另一种用于日常。两者的使用场合上各有分工,很少交叉。

第九章language and culture 语言与文化

1.文化的定义

Broad sense:A total way of life of people

Narrow sense:Local and specific practice, beliefs or customs.

2.语言与文化的关系(略)

3.萨皮尔-沃尔夫假说Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: According to Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, language filters people’s p erception and the way they categorize experience. This independence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.语言过滤人的感知,渗透到人们分类经验的方式之中,语言和思想的这种互相依赖性就被称为*。(语言结构会影响其思维方式和行为方式)

强势说——语言模式决定人的思维和行为

弱势说——语言模式影响人的思维和行为

4.文化差异的语言证据

Denotative外延意义(字典中查到的)

Connotative暗含意义(玫瑰联想到爱情、浪漫、芳香等)

Iconic 图像意义(引起形象或图像的联想)

1)这种差异的表现体现在:问候语、称呼语、感激语,称赞语、颜色词、隐私和禁忌、数字处理、词汇在不同语言中的暗含意义、与文化相关的习语、谚语、隐喻。

5.文化教与学的意义:学习语言离不开学习文化。

第十章language acquisition 语言习得:refers to a child’s acquisition of his mother tongue. Ie how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.(指儿童习得沐浴的过程,即儿童是如何逐渐理解和说其语言的)

1.儿童语言习得三大理论

the behaviorist行为主义论:traditional behaviorists view language as a kind of behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.(传统的行为主义者把语言看做是一种行为,认为语言的学习只是一种模仿和习惯的养成)——主要倡导者是. Skinners(斯金纳)

the innatist天赋主义论:the linguist Noam Chomsky proposed that human beings are born with an innate ability known as Language Acquisition Device, or LAD. It contains principles that are universal to all human beings languages.

Chomsky refers the innate endowment as Universal Grammar.(普遍语法)

the interactionist 互动主义论:views that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and environment in which he grows.(语言的发展是儿童身上的人类特征和儿童发展所处的环境之间复杂的互动产物)

2.儿童语言发展中的认知因素cognitive development in child language development.

environment and the critical period hypothesis(语言环境与关键期假说)

Eric Lenneberg, a biologist, argued that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time——a specific and limited time period for language acquisition——which is referred to as the Critical Period Hypothesis(CPH).(生物学家艾瑞克·列里伯格认为,LAD和其他生理功能一样,要在适当的时间受到刺激才能成功运作,这一时间对于语言习得而言是一段特定的、有期限的时间,被称之为关键期假说)

关键期假说的两个版本:强势说认为儿童必须在青春期(puberty)之前习得第一语言,否则他们在以后的语言环境中再也无法学会语言;而弱势说则认为青春期之后学习语言更难、更不完整。

in child language development儿童语言发展的阶段(中文p198)

development音位的发展

development词汇

development语法

development语用

development非典型发展

The atypical development includes hearing impairment(听力损伤),mental retardation(智力障碍), autism(自闭症), stuttering(口吃), aphasia(失语症), dyslexia(阅读障碍) and dysgraphia(书写障碍).

第十一章 Second Language Acquisition第二语言习得:refers to the systematic study of how one person acquire a second language subsequent to his native language.(指一个人在习得母语后是如何习得第二语言进行系统研究)

区分:target language; second language(生活交流);foreign language(英语在课堂上学习的)

中介语:is defined as an abstract system of learners’target language system and it has been widely used to refer to the linguistic expressions learners produce, especially the wrong or not idiomatic ones学习者目的语系统的抽象系统,现在广泛被用来指代学习者所创造的语言表达,尤指错误或不地道的表达)

2.(language)transfer(迁移):学习者将之前的语言信息(主要是其母语)或本族语的某些表层结构照搬到第二语言的语境中去。

analysis 对比分析:it compares the forms and meanings across these two languages to locate the mismatches or differences so that people can predict the possible learning difficulty learners may encounter.(对比两种语言的形式与意义,以便找出不匹配或不相同的地方,这样人们可以预测学习者的难点)

analysis错误分析:错误分析首先要独立、客观的描写学习者的中介语,即学习者对目的语的理解和目的语本身,然后对比进行比较找出不匹配之处。(在努力分类学习者的错误,并找出避免或修正错误的方法)

——目前找出两种错误

①interlingual errors(语际错误)——不同层次跨语言干扰,如音位干扰,词汇干扰等;

②intralingual errors(语内错误)——主要是由目的语的错误或部分学习造成的,与本族语无关(包括学习策略错误,交际策略错误等)

A: overgeneralization过度概括如由advise sb to do sth 概括出suggest sb to do sth

B:cross-association 互相联想引起的错误. 主要指英语中一些意思相近的词,在拼写或发音上也相似;或形式相似的句子等整合。

中介语:proposed by S. Pit Corder(柯德) and Larry Selinker(莱瑞·塞林克), it was established as learners’ independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from one extreme of his native language to the other of the second language.(它既不是本族语,又不是第二语言,而是出于本族语和目的语之间的连续体或近似体)

中介语的三大特征:系统性(systematicity),渗透性(permeability)和语言石化(fossilization)

Fossilization is defined as (in second or foreign language teaching) a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. 不正确的语言特征成为人们说或写一门语言的方式中不可改变的一部分

6.母语在第二语言学习中的作用

三个因素在第二语言学习中起着决定作用①学习者的心理;②对本族语和目的语之间距离的感知;③对目的语的现实知识。

language learning models and input hypothesis第二语言模式与输入假说

input hypothesis输入假说(Krashen克拉森)——有两种独立的方式和途径

①acquisition习得:

②learning学得:

differences个体差异

①语言学习能力language aptitude: the natural ability for learning a second language.

②motivation动机:是语言能力作用于学习者的认知机制,被定义为学习者的态度和情感状态或学习动力的动机,对学习者学习第二语言的努力程度有着深刻的影响——instrumental motivation 工具型动机;intergrative motivation融入型动机;resultative motivation因果型动机;Intrinsic motivation内部动机

③learning strategies 学习策略:学习者有意识的、已目的为导向、以解决问题为基础,为提高学习效率所做是努力。——

cognitive strategies认知策略;

metacognitive strategies元认知策略;

affect/social strategies情感/社会策略

④age of acquisition习得的年龄

⑤personality 个性问题

language acquisition and its pedagogical implications第二语言习得及其对教学的启示

第十二章language and brain 语言与大脑(略)

专八2003-人文知识真题及答案精编版

2003年英语专八人文知识真题 31. is not a nationally observed holiday of America. [A] Christmas [B] Easter Sunday [C] Thanksgiving Day [D] Independence Day 32. The university of Dublin was not founded until . [A] the 19th century [B] the 18th century [C] the 17th century [D] the 16th century 33. The introduced old-age pensions in New Zealand in 1898. [A] Labor Party [B] Democratic Party [C] Liberal Party [D] Conservative Party 34. Irish culture experienced a golden age from to . [A] the eighth century, the eleventh century [B] the seventh century, the ninth century [C] the sixth century, the eighth century [D] the ?fth century, the seventh century 35. Which of the following writings is not the work by Charles Dickens? [A] A Tale of Two Cities [B] Hard Times [C] Oliver Twist [D] Sons and Lovers 36. is a dramatist who holds the central position in American drama the modernistic period. [A] Sinclair Lewis [B] Eugene O'Neill [C] Arthur Miller [D] Tennessee Williams 37. is often acclaimed literary spokesman of the Jazz Age. [A] Ernest Hemingway [B] F. Scott Fitzgerald [C] William Faulkner [D] Ezra Pound 38. is a relationship in which a word of a certain class determines the form of others in terms of certain categories. [A] Concord [B] Immediate constituent [C] Syntagmatic relations [D] Government 39. studies the sound systems in a certain language. [A] Phonetics [B] Phonology [C] Semantics [D] Pragmatics 40. A linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers is called . [A] situational dialect [B] slang [C] linguistic taboo [D] bilingualism 2004年英语专八人文知识真题 31. The following are products imported by Australia from China EXCEPT . [A] food [B] textiles [C] steel products [D] electronics 32. Scots regard as the most important festival in a year. [A] Near Year's Day [B] Christmas Day [C] New Year's Eve [D] Easter 33. The republican movement has been gathering momentum in Australia since became Prime Minister in 1992. [A] John Howard [B] Bob Hawke [C] Malcolm Fraser [D] Paul Keating 34. was known for his famous speech "I have a dream". [A] John F. Kennedy [B] Martin Luther King, Jr [C] Abraham Lincoln [D] Thomas Jefferson 35. Of all the 18th century novelists, ______ was the first to set out, both in theory and practice, to write specifically a "comic epic in prose", and the first to give the modern novel its structure and style. [A] Daniel Defoe [B] Samuel Johnson [C] Oliver Goldsmith [D] Henry Feilding 36. Mark Twain, one of the greatest 19th century American writers, is well known for his .

专八翻译及人文知识语言学

TEM-8翻译必备,英语专业的顶起来哦~作者:邱妍 (1)把握大局:grasp the overall situation (2) 摆谱儿:put on airs;keep up appearances(3)白手起家:start from scratc h (4)拜年:pay New Year call (5)班门弄斧:teach one's grand ma to suck eggs (5)保质期:guarantee period(6)报销:apply for reimbursement(7)爆冷门:produce an unexpected answer(8)曝光:make public(9)奔小康:strive for a relatively comforta ble life(10)闭门羹:given cold-shoulder(11)比上不足,比下有余:fall short of the best,but be better than the best(12)逼上梁山:be driven to drastic alternatives(13)变相涨价:dis guised inflation(14)边远贫困地区:outlying poverty-stricken areas(15)边缘知识人:Marginal intellectuals(16)表面文章:Lip service;surface formality(17) 博导:Ph.D supervisor(18)补 发拖欠的养脑筋:Clear up pension payments in arrears(19)不眠之夜:white night(20)菜鸟:green hand(21)产品科技含量techn oligical element of a product(22)长江三角洲:Yangtze River de lta(23)长江中下游:the middle and lower reaches of Changjian g River(24)超前消费:pre-mature consumption(25)城镇居民最低 生活保障:a minimum standard of living for residents(26)城镇职工医疗保险制度:the system of medical insurance for urban w orkers(27)重复建设:buiding redundant project;duplication of similar projects(28)充值卡:rechargeable card(29)春运:pas senger transport around the Chinese lunar new year(30)打破僵局:break the deadlock/stalemate(31)电脑盲:computer illiter ate(32)点球:penalty kick(33)电视会议:video conference(34)电视直销:TV home shopping(35)定向培训:training for specifi c posts(36)动感电影:multidimensional movie(37)豆腐渣工程:jerry-built projects(38)对...毫无顾忌:make no bones abou t(39)夺冠:take the crown(40)政治多元化:political pluralis m(41)服务行业:catering industry(42)复合型人才:inter-disci plinary talent(43)岗位培训:on-the-job training(44)高等教育自学考试:self-study higher education examination(45)高新技术产业开发区:high and new technological industrial develop ment zone(46)各大菜系:major styles of cooking(47)各行各 业:every walk of life(48)功夫不负有心人:Everything comes t o him who waits(49)各尽其能:let each person do his best(50)公益活动:public welfare activities(51)工薪阶层:state emplo yee;salaried person(52)过犹不及:going too far ia as bad as

人教版八年级上册语文课内古诗知识点归纳汇总

人教版八年级上册语文课内古诗知识点归纳汇总 导读:一、杜甫诗三首 1、《望岳》这首诗是杜甫的早期作品。诗中热情地赞美了泰山高大雄伟的气势和神奇秀丽的景色,也透露了诗人早年的远大抱负,历来被誉为歌咏泰山的名篇。 全诗可分两大层,都是切着“望”字写的。 前两联为第一大层,着力写泰山的整体形象。“岱宗夫如何?齐鲁青未了”写远望所见。泰山位于古代齐、鲁两国之间,其北为齐,其南为鲁,齐、鲁之“青”,是泰山掩映的结果。“未了”,绵绵不尽之意。这里,诗人想说的是,你想知道泰山是个什么样子吗?请看,它那苍翠的山色掩映着辽阔无边的齐鲁大平原。这是借齐鲁两地来烘托泰山那拔地而起、参天耸立的形象。“造化钟神秀,阴阳割昏晓”,这是近望所见。上句写泰山的秀美,用的是虚笔。为什么要用虚笔?因为泰山的秀美实在是一言难尽,不如只写造物主对泰山情有独钟,这是诗人的强烈感受,是泰山的秀美在诗人心灵上的折光反映。下句写泰山的高大,这是实写。“阴阳”分指山的南、北两面,山南先得日光,故易晓;山北日光不到,在晓犹昏。“割”字炼得极好,从山的北面来看,那照临下土的阳光就像被一把硕大无朋的刀切断了一样,突出了泰山遮天蔽日的形象。 后两联为第二大层,也写了泰山景物,但着力表现的是诗人的感受。“荡胸生曾云,决眦入归鸟”,写的是实景,乃细望所见。泰山极高,白日里可以望见山腰间的团团云气,层出不穷;又极幽深,黄

昏时可以望见归巢的鸟儿渐渐隐入山谷之中。诗人抓住这两个景物细节表达了心情的激荡和眼界的空阔,然后顺理成章地写出了他心底的愿望:“会当凌绝顶,一览众山小。”这是化用孔子的名言:“登泰山而小天下”。但用在这里却有深刻的含义:它不止是诗人要攀登泰山极顶的誓言,也是诗人要攀登人生顶峰的誓言。 2、《春望》这首诗是一首五言律诗,诗人写于安史之乱期间,它集中地表达了诗人忧国伤时、念家悲己的感情,感人至深。 “国破山河在,城春草木深。”这是写望中所见:国都在沦陷后已经变得残破不堪,然而山河依旧是原来那个样子;春天降临到长安城,然而眼前却是乱草丛生。如此强烈的反差怎能不使人怵目惊心呢!这一联虽是写景,却也痛切地传达了诗人忧国伤时的感情。 “感时花溅泪,恨别鸟惊心。”此联向来有两种解释:一种是以诗人为“感”“恨”的主体。花、鸟在春景中是最有代表性的事物,能使人赏心悦耳,但诗人此刻面对残破的都城,不知官军何时才能平定叛乱,不知妻儿在兵荒马乱中如何度日种种念头困扰着他,他怎能不见花而落泪,闻鸟而惊心呢?另一种以花、鸟为“感”“恨”的主体。这自然是诗人移情于物的结果。这两种解释实质上并无区别,都表达了感时伤世的感情。本联以“感时”一语承上,以“恨别”一语启下,章法分明。 “烽火连三月,家书抵万金。”意思是自开春以来战火愈烧愈炽,因而跟家人难通音信。据史载,安禄山发动叛乱的初期,自京畿、坊至于岐、陇都曾遭到叛军的侵扰,百姓惨遭杀戮。诗人家在于州(今

专八人文知识总结

英国文学 一、古英语时期的英国文学(499-1066) 1、贝奥武夫 2、阿尔弗雷德大帝:英国散文之父 二、中古英语时期的英国文学 1、allegory体非常盛行 2、Romance开始上升到一定的高度 3、高文爵士和绿衣骑士 4、Willian Langlaud 《农夫皮尔斯的幻象》 5、乔叟坎特伯雷故事集(英雄双韵体) 6、托马斯.马洛礼《亚瑟王之死》 三、文艺复兴时期的英国文学(伊丽莎白时代)(14-16世纪) 1、托马斯.莫尔《乌托邦》 2、Thomas Wyatt 和Henry Howard引入sonnet 3、Philips Sidney 《The defense of Poesie》 《阿卡迪亚》描述田园生活;现代长篇小说的先驱 4、斯宾塞《仙后》诗人中的诗人;斯宾塞体诗节; 5、莎士比亚: 长篇叙事诗:《维纳斯和阿多尼斯》、《露克丝受辱记》 四大悲剧:哈姆雷特、李尔王、奥赛罗、麦克白 7、本.琼森风俗喜剧(comedy of manners)《人性互异》 8、约翰.多恩“玄学派”诗歌创始人 9、George Herbert 玄学派诗圣

10、弗朗西斯.培根现代科学和唯物主义哲学创始人之一 《Essays》英国发展史上的里程碑 《学术的推进》和《新工具》 四、启蒙时期(18世纪) 1、约翰、弥尔顿:《失乐园》、《为英国人民争辩》 2、约翰、班扬:《天路历程》religious allegory 3、约翰、德莱顿:英国新古典主义的杰出代表、桂冠诗人; 《论戏剧诗》 4、亚历山大.蒲柏:英国新古典主义诗歌的重要代表;英雄双韵体的使用达到登峰造极的使用;《田园组诗》是其最早田园诗歌代表作 5、托马斯、格雷:感伤主义中墓园诗派的代表人物《墓园挽歌》 6、威廉、布莱克:天真之歌、经验之歌; 7、罗伯特、彭斯:苏格兰最杰出的农民诗人; 8、Richard Steel和Joseph Addison合作创办《The tatler》和《the spectator》 9、Samuel defoe 英国现实主义小说的奠基人之一;《鲁滨逊漂流记》;《铲除非国教徒的捷径》,仪表达自己的不满; 10、Jonathan Swift 《一个小小的建议》;《格列佛游记》;《桶的故事》; 11、Samuel Richardson 英国现代小说的创始人;帕米拉;克拉丽莎;查尔斯.格蓝迪森爵士的历史; 12、Henry Fielding 英国现实主义小说理论的奠基人;《约瑟夫。安德鲁》;《汤姆.琼斯》,英国现实主义小说的最高成就; 13、劳伦斯、斯特恩:感伤主义小说的杰出代表,《项狄传》,第一部开创了意识流小说的先驱之作品;《感伤的旅行》 14、Oliver Goldsmith:《好心人》;《屈伸求爱》;《威客菲尔德牧师传》,感伤主义文学; 诗歌《荒村》从新古典主义向浪漫主义过渡的标志; 散文作品《世界公民》; 15、谢里丹:《造谣学校》,莎士比亚之后最杰出的英国喜剧,是整个英国史上最优秀的作品之一;达到英国“风俗喜剧”之巅; 五、维多利亚时期的英国文学(19世纪)

专八语言学必背

专八语言学必背 1. What is Language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 2. What is Linguistics(语言学)?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. 3.Some Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics 3.1 Speech and Writing One general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have. 3.2 Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性) A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior. 3.3 Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) Studies The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. 3.4 Langue(语言) and Parole(言语) This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔)early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue. 3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行为) Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声). 4.The Scope of Linguistics General linguistics is the study of language as a whole. Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages. Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words. Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences. Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language. Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages. Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind. Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes. Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man. Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings. Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics. Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer II. Phonetics(语音学) 1. scope of phonetics Speech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics: Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学)we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate(协调)in the process. Auditory phonetics (听觉语音学)we may look into the impression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated(调节)by the ear, the auditory nerve(神经)and the brain. Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学)we study the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted(传送)between mouth and ear.

语文版八年级上语文知识点的归纳

语文知识点梳理 1、表达方式:记叙、描写、抒情、说明、议论 2、记叙文六要素:时间、地点、人物、事情的起因、经过、结果 3、记叙顺序(叙述方式):顺叙、倒叙、插叙 4、描写角度:正面描写、侧面描写 5、描写人物的方法:语言、动作、神态、心理、外貌 6、描写景物的角度(感觉角度):视觉、听觉、味觉、触觉 7、描写景物的方法:动静结合写静、概括与具体相结合、由远到近(或由近到远) 8、表现手法:象征、对比、烘托、设置悬念、前后呼应、欲扬先抑、托物言志、借物抒情、 联想、想象、衬托(正衬、反衬) 9、小说三要素:人物、情节、环境 10、人物中主人公的判定:文章主题由谁体现谁就是主人公 11、情节分为:开端、发展、高潮、结局(有时还有:序幕、尾声) 12、环境描写分为:自然环境、社会环境 环境描写的作用:A以景衬情;B渲染气氛;C为全文定下···的感情基调;D为下文做铺垫;E推动情节发展 13、修辞手法(2个字):比喻、拟人、夸张、排比、对偶、引用、设问、反问、反复、互 文、对比、借代、反语 修辞的判定及作用 方法: A、比喻:生动形象 B、拟人:赋予某物以人的思想感情把它人格化,生动地表现······ C、排比:增强语言的气势,层层递进 D、反问:强调突出······增强语言的气势 E、设问:设置悬念,吸引读者思考及阅读的兴趣 F、夸张、对比、反复:突出强调······ G、引用:(诗句)诗情画意;(神话传说)增添文章的文学性、神秘性、人文性,激起阅读 的兴趣 14、说明方法(3个字):打比方、作比较、列数字、举例子、下定义、作诠释、分类别、 列图表、引资料 说明方法的标志性词语 A、打比方:像、好像、仿佛······(相当于比喻) B、作比较:比、相当于、有两种事物、······ C、列数字:约数、确数、注意表年分的时间数字 D、举例子:比如、例如、如、随便举个例子、······(举例子往往有实实在在的例子) E、下定义:科学的解释,往往专业而全面,是判断句 F、作诠释:解释但可以不全面 G、分类别:分类、分点、首先、其次······第一、第二、······一种···另 一种等 H、引资料:引用诗句、格言,往往有出现引号

人教版八年级语文(上册)全册文言文知识点归纳

人教版八年级语文(上册)全册文言文知识 点归纳 人教版八年级语文全册文言文知识点归纳 通假字: 通假 读音 字义 例句 出处 要——邀 yāo 邀请 便要还家 《桃花源记》 具——俱 jù 详尽 具答之 《桃花源记》 有——又 yòu

用来连接整数和零数 八分有奇 《核舟记》 诎——屈 qū 弯曲 诎右臂支船 《核舟记》 衡——横 héng 横着的 左手倚一衡木 《核舟记》 甫——父 fǔ 男子美称,多附于字之后虞山王毅叔远甫刻 《核舟记》 简——拣 jiǎn 挑选 盖简桃核修狭者为之

《核舟记》 与——举 jǔ 选拔 选贤与能 《大道之行也》 矜——鳏 guān 老而无妻的人 矜、寡、孤、独 《大道之行也》 曾——层 céng 重叠 荡胸生曾云 《望岳》 阙——缺 quē 中断 略无阙处 《三峡》 通假的类型:音近通假;形近通假

词类活用: 类型 例句 出处 解释 意动用法 渔人甚异之 《桃花源记》对……感到诧异 名词作状语 复前行、听妇前致词《桃花源记》 往前、上前 形容词作动词 欲穷其林 《桃花源记》 穷尽,走到头 名词作动词 有仙则名 《陋室铭》 有名气 名词作动词

有龙则灵 《陋室铭》 有灵性 使动用法 无丝竹之乱耳《陋室铭》使……杂乱 使动用法 无案牍之劳形《陋室铭》使……劳累 名词作动词 不蔓不枝 《爱莲说》 长枝蔓、长枝节名词作状语 箬蓬覆之 《核舟记》 用箬蓬 名词作状语 石青糁之 《核舟记》

用石青 名词作动词 中峨冠而多髯者为东坡 《核舟记》 戴着高帽、长满胡须 名词作动词 居右者椎髻仰面 《核舟记》 梳着椎型发髻 名词作形容词 其色墨 《核舟记》 黑的 意动用法 故人不独亲其亲,不独子其子《大道之行也》 以……为亲人、 以……为子女 形容词作名词 使老有所终,壮有所用,幼有所长《大道之行也》 老年人、中年人、幼童

英语专八人文知识考试总结

英语专八人文知识考试总结 1 专八考试人文知识考试内容总结 其中英美文学包括英国文学和美国文学。英国文学主要分为六个时期: 1. Old and Medieval English Literature(中古英国文学)。 2. The Renaissance Period(文艺复兴时期)。 3. The Neoclassical Period(新古典主义时期)。 4. The Romantic Period(维多利亚时期)。 5. The Victorian Period(维多利亚时期)。 6. The Modern Period(现代时期)。 美国文学主要分为四个时期: 1. The Literature Around the Revolution of Independence(独立革命前后的文学)。 2. American Romanticism(美国浪漫主义文学)。 3. American Realism(美国现实主义文学)。 4. American Modernism(美国现代主义文学)。 语言学,考生不光要知道语言的本质还要掌握语音学,音位学,形态学,句法学,语义学和语言学的知识。 关于英语国家概况,英语专业的学生都会开设英美概况这门课程,但是专八考试的中需要考生了解的是英语国家概况,不光包括英国和美国,还有其他一些说英语的地区,包括爱尔兰概况,加拿大概况,澳大利亚概况和新西兰概况。 3专八人文知识:英国地理概况 the english channel: the channel is a narrow sea passage which separates england and france

语言学重点知识点整理

1._Phonetics_ studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc. 2._Phonology_ studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. 3.Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of _words_. It studies the minimal units of meaning — morphemes and word-formation 4.Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct _sentences_ 5.Semantics examines how _meaning_ is encoded in a language. 6._Pragmatics_ is the study of meaning in context. 7._Sociolinguistics_ is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community. 8.In contrast with other linguists, then, _anthropological_ linguists are interested primarily in the history and structure of formerly unwritten languages. 9.Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and _mind_, for example, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition. 10.In a narrow sense, _applied_ linguistics refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching to foreign and second languages. 11. 1. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds. 12.[d] _voiced stops, alveolar_; [θ] _voiceless fricatives, dent al_; 13.[?] _front, open, low, unrounded_; [i:] _front, close, high, unrounded_; 14. 15. 2. Write the word indicated by each transcription. 16.[itɑr] _guitar_ [tuzdei] _Tuesday_ [twuθbr??] _toothbrush_ 17.[?ph?intm?nt] _appointment_ [p??keik] _pancake_ 18. 19. https://www.doczj.com/doc/9f5491553.html,paring [ɡwo?t] and[??ɡ?r], _goat_ and _anger_ are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /g/. Such variants of a phoneme are called _allophones_ of the same phoneme. In this case, they are said to be in _complementary distribution_. 20. 21. 4.Transcribe the following set of words and mark primary and secondary stress with super- and sub-ticks. 22.repeat _[ri’pit]_, repetitive _[ri’petitiv]_, repetition _[?r?p??t???n]_. 23. 24. 5. Please identify the stressed word, and intonation pattern of the following sentences.

八年级上册语文文学常识总结+基础知识

初二语文文学常识总结 1《藤野先生》作者鲁迅,选自他的散文集《朝花夕拾》,鲁迅是我国现代伟大的文学家、思想家、革命家。其日本老师全名是藤野严九郎。本学期我们还学过他的一首散文诗《雪》,选自他的诗歌集《野草》。 2《雷电颂》选历史剧《屈原》,作者郭沫若,我国著名文学家、历史学家3《海燕》选自《高尔基全集》,作者高尔基,前苏联作家,代表作品有长篇小说《母亲》,自传体三部曲《童年》《在人间》《我的大学》和剧本《小市民》等。 4《五柳先生传》选自《陶渊明集》,作者陶渊明,东晋著名诗人。 5《马说》选自《韩愈文集》,作者韩愈,唐朝著名文学家。 6《送东阳马生序》选自《宋学士文集》,作者宋濂,明初文学家。 7《酬乐天扬州初逢席上见赠》选自《刘禹锡集》,作者刘禹锡,唐朝诗人哲学家,著有《刘宾客集》。 8《赤壁》选自《樊川诗集》,作者杜牧,唐朝著名诗人,和李商隐并称“小李杜”。 9《过零丁洋》选自《文山先生全集》,作者文天祥,南宋著名爱国诗人。 10《水调歌头》选自《东坡乐府集》,作者苏轼,号东坡居士,北宋著名的文学家、政治家。 11《山坡羊*潼关怀古》选自《全元散曲》,作者张养浩,元代散曲作家。 12《小石潭记》选自《柳河东集》,作者柳宗元,字子厚,唐代文学家,“唐宋八大家”之一。 13《岳阳楼记》选自《范文正公集》,作者范仲淹,字希文,北宋政治家、

文学家。 14《醉翁亭记》选自《欧阳修散文选集》,作者欧阳修,字永叔,自号醉翁,晚年又号六一居士。北宋文学家。 15《满井游记》选自《袁中郎集笺校》。作者袁宏道,字中郎,号石公,明代文学家。与其兄袁宗道,弟袁中道被称为“公安三袁”。 16《行路难》选自《李太白全集》。作者李白字太白,号青莲居士,唐朝大诗人。 17《茅屋为秋风所破歌》选自《杜诗详注》。作者杜甫字子美,自号“少陵野老”,“杜陵布衣”,唐代大诗人。 18《白雪送武判官归京》选自《岑参校注》。作者岑参唐代著名的边塞诗人。 19《已亥杂诗》选自《龚自珍全集》,作者龚自珍近代思想家、文学家,是近代启蒙思想的先驱

八年级文言文归纳

八年级(上)全册文言文知识归纳(一)通假字: 通假的类型:(1)音近通假;(2)形近通假 (二)词类活用:

词类活用的类型:名词作动词、名词作状语、形容词作名词、形容词作动词、使动用法、意动用法。 (三)一词多义:

(四)古今异义

古今异义的类型:词义缩小、词义扩大、词义转移、色彩变化、词义消失。 (五)文言句式 1、判断句: (1)南阳刘子骥,高尚士也。 (2)斯是陋室,惟吾德馨。 (3)予谓菊,花之隐逸者也;牡丹,花之富贵者也;莲,花之君子者也。(4)尝贻余核舟一,盖大苏泛赤壁云。 (5)大道之行也,天下为公。 (6)庭下如积水空明,水中藻、荇交横,盖竹柏影也。 (7)浙江之潮,天下之伟观也。 2、倒装句: (1)孔子云:何陋之有?(宾语前置) (2)菊之爱,陶后鲜有闻。莲之爱,同予者何人?牡丹之爱,宜乎众矣。(宾语前置) (3)无丝竹之乱耳,无案牍之劳形。(定语后置) (4)其两膝相比者,各隐卷底衣褶中。(定语后置) (5)盖简桃核修狭者为之。(定语后置) (6)但少闲人如吾两人者耳。(定语后置) (7)吴儿善泅者数百。(定语后置) (8)细若蚊足,钩画了了。(状语后置) (9)有时朝发白帝,暮到江陵。(状语后置) (10)怀民亦未寝,相与步于中庭。(状语后置) (11)并有乘骑弄旗标枪舞刀于水面者。(状语后置) (12)出没于鲸波万仞中。(状语后置) 文言句式的类型:判断句、被动句、否定句、倒装句(主谓倒置、宾语前置、定语后置、状语后置)、省略句。

一、解题:陋室,简陋的屋子。 铭,古代刻在器物上用来警戒自己或者称述功德的文字,后来成为一种文体。这种文体一般是用韵的。 二、作者简介 刘禹锡(772~842),唐代诗人、哲学家,字梦得。洛阳(今属河南省)人。有《刘宾客集》,这篇铭文是他在和州刺史任上写的。 课前练兵 给下列划线的字注音: 陋( ) 铭( ) 德馨( ) 鸿儒( ) 案牍( ) 调素琴( ) ②读出节奏。(四字句的节奏一般是二二,五字句的节奏多为二一二,上下句节奏一致,韵脚要读出延长音。) 诵读欣赏 欣赏朗诵,在文中划出节奏。 山不在高,有仙则名。 水不在深,有龙则灵。 斯是陋室,唯吾德馨。 苔痕上街绿,草色入帘青。 谈笑有鸿儒,往来无白丁。 可以调素琴,阅金经。 无丝竹之乱耳,无案牍之劳形。 南阳诸葛庐,西蜀子云亭。 孔子云:“何陋之有?” 我也来读读: 要求:①读准字音、停顿。 三、结合注释理解文意 四、讨论、交流以下问题: 1、文中哪句话点明了文章的主旨? :斯是陋室,惟吾德馨。 2、本文分为几层?如何划分? 答:可分为三层: 第一层(1---3句):点明全文主旨。 第二层(4---7句):写陋室环境和主人的生活情景。 第三层(8---9句):总结全文,说明陋室不陋。 3、作者身居陋室,为什么会觉得“陋室不陋”?你觉得作者追求的是怎样的一种生活情趣?答:作者身居陋室,但是陋室因主人的“德馨”而布满香气,也就不感到它简陋发、了。作者并用自然环境的优美、往来人物的不俗、主人生活情趣的高雅等来烘托室不陋。 追求的是一种保持高尚节操、安贫乐道的生作者活情趣。追求的是一种保持高尚节操、安贫乐道的生作者活情趣。 4、在物质生活日益丰富的今天,你如何看待作者的这种情操和志趣?(各抒己见) 练一练 1、比较下列各组句子中加点字的意思。

(完整版)英语专八语言学测试题

英语专八人文语言学测试题 1. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language? A language is a system B language is symbolic C Animal also have language D language is arbitrary 2. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is good proof that human loanguage is __________. A arbitrary B non-arbitrary C logical D non-productive -ate” in the word “affectionate”? 3. Which of the foloowing terms best describes the “ A derivational morpheme B infectional morpheme C free morpheme D prefix 4. Which of the foloowing terms best describes the pair of words kill and dill? A minimal pair B phonemic contrast C closed class words D bound morphemes 5. What is the basic lexical relation between piece and peace? A synonymy B antonymy C homonymy D polysemy 6. /p/ is different from /b/ in ______. A the manner of articulation B the shape of the lips C the vibration of the vocal cords D the place of articulation 7. Of all the speech organs, the ____ is / are the most flexible. A mouth B lips C tongue D vocal cords 8. The phonological features of the consonant /t/ are ______. A voiced stop B voiceless stop C voiced fricative D voiceless fricative 9. The branch of linguistics that studies show context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called ________. A semantics B pragmatics C sociaolinguistics D psycholinguistics 10. The utterance “We’ve already eaten ten tons.” Obviously violates the maxim of ______. A quality B quantity C relation D manner 11. All the back vowels in English are pronounced with rounded-lips, i.e. rounded, except _____. A // 12. The semantic relationship between the two sentences “Mary’s son is an engineer.” An . has a son.” is _______ A entailment B presupposition C synonymy D inconsistency 13. Which of the following sentences is a commissive? A The eqarth is round. B I now prinounce you husband and wife. C I’m really sorry! D I’ll be here tomorrow 14. Semantic feature analysis attempts to account for the _____ of a word according to the presence or abence of a specific semantic feature in the word. A conceptual meaning B social meaning C connotative meaning D affective meaning 15. ____ act is the extra meaning of the utterance produced on the basis of its literal meaning. A Speech B Locutionary C Illocutionary D Perlocutionary 16. _____is a group of people using a given language or dialect. They use the same kind of language or dialect which is highly strtified in terms of social division. A Speech community B Individual dialect C Regional dialect D Social dialect 17. The situation where two very different varieties of the same language are used side by side for two different sets of functions is termed as _______.

相关主题
文本预览
相关文档 最新文档