中考英语阅读理解知识点总结和题型总结经典1
一、初三英语阅读理解（含答案详细解析）
1．阅读理解
Scrapbooking is a hobby. It was popular for more than 500 years. People called it a friendship book. They kept pictures, letters, poems and other things they wanted to remember.
Today people collect many things in scrapbooks. Some people have funny collections, like the world's most awkward ideas or pictures of the world's most ugly dogs. Other people may collect stories about the bad weather.
It is easy to get started. First, you should decide what you want to collect. Start with just one idea. Next, you will need a book with background paper, scissors and glue. You need the scissors to cut out the pictures or stories. You need the glue to stick them to the background paper.
You can be busy and collect many things or lazy and collect few things. It'll be lots of fun to make your scrapbook and you can share it with your friends.
（1）How long was scrapbooking popular?
A. less than 500 years
B. 500 years
C. over 500 years
D. more than 550 years （2）What is the Chinese meaning of the underlined word "awkward"?
A. 聪明的
B. 愚蠢的
C. 美妙的
D. 残疾的（3）How many items （物品） are mentioned to make a scrapbook?
A. One.
B. Two.
C. Three.
D. Four.
（4）To make a scrapbook, what do you need first?
A. Glue.
B. Scissors.
C. A book.
D. An idea.
（5）What's the best title of the passage?
A. Scrapbooking
B. The History of Scrapbooking
C. What Is a Scrapbook?
D. How to make a Scrapbook
【答案】（1）C
（2）B
（3）C
（4）D
（5）A
【解析】【分析】本文介绍了剪粘书的通途，可以保存照片、信件、诗歌和其他他们想记住的东西。
（1）细节题。根 It was popular for more than 500 years可知它流行了500多年，故选C。（2）词义猜测题。根据pictures of the world's most ugly dogs. Other people may collect stories about the bad weather 世界上最丑陋的狗的照片。其他人可能会收集坏天气的故事可知awkward指愚蠢的，故选B。
（3）细节题。根据you will need a book with background paper, scissors and glue 你需要一本背景纸、剪刀和胶水的书可知3种物品被提到制作剪贴簿，故选C。
（4）细节题。根据 First, you should decide what you want to collect. 可知要制作剪贴簿，你首先需要，故选D。
（5）主旨题。根据本文介绍了剪粘书的通途，可知 Scrapbooking适合做标题，故选A。【点评】考查阅读理解。本文涉及细节题，词义猜测题和主旨题四种常考题型，细节题要注意从文中寻找答案，词义猜测题需要根据上下文提炼相关信息锁定词意，主旨题需要通读全文，了解大意之后找出中心思想。
2．根据短文内容出选择正确答案。
B
Do you want to live a happier, less stressful life? Try laughing for no reason at all. That's how thousands of people start their day at Laughter （笑声）Clubs around the world and many doctors now think that having a good laugh might be one of the best ways to stay healthy.
The first Laughter Club was started in Mumbai, India, in 1995 by Dr. Madan Kataria. "Young children laugh about 300 times a day. Adults laugh between 7 and 15 times a day," says Dr. Kataria. "Everyone is naturally good at laughing-it's the universal language. We want people to feel happy with their lives." There are now more than 500 Laughter Clubs in India and over l,300 in the world.
Many doctors are also interested in the effects （效果） of laughter on our health. According to a 5-year study at the UCLA School of Medicine in California, with laughing there is less stress in the body. Laughter improves our health against illness by about 40%.
So what happens at a Laughter Club? I went along to my nearest club in South London to find out. I was quite nervous at the beginning of the class, to be honest, I wasn't interested in laughing with a group of strangers, and I was worried about looking stupid. Our laughter teacher told us to clap our hands and say “ho ho ho, ha ha ha.” while looking at each other. However, our bodies can't tell the difference between real laughter and unreal laughter, so they still produce the same healthy effects.
Surprisingly, it worked! After ten minutes everybody in the room was laughing for real and some people just couldn't stop! At the end of the class I was surprised by how relaxed-and comfortable I felt. So if you're under stress, then start laughing. You might be very pleased with the results!
（1）The first Laughter Club was started in __________.
A. India
B. America
C. Britain
D. China
（2）How many Laughter Clubs are there in the world today?
A. Over 300.
B. Over 500.
C. Over 800.
D. Over l,300. （3）How did the writer feel at the beginning of the class?
A. Surprised.
B. Pleased
C. Nervous.
D. Tired.
（4）When did the people in the club begin to laugh for real?
A. After ten minutes.
B. After ten hours.
C. After ten seconds.
D. After ten days.（5）The article mainly tells us __________.
A. young children laugh much more often than adults in a day
B. laughing is one of the best ways to stay healthy
C. many-doctors are also interested in the effects of laughter on our health
D. real laughter and unreal laughter are both good for health
【答案】（1）A
（2）D
（3）C
（4）A
（5）B
【解析】【分析】你想过一个快乐的,没有压力的生活?尝试毫无理由的大笑？全世界每天有成千上万的人在笑声俱乐部开始他们的一天。医生认为开怀大笑是最好的保健方式。
（1）细节理解。根据第二段The first Laughter Club was started in Mumbai, India, in 1995 by Dr. Madan Kataria. 可知在印度，故选A。
（2）细节理解。根据第二段There are now more than 500 Laughter Clubs in India and over l,300 in the world. 可知选D。
（3）细节理解。根据第四段 I was quite nervous at the beginning of the class可知作者开始紧张。故选C。
（4）细节理解。根据最后一段Surprisingly, it worked! After ten minutes everybody in the room was laughing for real and some people just couldn't stop! 可知10分钟后房间里的人都是在真笑。故选A。
（5）主旨大意。本文讲笑声俱乐部给人们的生活带来的变化，通过大笑来减少压力，过更快乐更健康的生活。故选B。
【点评】阅读理解考查对篇章的把握和对细节的识别能力，答题时注意紧扣问题中的关键词，在文章中寻找答案。
3．根据短文内容选择正确答案。
A
The 2014 FI FA World Cup, the twentieth World Cup football match, was
held in Brazil from June 12th, 2014 to July 13th, 2014. Thirty-two teams
from different countries brought us sixty-four wonderful games during the
World Cup. This is the second time the World Cup is held in this country
and the fifth in South America. Thousands of football fans watched the
games.
A Bite of China（舌尖上的中国）, a mouth-watering documentary TV
program featuring delicious Chinese food, has interested a large number of
people. The program has become very popular since it was shown on TV.
The documentary provides not only Chinese delicious food but also the
relationships between people and food. “We made this documentary with
our respect and love for food. I hope it will help people learn more about
Chinese food as well as Chinese culture.” said the director Mr. Chen.
Lu Jialei, a school girl from Hangzhou, China, won the championship of the
first Chinese Character Dictation Contest, which made her become famous
overnight. Lu is a hard-working girl and always comes top at school. “I like
reading and I’m crazy about learning Chinese characters. I enjoy the contest
and hope more and more people become interested in learning Chinese
characters.” said Lu Jialei after winning the contest.
A. About a week.
B. About two weeks
C. About a month.
D. About two months.（2）Which is NOT true according to the articles?
A. Lu Jialei always gets good grades at school.
B. The World Cup has been held in South America twice.
C. Many people like watching the TV program A Bite of China.
D. Lu Jialei hopes more people ca n take much interest in Chinese characters.
（3）Where may the articles probably come from?
A. A story book.
B. A science report.
C. A sports magazine.
D. The Internet.
【答案】（1）C
（2）B
（3）D
【解析】【分析】这篇短文给我们介绍了三段不同内容的短文。第一段是关于今年夏天将在巴西举行的足球世界杯；第二段是关于《舌尖上的中国》这个电视节目；第三段是关于第一届汉字听写大赛的冠军卢佳磊。
（1）细节理解题。根据短文的第一段中the twentieth World Cup football match, will be held in Brazil from June 12th, 2014 to July 13th, 2014.可知，第20届世界杯足球赛将于2014年6月12号到7月13号在巴西举行，时间是持续一个月。故选C。
（2）推理判断题。根据Lu is a hard-working girl and always comes top at school.可知A的说法是对的；根据 A Bite of China（舌尖上的中国）, a mouth-watering documentary TV program featuring delicious Chinese food, has interested a large number of people.可知C的说法也符合文意；根据enjoy the contest and hope more and more people become interested in learning Chinese characters可知D也是符合文意的；根据This is the second time the World Cup is held in this country and the fifth in South America.可知，这是世界杯足球赛第五次在南
美洲国家举行，故B不对。选B。
（3）主旨大意题。这篇短文中给我们介绍了三个不同的内容，第一段是关于今年的世界杯足球比赛将在巴西举行；第二个是关于《舌尖上的中国》这个节目；第三个是关于汉字听写大赛的冠军卢佳磊。这样的一篇短文应该来源于网上。故选D。
【点评】阅读理解考查对篇章的把握和对细节的识别能力，答题时注意紧扣问题中的关键词，在文章中寻找答案。
4．阅读理解
Great changes have taken place in family life because of science and industry（工业）. In the past, when most Americans lived on farms, the typical family had many children. In a farm family, parents and their children often lived with grandparents. Usually, uncles and aunts lived nearby. But when industry became more important than agriculture in American life, families became smaller because industry requires workers who are ready and able to move off the land and move again whenever necessary. And large families cannot move from place to place as smaller families. So, at present people tend to have smaller families.
In the future, because of industrialization, a typical family will be required to move even more often than now, so families will be even smaller. The typical family may remain childless and consist only of a man and a woman. A small number of families may take raising children as their chief work. At the same time they may also raise other people's children, leaving those families free to move from job to job.
（1）Which of the following topics is discussed in the passage?
A. The development of science and industry in America.
B. The influence of science and industry on American families.
C. Harmful effect of industrialization.
D. Social problems resulting from the highly-developed science and industry in America.
（2）What kinds of families are described in the passage?
A. Families of the past and the present.
B. Families of the present and the future.
C. Families of the past and the future.
D. Families of the past, the present and the future.（3）What is one of the reasons that families are getting smaller in America?
A. Children tend to leave their parents and grandparents when they grow up.
B. People stop caring for children.
C. The need for workers who are able to move at any time has been increasing.
D. Both old and young people prefer to live by themselves.
（4）What can you infer from the passage?
A. Science and industry have caused thousands of families to split（破裂）.
B. Children do not live with their parents or grandparents.
C. Large families can hardly survive in modern society.
D. Americans are very choosy about their jobs.
【答案】（1）B
（2）D
（3）C
（4）C
【解析】【分析】文章大意：由于工业的发展，家庭也受到了影响，原来的家庭孩子多，而现在的家庭孩子少，由于工业的发展家庭会总是搬动，有的家庭只有一个孩子或者没有孩子。
（1）细节理解题，根据Great changes have taken place in family life because of science and industry（工业）.可知家庭受到了科学和工业发展的影响，故答案是B。（2）细节理解题，根据文章内容可知，短文涉及到了过去的家庭，现在的家庭和将来的家庭，故答案是D。
（3）细节理解题，根据In the future, because of industrialization, a typical family will be required to move even more often than now, so families will be even smaller. 可知对于工人们能够随时搬动的需求，所以家庭变得原来越小，故答案是C。
（4）逻辑推理题，根据文章内容可知，工人们可能会随时要搬家，大的家庭就没有这样的便捷，所以大家庭就不适于生存在现代的社会，故答案是C。
【点评】考查阅读理解。本文涉及细节理解题和逻辑推理题。细节理解题可以直接从文中寻找答案；逻辑推理题需要结合具体语境，由已知内容推出未知的可能的事实。
5．阅读理解
When he was small, Hill was a famous bad boy.
At the age of 9, his father married his stepmother. At that time they lived poorly in the countryside while his stepmother was from a wealthy family.
His father introduced Hill to his stepmother as he said, "Dear, I hope you notice in the entire shire this is the worst boy, who has made me have no other way. Maybe before tomorrow morning he will throw a stone at you, or do a bad thing you will never imagine."
To Hill's surprise, his stepmother went up to him with a smile, held up his head and looked at him carefully. She then turned around to tell her husband, "You're wrong. He is not the worst boy in the entire shire, but the cleverest and most creative boy. Only he doesn't find a place to show himself."
His stepmother's words warmed his heart, his eyes full of tears. With this, he started building friendship with his stepmother. And this became the drive of his life, making him create 28 successful golden rules, which helped tens of thousands of ordinary people walk on the road to success.
Before his stepmother came, no one praised him smart, and his father and neighbours considered him as a bad boy. However, his stepmother's words changed his life.
When Hill was 14 years old, his stepmother bought him a used typewriter and said to him, "I believe you will become a writer." Hill accepted his stepmother's gift and expectation, and started writing things to a local newspaper. He understood his stepmother's strong feeling of interest in his family while he saw with his own eyes she had changed his family. Therefore, he would do as well as she expected him to.
The strength from his stepmother made him a rich man and famous writer in the United States and one of the most important persons in the 20th century.
Praise will never be unnecessary, especially for children. A sincere（真诚的）praise may be better than 10, 000 bad words.
（1）What did people think of Hill before the age of nine?
A. Clever.
B. Creative.
C. Unfriendly.
D. Foolish.
（2）Hill started making friends with his stepmother after she .
A. smiled at him
B. looked at him carefully
C. said good words about him
D. said bad words about him
（3）Which of the following is WRONG about Hill?
A. He accepted his stepmother's typewriter.
B. He failed to do as he was expected.
C. He started writing to a local newspaper.
D. He understood his stepmother.
（4）The passage was written mainly to tell us that .
A. children should be praised
B. Hill's father married again
C. Hill's stepmother was kind to him
D. Hill's father was cruel to him
【答案】（1）C
（2）C
（3）B
（4）A
【解析】【分析】文章大意：小时候，希尔是一个坏孩子，当他九岁时，父亲娶了继母，父亲告诉吉姆他是个坏孩子，但是继母说他不会，而是个聪明的孩子，从此他跟继母的关系变的越来越好。在继母的关爱下成为美国著名的作家。
（1）细节理解题，根据When he was small, Hill was a famous bad boy.可知，希尔九岁前是个出了名的坏孩子，故答案是C。
（2）细节理解题，根据His stepmother's words warmed his heart, his eyes full of tears. With this, he started building friendship with his stepmother.可知，在继母说了他的好话后，他开始跟继母交朋友，故答案是C。
（3）正误判断题，根据Therefore, he would do as well as she expected him to.可知他跟继母期盼的做的一样好，因此B的陈述是错误的，故答案是B。
（4）主旨大意题，根据文章内容可知，继母的表扬让他发生了很大的变化，因此可知，孩子们是需要表扬的，故答案是A。
【点评】考查阅读理解。本文涉及细节理解题、正误判断题和主旨大意题。细节理解题可以直接从文中寻找答案；正误判断题同属于细节理解题，需要根据文章内容做出正误判定；主旨题需要通读全文，了解大意之后找出中心思想。
6．阅读理解
Black is at City Art Center
A Trip into a Young Farmer's Mind
Chickens that can talk? Cows that can dance? They are all in Louis Black's comic books（漫画书）.
Louis Black was born on a farm. The quiet young man spent most of his life helping his parents on the farm. When he was nine, he started to draw the animals on the farm. Later, he put them into his comic books in his own funny way. They were enjoyed by his family but never shown to people outside the farm.
The shy farmer's comic books became famous only after he died. He passed on in a fire three years ago, when he was only 35.In order to remember him, his family showed his comic books in the town museum, and people liked them very much. Now the original（原始的）pictures of Louis Black's farm animals can be seen at the City Art Centre for one month.
Come and visit the beautiful world of Louis Black！
（1）At what age did Louis begin to draw the animals on the farm?
A. At9.
B. At 13.
C. At23.
D. At 35.
（2）The underlined part "passed on" is the closest in meaning to " ".
A. sat
B. rose
C. died
D. stood
（3）Which is the RIGHT order of what happened?
a. His books became popular.
b. His family enjoyed his books.
c. He passed on in a fire.
d. He started to draw animals.
e. He was born on a farm.
A. a-b-c-d-e
B. e-b-d-a-c
C. e-d-b-c-a
D. b-d-c-e-a
（4）What is the purpose of the passage?
A. To plan a trip to visit a farm.
B. To tell people about an art show.
C. To attract people to the farm.
D. To share ideas of drawing comic books.
【答案】（1）A
（2）C
（3）C
（4）B
【解析】【分析】主要讲了一个城市艺术节目。
（1）细节题。根据When he was nine, he started to draw the animals on the farm.可知Louis9岁时开始在农场里画动物，故选A。
（2）细节题。根据The shy farmer's comic books became famous only after he died.可知这位腼腆的农民死后，他的漫画书才出名，所以passed on意思是死亡，即died，故选C。（3）细节题。根据第三段第一句Louis Black was born on a farm.可知e是第一个；根据第三段第三句When he was nine, he started to draw the animals on the farm.可知d是第二个；根据第三段第五句They were enjoyed by his family but never shown to people outside the farm.可知b是第三个；根据第四段第二句He passed on in a fire three years ago, when he was only 35.可知c是第四个；根据第四段第一句The shy farmer's comic books became famous only after he died.可知去世后农民的书变得著名的，所以a是第五个，故选C。
（4）细节题。根据全文可知主要讲了一个城市艺术节目，故选B。
【点评】考查阅读理解，主要考查细节题，注意从文中仔细寻找答案。
7．阅读理解
These days haze（雾霾）is around us here and there. In fact, everyone has the power to change their living habits to help reduce it. Many local governments call on their people to take action to make the air cleaner.
Transport is one of the biggest contributors（促成物） to haze. When, where, bow, why and what you drive all affect air quality. When one drives to work for one year, he uses as much energy as a bus rider uses in 10 years. So walk or ride your bicycle to work or school whenever possible. If it is necessary, you can use public transport instead of your car. Each person using public transport for a year instead of a car can save nearly a tonne of pollutants, including CO2, from going into the atmosphere.
Carpooling is another way to reduce carbon emissions （排放）. Carpooling is the sharing of car journeys so that more than one person travels in a car. It immediately reduces your car's emissions by half.
What you do inside your living space can have a big effect on the air quality outside it. You can do a lot of things inside and around your home that will help you pollute less and save some money.
A large amount of our energy supply comes from burning coal, another contributor to haze. By cutting down your electricity use, you are cutting down on haze. So you may try to reduce your use of electricity by turning off lights, using your air conditioner wisely during the summer months, or updating some of your electrical appliances to low-energy models. For example, you can use energy-saving lamps that require less energy and last 10 times longer than common bulbs.
（1）Which does the writer think should play an important role in reducing haze?
A. City cleaners.
B. Haze producers.
C. Local governments.
D. Common people.（2）We can infer（推断） from the passage that the writer thinks .
A. cars can be used only when people have to
B. cars should be given up as soon as possible
C. cars must be improved to reduce air pollution
D. cars may cause the most serious pollution of all
（3）We should reduce the use of electricity mainly because .
A. we can save a lot of money by using less energy
B. coal is now becoming rarer and rarer on our planet
C. harmful things come out while electricity is produced
D. electrical appliances send out something harmful to our air
（4）Which can be the best title for the passage?
A. What Are Causing Haze Around Us
B. What You Can Do to Reduce Haze
C. How Dangerous Haze Is to Our Life
D. How Important It Is to Reduce Haze
【答案】（1）D
（2）A
（3）C
（4）B
【解析】【分析】文章大意：文章主要介绍了几种减少雾霾的方法，第一种为尽量使用公
共交通工具外出，第二种为尽量拼车出行，第三种为减少电力的使用。
（1）细节题。结合第一段第二句 In fact, everyone has the power to change their living habits to help reduce it. 可知，每个人都有能力通过改变自己的生活习惯来减少雾霾。因此，作者认为在减少雾霾上，普通人应该发挥重要作用，故选D。
（2）推断题。由第二段 So walk or ride your bicycle to work or school whenever possible. If it is necessary, you can use public transport instead of your car. 可知，尽可能步行或骑自行车，必要时乘坐公共交通工具也不要开车。因此作者认为仅当不得已的时候才应该才去开车，故选A。
（3）细节题。结合第五段第一句A large amount of our energy supply comes from burning coal, another contributor to haze. 可知，发电时，我们需要烧煤等，而这会释放出有害物质，进而污染空气。C项意为“当生产电力时会释放有害物质”，符合题意，故选C。
（4）主旨题。通读全文，文章主要介绍了几种减少雾霾的方法，第一种为尽量使用公共交通工具外出，第二种为尽量拼车出行，第三种为减少电力的使用。故文章主旨在于普通人可以做些什么、采取什么措施来减少雾霾，故选B。
【点评】考查阅读理解能力，首先通读全文，掌握大意，然后根据问题在文章中找到依据，选出正确答案，注意阅读方法的运用。
8．阅读理解
Australia at last! The flight was tiring, but here I am at last, in Sydney! Look! Here we are at last! The Sydney Opera House! It looks like shells!
It's wonderful and amazing! And I'm taking the plane to New Zealand on Tuesday. I'll post again from there.
Coffee and Paris! Paris is beautiful! We went on a great city tour. We also took a boat ride on the River Seine. And it's nicer to just sit at a street care and watch the world go by. But, to tell you a secret. Frank's disappointed because no one can understand his French!
Don't come here! We're staying at a farm in Utah. There is nearly nothing! It's too quiet. Every
morning, we get up really early, and we ride the horses. Then it's breakfast and more riding--not my idea of fun! So, today I walked to a little town near the farm where they actually have Internet! Next week, we're shopping in New York. I can't wait!
（1）Where is Jessy writing from?
A. Sydney.
B. New Zealand.
C. Paris.
D. Utah.
（2）What did Donna and Frank do during their travelling?
A. They visited museums.
B. They took a boat ride.
C. They sat at a street park.
D. They watched movies in the cinema.
（3）Which of the following is TRUE according to Anna's Moments（朋友圈） ?
A. It is too noisy around the farm.
B. Her idea of fun is horse riding.
C. She is going to London next week.
D. She cannot use Internet at the farm.
【答案】（1）A
（2）B
（3）D
【解析】【分析】短文大意：这篇短文讲的是Jessy,Donna,Anna几个人参观不同的城市的感受。
（1）细节理解题。根据Australia at last! The flight was tiring, but here I am at last, in Sydney! 澳大利亚是最后一站。这次飞行很令人厌烦，但是在悉尼这里是我最后一站。故选A。
（2）细节理解题。根据 We also took a boat ride on the River Seine. 我们还乘船游览了塞纳河。故选B。
（3）细节理解题。根据So, today I walked to a little town near the farm where they actually have Internet! 因此，今天我步行到农场附近的一个小镇在那里他们实际上是有网络的。可知农场没有网络，她不能在农场使用网络，故选D。
【点评】此题考查阅读理解。我们先分析问题，弄清题意，然后带着问题阅读短文，从短文的细节中找出和问题相关的细节，选出正确答案。
9．阅读理解
The phenomenon （现象） of a bike rider getting hit by an opening car door is so common that it has its own term: dooring.
According to a study in Chicago, as many as 1 in 5 bike accidents are caused by car doors—in total, there is nearly one dooring each day in the Windy City （Chicago）.
Even when the bike riders try to turn to the other direction to escape from the opening doors,
they can end up getting hit by cars.
Then how can we reduce such kind of accidents? Is there any practical way to solve that problem? Yes. It's the Dutch Reach, which has been popular on the Internet recently. The Dutch Reach is a practice where instead of using your near hand—usually the driver's left hand—to open your car door, you use your far hand—your right hand.
By doing that, you will turn your body around. And you turn your head and shoulders back, so you are looking directly out. First, pass the rearview mirror. And then, you are very easily able to look back and see if there are coming bicycles or cars or anything else. The simplicity of the approach is part of its intelligence.
（1）What is dooring?
A. The opening of the car door.
B. The accidents caused by opening the car door.
C. That bike riders are hit by opening car doors.
D. The accidents that happened in the Windy City.
（2）__________ of bike accidents are caused by dooring according to the study.
A. 1%
B. 5%
C. 20%
D. 25%
（3）Which hand do you use to open the door in the Dutch Reach?
A. The left hand if I am the driver.
B. The right hand if I am the driver.
C. The right hand if I sit at the back.
D. The right hand if I sit next to the driver.
（4）What does the underlined phrase "rearview mirror" mean in Chinese?
A. 门把手
B. 雨刮器
C. 后视镜
D. 挡风玻璃【答案】（1）C
（2）C
（3）B
（4）C
【解析】【分析】文章大意：骑自行的人被打开的车门撞到是很普遍的现象，怎样避免这种状况的发生呢？
（1）细节理解题。根据文中的语句The phenomenon （现象） of a bike rider getting hit by an opening car door is so common that it has its own term: dooring.理解可知，dooring就是骑自行车的人被汽车车门撞倒了，故选C。
（2）理解计算题。根据文中的语句According to a study in Chicago, as many as 1 in 5 bike accidents are caused by car doors—in total, there is nearly one dooring each day in the Windy City （Chicago）.理解可知，根据芝加哥的一项研究，多达五分之一的自行车事故是由车门引起的，也就是20%，故选C。
（3）细节理解题。根据文中的语句The Dutch Reach is a practice where instead of using your near hand—usually the driver's left hand—to open your car door, you use your far hand—your right hand.理解可知，在这种练习中，司机要用右手而不是左手去开门，故选B。
（4）词义推测题。根据文中的语句 First, pass the rearview mirror. And then, you are very easily able to look back and see if there are coming bicycles or cars or anything else. 理解可知，rearview mirror是后视镜的意思，故选C。
【点评】考查阅读理解。本文考查细节题，词义推断题及推理判断题等常考题型，细节题要注意从文中抓住关键词寻找答案；主旨题，词义推断题以及判断题都需要通读全文，了解大意之后找出正确选项。
10．阅读理解
When he was small, Hill was a famous bad boy.
At the age of 9, his father married his stepmother. At that time they lived poorly in the countryside while his stepmother was from a wealthy family.
His father introduced Hill to his stepmother as he said, "Dear, I hope you notice in the entire shire this is the worst boy, who has made me have no other way. Maybe before tomorrow morning he will throw a stone at you, or do a bad thing you will never imagine."
To Hill's surprise, his stepmother went up to him with a smile, held up his head and looked at him carefully. She then turned around to tell her husband, "You're wrong. He is not the worst boy in the entire shire, but the cleverest and most creative boy. Only he doesn't find a place to show himself."
His stepmother's words warmed his heart, his eyes full of tears. Then he started building friendship with his stepmother. And this became the drive of his life, making him create 28 successful golden rules, which helped tens of thousands of ordinary people walk on the road to success.
Before his stepmother came, no one praised him smart, and his father and neighbors considered him as a bad boy. However, his stepmother's words changed his life.
When Hill was 14 years old, his stepmother bought him a used typewriter and said to him, "I believe you will become a writer." Hill accepted his stepmother's gift and expectation, and started writing things to a local newspaper. He understood his stepmother's strong feeling of interest in his family while he saw with his own eyes she had changed his family. Therefore, he would do as well as she expected him to.
The strength from his stepmother made him a rich man and famous writer in the United States and one of the most important persons in the 20th century.
Praise will never be unnecessary, especially for children. Sincere （真诚的） praise may be better than 10,000 bad words.
（1）What did people think of Hill before the age of nine?
A. lever.
B. Creative.
C. Unfriendly.
D. Stupid.
（2）Which of the following is WRONG about Hill?
A. He accepted his stepmother's typewriter.
B. He failed to do as he was expected.
C. He started writing to a local newspaper.
D. He understood his stepmother.
（3）The writer is most probably an expert of _________.
A. house building
B. diet
C. news writing
D. education
（4）The passage was written mainly to tell us that _________.
A. children should be praised
B. Hill's father married again
C. Hill's stepmother was kind to him
D. Hill's father was cruel to him
【答案】（1）C
（2）B
（3）D
（4）A
【解析】【分析】大意:一个在别人眼里是最坏的男孩的Hill，他继母的来临后，继母几句表扬的话改变了聪明的一生，他继母的力量让他成为一名富人作家和美国最重要的人物，作者以Hill事例向我们展示了表扬的重要性。
（1）推断题。根据When he was small, Hill was a famous bad boy.可知，他九岁之前，人们认为他是一个出了名的坏小孩，可推出坏小孩一般对他人都是不友好的，故选C。
（2）细节题。根据started writing things to a local newspaper.and famous writer in the United States可知，Hill没有辜负继母的期望，B选项与原文不符，故选B。
（3）推断题。作者以Hill事例向我们展示了表扬的重要性，可推出作者应该是教育方面的专家，故选D。
（4）主旨题。作者以Hill事例向我们展示了表扬的重要性，故选A。
【点评】考查阅读理解能力，细节题、推断题和主旨题是阅读理解题中常考题型。细节题要从文中寻找答案；推断题需要根据上下文，推断出需要的信息；主旨题需要通读全文，了解大意之后找出中心思想。
11．阅读理解
A. B.
C. D.
（2）According to the passage, Android Wear can_________.
A. go as fast as 19 km an hour
B. run, balance, dance and even serve you
C. tell you how to get to some places
D. play music while you are writing on paper
（3）What's the best title for the passage?
A. Four new cool inventions
B. How to use Le Pen
C. Four useful robots
D. The smart watches
【答案】（1）D
（2）C
（3）A
【解析】【分析】本文介绍了四项新的发明都很酷。
（1）推理题。根据Le Pen plays music when you write on paper. The music stops when you stop writing当你在纸上写字时，勒庞会演奏音乐。当你停止写作时，音乐就停止了可知，如果你想边写作边欣赏音乐，你可以选择，故选D。
（2）细节题。根据Where's the nearest toy store?" Your watch will tell you the answer on Google Maps. 最近的玩具店在哪里？你的手表会在谷歌地图上告诉你答案可知，Android Wear可以告诉你怎么去一些地方，故选C。
（3）主旨题。根据本文介绍了四项新的发明都很酷可知，标题应是Four new cool inventions，四项都很酷的新的发明，故选A。
【点评】考查阅读理解。本文涉及细节题、推断题，和主旨题，细节题要注意从文中寻找答案；推断题需要联系上下文，推断出需要的信息，主旨题需要通读全文，了解大意之后找出中心思想。
12．阅读理解
Barry is having a very difficult time in his life. His wife recently passed away. He is very sad.
Barry's neighbor, a very old woman named Gertrude, sees him from her yard one day. She has not seen him outside for days!
"Hello, Barry! Just look at this fence. It is broken. You are a strong man, and you have some free time. I want you to fix this fence for me," Gertrude says.
Barry is angry. He thinks the old lady is very selfish. Still, he knows she is a nice woman, and he respects her. He agrees to help her.
Barry works for days. Gertrude brings him lemonade while he works. When he finishes, he smiles for the first time in months.
"You did such a wonderful job. Do you think you could paint it for me?" Gertrude smiles at him. Barry cannot believe his ears. Doesn't she know how sad he is? But because he respects her so much, Barry agrees. He works hard in the hot sun, but Gertrude's lemonade and encouragement are wonderful. He feels proud of the beautiful fence he is making.
Over the next few weeks, Gertrude keeps giving Barry jobs. He even repairs her door. All the neighbors pass by and tell Barry what a beautiful job he has done.
He finally realizes that she has never been rude. She is really very wise. He knows that simply getting busy with something can take sorrow away. He helps her, but she truly saves him.
（1）Why does Barry agree to help Gertrude to fix the fence?
A. Because he thinks Gertrude is too old.
B. Because he has some free time.
C. Because he is strong enough.
D. Because he respects her.
（2）Barry does a lot for Gertrude, but he doesn't ________ for her.
A. repair the door
B. fix the fence
C. paint the fence
D. buy lemonade （3）What does the underlined word "sorrow" mean in Chinese?
A. 愤怒
B. 遗憾
C. 悲伤
D. 喜悦（4）From the text, we can learn that Gertrude is ________.
A. selfish and rude
B. kind but rude
C. nice and wise
D. friendly but selfish
【答案】（1）D
（2）D
（3）C
（4）C
【解析】【分析】文章大意：文章中介绍了一个叫巴里的男子丧妻，非常难过，他的邻居是一位老太太，为了让他从痛苦中解脱出来，就让巴里为她干一些家务活，通过不断地干活与交流，巴里从悲伤中解脱出来，同时感受到到邻居的爱心与良苦用心。
（1）细节理解题。根据Still, he knows she is a nice woman, and he respects her. He agrees to help her at last.可知Barry非常敬重这位老太太，故选D。
（2）细节理解题。根据I want you to fix this fence for me；Do you think you could paint it for me?以及He even helps repairing her door.可知Barry为老太太修门，篱笆以及在篱笆上画画，但是没有买柠檬水，故选D。
（3）词义推断题。根据 His wife recently passed away. He is very sad. 可知Barry很悲伤，但
是他的邻居Gertrude，通过让Barry忙碌起来的方式，让Barry忘记自己的悲痛，因此sorrow意为“悲伤”故选C。
（4）理解归纳题。由文章内容可知Gertrude是一个友善明智的人。故选C。
【点评】考查阅读理解。本文涉及细节题、推断题和主旨题三种常考题型，细节题要注意从文中寻找答案；推断题需要联系上下文，推断出需要的信息；主旨题需要通读全文，了解大意之后找出中心思想。
13．阅读理解
I'm sure most people like music. Music can not only bring us wonderful enjoyment, but also bring us happiness when we are tired or sad. And many people have the habit of enjoying music when they are free. But to our surprise, one English school allows children to listen to music or even to have the TV on while they are studying, and they find it is helpful to improve the students' grades.
According to a research at Millfield School in the UK, around 20% of teenagers work better with background music, and 10% excel when allowed to finish their work with short walks around the room while up to 80% can concentrate （集中注意）better if allowed to play with a small object.
The research has made the school use a very new way, encouraging students to discover which learning styles suit them best, and then do their homework listening to music or even lying down. Some parents don't believe, .but many are now accepting it at home where children are allowed to do their homework with the television on.
"I prefer to work on the floor with music on," said Sam, a 13-year-old boy." At first my parent thought I didn't study hard, but my teacher asked them to look at my homework and when they saw it was OK, they agreed at last."
（1）What advantage of music hasn't been mentioned in the passage?
A. Music can bring us enjoyment.
B. Music can bring us happiness.
C. Music can make people excited.
D. Music can help to improve students' grades.（2）What does the underlined word "excel" probably mean?
A. It means "be good at doing something".
B. It means "do badly in doing something".
C. It means "give up doing something".
D. It means "play with something".
（3）Which of the following is true?
A. The research was done in the USA
B. One fifth of the students can work better with background music.
C. 20% can concentrate better if allowed to play with a small object.
D. No parents accept the idea.
（4）What can you infer form the passage?
A. The students at Millfield School are against the new idea of allowing children to listen to music.
B. More and more parents will allow children to listen to music while doing homework.
C. The new idea will spread all over the world.
D. More and more children will realize the importance of working hard.
【答案】（1）C
（2）A
（3）B
（4）B
【解析】【分析】本文主要讲了研究发现音乐有助于提高学生成绩。
（1）细节理解题。根据第一段Music can not only bring us wonderful enjoyment, but also bring us happiness when we are tired or sad.及they find it is helpful to improve the students' grades，可知文章提到的音乐的优点有给我们带来美妙的享受、欢乐及提高学生成绩，没有提到Music can make people excited音乐可以让人兴奋，故选C。
（2）推理判断题。根据下文while up to 80% can concentrate better if allowed to play with a small object，而80%的青少年在玩小东西的时候可以更好地集中精力，可知上文是10%的青少年被允许完成工作时在房间里散散步表现突出，excel表现突出，擅长，故选A。（3）细节理解题。根据According to a research at Millfield School in the UK，可知研究是在英国，A错误；根据around 20% of teenagers work better with background music，大约20%的青少年伴随着背景音乐学习更好，20%即五分之一，B正确；根据80% can concentrate better if allowed to play with a small object，可知是80%不是20%，C错误；根据Some parents don't believe, .but many are now accepting it at home where children are allowed to do their homework with the television on，可知一些家长接受了这个观点，D错误，故选B。（4）推理判断题。根据Some parents don't believe, but many are now accepting it at home where children are allowed to do their homework with the television on，可知越来越多的父母会允许孩子边听音乐边做作业，故选B。
【点评】考查阅读理解，可以根据题目要求，去文章找到关键信息，并进行理解判断。14．阅读理解
Bike-sharing has swept across China, with an increasing number of people choosing bike riding instead of driving. The bike that the service company provides has GPS or Bluetooth on it, and those bikes can be easily unlocked with a smartphone and left anywhere in public. Bike-sharing allows people to borrow a bike from one place and return it at another place easily.
In some cities, we can see more and more people riding this kind of sharing-bikes. It's very convenient to use the bikes if you have a smartphone. First, you have to download such an app on your smartphone. Then what you need to do is find a nearest hike through the app, scan the QR code on the bike or connect your phone with the bike over a Bluetooth wireless connection. You will find the bike can be unlocked itself. Then you can enjoy your trip. What's more, the greatest advantage of hike- sharing is that you can easily find one and never worry about where to park it. The cost of riding depends on the time that you spend. Normally, every hour you ride, you need to pay one yuan. It doesn't cost so much, does it?
At the same time, some people park the hikes in their own homes. Besides, some people don't
value the bikes. Now service companies are trying to solve the problems like being stolen.
Technology and science have changed our social lifestyles. We have to say bike- sharing brings us more convenience without doubt. And we also hope that people can not only enjoy it but also put it to good use.
（1）From the first paragraph, we know ______.
A. bike-sharing is invented in China
B. sharing-bikes are used by some people
C. most people in cities don t drive
D. sharing-bikes can be borrowed anywhere
（2）II you want to use a sharing-bike, you must _________ first.
A. have a smartphone and download an app
B. download an app and pay for the trip
C. unlock the bike and download an app
D. find a nearest bike and borrow it from anyone
（3）Which of the following is NOT mentioned in this passage?
A. Bike-sharing is very cheap.
B. Sharing-bikes may be stolen.
C. Sharing-bikes are easy to unlock.
D. Bike-sharing is a kind of green transport.
（4）The passage probably comes from a ________.
A. science textbook
B. tourist guide
C. website news report
D. restaurant menu
【答案】（1）B
（2）A
（3）D
（4）C
【解析】【分析】本文是讲述了共享单车在中国越来越受欢迎。如果想使用共享单车，必须要有一个智能手机并下载一个应用程序。它使用起来非常方便，而且价格也很便宜。但是现在有的人不爱惜自行车，到处乱放，还有自行车被偷盗现象，服务公司正试图解决这个问题。毫无疑问自行车共享给我们的出行带来了更多的便利，我们要很好地利用它。（1）推理题。根据Bike-sharing allows people to borrow a bike from one place and return it at another place easily自行车共享让人们可以很容易地从一个地方借自行车，然后在另一个地方归还，可知一些人使用共享自行车，故选B。
（2）细节题。根据文中句子“It's very convenient to use the bikes if you have a smart phone. First, you have to download such an APP on your smart phone.”（如果你有智能手机，使用自行车非常方便。首先，你必须在智能手机上下载这样的应用程序。）可知，如果你想使用共享单车，你必须先有一个智能手机并下载一个应用程序，故选A。
（3）细节题。根据文中句子“The bike that the service company provides has GPS or Bluetooth on it. And those bikes can be easily unlocked with a smart phone and left anywhere in public.”可知，共享单车很容易解锁；根据“Now ser vice companies are trying to solve the problem like being stolen.”可知，共享自行车可能会被盗；根据“The cost of riding depends on
the time that you spend. Normally, every hour you ride, you need to pay one yuan. It doesn't cost so much, does it?”可知，使用共享单车比较便宜；Bike-sharing is a kind of green transport ，自行车共享是一种绿色交通工具，文章没有提及，故选D。
（4）推理题。A 科学教科，B旅游指南，C网站新闻报道，D餐馆菜单，根据本文是讲述了共享单车在中国越来越受欢迎。如果想使用共享单车，必须要有一个智能手机并下载一个应用程序，可知短文来自网站新闻报道，故选C。
【点评】考查阅读理解。本文涉及细节题、推断题，细节题要注意从文中寻找答案；推断题需要联系上下文，推断出需要的信息。
15．阅读理解
Some people think that success is only for those with talent or those who grow up in the right family, and others Believe that success mostly Comes down to luck. I'm not going to say luck, talent, and Circumstances（境遇）don't Come into play because they do. Some people are born into the right family while others are Born with great intelligence, and that's just the reality of how life is.
However, to succeed in life, one first needs to set a goal and then make it more practical. And, vesides that, in order to get really good at something, one needs to spend at least 10, 000 hours studying and practising. To vecome great at certain things, it'll require even more time, which most people won't put in.
This is a big reason why many successful people advise you to do something you love. If you don't enjoy what you do, it is going to feel like unbearable pain and will likely make you give up before you ever become good at it.
When you see people exhibiting some great skills or having achieved great success, you know that they have put in a huge part of their life to get there. It's sometimes easy to think they got lucky or they were Born with some unusual talent, But thinking that way does you no good, and there's a huge Chance that you're wrong anyway.
No matter what you do, if you want to Become great at it, you need to work day in and day out, almost to the point of addiction（入迷）, and over a long period of time. If you're not willing to put in the time and work, don't expect to receive any rewards. Hard work won't guarantee（保证）you the level of success you may want, But it will guarantee that you will Become really good at whatever it is you put all that work into.
（1）Paragraph 1 mainly talks about __________.
A. the reasons for success
B. the meaning of success
C. the standards of success
圆知识点归纳 一、圆的定义。 1、以定点为圆心，定长为半径的点组成的图形。 2、在同一平面内，到一个定点的距离都相等的点组成的图形。 二、圆的各元素。 1、半径：圆上一点与圆心的连线段。 2、直径：连接圆上两点有经过圆心的线段。 3、弦：连接圆上两点线段（直径也是弦）。 4、弧：圆上两点之间的曲线部分。半圆周也是弧。 （1）劣弧：小于半圆周的弧。 （2）优弧：大于半圆周的弧。 5、圆心角：以圆心为顶点，半径为角的边。 6、圆周角：顶点在圆周上，圆周角的两边是弦。 7、弦心距：圆心到弦的垂线段的长。 三、圆的基本性质。 1、圆的对称性。 （1）圆是轴对称图形，它的对称轴是直径所在的直线。 （2）圆是中心对称图形，它的对称中心是圆心。 （3）圆是旋转对称图形。 2、垂径定理。 （1）垂直于弦的直径平分这条弦，且平分这条弦所对的两条弧。 （2）推论： ? 平分弦（非直径）的直径，垂直于弦且平分弦所对的两条弧。 ? 平分弧的直径，垂直平分弧所对的弦。 3、圆心角的度数等于它所对弧的度数。圆周角的度数等于它所对弧度数的一半。 （1）同弧所对的圆周角相等。 （2）直径所对的圆周角是直角；圆周角为直角，它所对的弦是直径。 4、在同圆或等圆中，两条弦、两条弧、两个圆周角、两个圆心角、两条弦心距五对量中只要有一对量相等，其余四对量也分别相等。 5、夹在平行线间的两条弧相等。 6、设⊙O 的半径为r ，OP=d 。 7、（1）过两点的圆的圆心一定在两点间连线段的中垂线上。 （2）不在同一直线上的三点确定一个圆，圆心是三边中垂线的交点，它到三个点的距 离相等。 （直角三角形的外心就是斜边的中点。） 8、直线与圆的位置关系。d 表示圆心到直线的距离，r 表示圆的半径。 直线与圆有两个交点，直线与圆相交；直线与圆只有一个交点，直线与圆相切； d = r 点P 在⊙O 上 d < r （r > d 点P 在⊙O 内 d > r （r 高一政治经济生活一至六课基本知识点 第一课神奇的货币 1、什么是商品（重点） 用于交换的劳动产品 2、什么是货币（重点） 从商品中分离出来固定地充当一般等价物的商品。 ·商品和货币不是一对孪生兄弟，货币晚于商品出现，是商品交换发展到一定阶段的产物。 ·货币的本质（重点）：一般等价物 3、商品的基本属性（重点） 使用价值和价值 ·商品是使用价值和价值的统一体，二者缺一不可。 ·使用价值是价值的物质承担者。 价值尺度、流通手段（基本职能）（重点） ·价值尺度：货币表现和衡量其他一切商品价值大小的职能。观念上的货币。如：一件衣服标价100元。·流通手段：货币充当商品交换媒介的职能。现实的货币。如：用100元买了一件衣服。 ※价格：通过一定数量的货币表现出来的商品价值。 5、商品流通 以货币为媒介的商品交换。公式：商品——货币——商品。 6、流通中所需要的货币量公式 流通中所需要的货币量=商品价格总额=待售商品量×价格水平 货币流通速度 8、通货膨胀和通货紧缩 纸币发行量超过流通中实际需要的货币量，是导致通货膨胀的主要原因之一。 9、信用工具都有哪些 信用卡和支票 ·信用卡：具有消费、转账结算、存取现金、信用贷款等部分或全部功能的电子支付卡。集存款、取款、消费、结算、查询为一体。 ·支票：活期存款的凭证，是出票人委托银行等金融机构见票时无条件支付一定金额给受款人或者持票人的票据。 10、什么是外汇 用外币表示的用于国际间结算的支付手段 外汇≠外币 11、保持人民币币值稳定的表现和意义 表现：对内保持物价总水平稳定，对外保持人民币汇率稳定 意义：使人民生活安定，国民经济又好又快发展，对世界金融的稳定、经济的发展都具有重要意义。 第二课多变的价格 1、影响价格的因素（重点） 供求影响价格、价值决定价格 ·价值是价格的基础，价格是价值的货币表现。 ·价值决定价格，价格反映价值。 2、卖方市场与买方市场 对谁有利，即是谁的市场 3、价值量的决定因素（重重点） 社会必要劳动时间。 ·价值量与社会必要劳动时间成正比，与社会劳动生产率成反比。 ·一般情况下，价值量越大，价格越高；价值量越小，价格越低。 4、个别劳动时间低于社会必要劳动时间，处于有利地位；个别劳动时间高于社会必要劳动时间，处于不利地位；作为生产者，就要努力缩短自己的个别劳动时间，提高劳动生产率。 5、价值规律的基本内容（重重点） 商品的价值量由生产该商品的社会必要劳动时间决定，商品交换以价值量为基础实行等价交换。 ·等价交换：存在于商品交换的平均数之中 6、价值规律的表现形式（重重点） 商品价格受供求关系的影响，围绕价值上下波动。 中考化学知识点总结 化合反应 ●红磷在空气中燃烧，产生白烟：4P+5O 22P2O5 ●木炭充分燃烧：C+O 2CO2木炭不充分燃烧：2C+O 22CO ●硫在空气（氧气）中燃烧：S+O 2SO2铁丝在氧气中燃烧：3Fe+2O 2Fe3O4 ●铝在氧气中燃烧：4Al+3O 22Al2O3镁在空气中燃烧：2Mg+O 22MgO ●铜在空气中加热：2Cu+O 22CuO氢气在氧气中燃烧：2H2+O 22H2O ●将CO2变成CO：C+CO 22CO二氧化碳溶于水形成碳酸：CO2+H2O=H2CO3 ●用生石灰制取熟石灰：CaO+H2O=Ca(OH)2一氧化碳燃烧：2CO+O 22CO2 分解反应 ●汞在空气中加热：2Hg+O 22HgO氧化汞加强热：2HgO2Hg+O2↑ ●分解过氧化氢制取氧气（实验室制取氧气的反应原理之一）：2H2O 22H2O+O2↑加热高锰酸钾制 取氧气（实验室制取氧气的反应原理之一）：2KMnO 4K2MnO4+MnO2+O2↑加热氯酸钾制取氧气（实验室制取氧气的反应原理之一）：2KClO 32KCl+3O2↑分解过氧化氢制取氧气符合绿色化学的观念，是三种方案中最安全、最节约资源的一种。 ●电解水生成氢气和氧气：2H2O2H2↑+O2↑ ●工业制取生石灰和CO2的反应原理：CaCO 3CaO+CO2↑ ●干粉灭火器的反应原理（碳酸氢钠受热分解）：2NaHCO 3Na2CO3+H2O+CO2↑ ●碱式碳酸铜受热分解：Cu2(OH)2CO 32CuO+H2O+CO2↑ ●过氧化氢溶液不稳定，发生分解：2H2O2=2H2O+O2↑ ●碳酸不稳定，分解成水和二氧化碳：H2CO3=H2O+CO2↑ ●碳铵（碳酸氢铵）“消失”并发出刺激性气味：NH4HCO3=NH3↑+CO2↑+H2O ●石笋、钟乳石的形成过程：CaCO3+CO2+H2O=Ca(HCO3)2Ca(HCO3)2=CaCO3↓+CO2↑+H2O 置换反应 ●氢气还原氧化铜：H2+CuO Cu+H2O木炭还原氧化铜：C+2CuO2Cu+CO2↑ ●木炭还原氧化铁：3C+2Fe2O 34Fe+3CO2↑实验室制取氢气的反应原理：Zn+H2SO4=ZnSO4+H2↑●金属与稀盐酸的反应金属与稀硫酸的反应 ●金属与盐溶液的反应Fe+CuSO4=FeSO4+Cu 复分解反应 ●NaOH溶液与稀盐酸反应：NaOH+HCl=NaCl+H2O NaOH溶液与稀硫酸反应：2NaOH+H2SO4=Na2SO4+2H2O ●Ba(OH)2溶液与稀硫酸反应：Ba(OH)2+H2SO4=BaSO4↓+2H2O ●用胃舒平（氢氧化铝）中和过多的胃酸：Al(OH)3+3HCl=AlCl3+3H2O ●用氢氧化镁中和过多的胃酸：Mg(OH)2+2HCl=MgCl2+2H2O ●用熟石灰中和含有硫酸的污水：Ca(OH)2+H2SO4=CaSO4+2H2O ●稀盐酸除铁锈：Fe2O3+6HCl=2FeCl3+3H2O ●稀硫酸除铁锈：Fe2O3+3H2SO4=Fe2(SO4)3+3H2O ●稀盐酸与氧化铜反应：CuO+2HCl=CuCl2+H2O ●稀硫酸与氧化铜反应（制取CuSO4）：CuO+H2SO4=CuSO4+H2O ●实验室制取CO2的反应原理：CaCO3+2HCl=CaCl2+H2O+CO2↑ ●盐酸与水垢中的主要成分发生反应：CaCO3+2HCl=CaCl2+H2O+CO2↑ ●泡沫灭火器的反应原理：Na2CO3+2HCl=2NaCl+H2O+CO2↑ ●误食碳酸钡后发生中毒的原因：BaCO3+2HCl=BaCl2+H2O+CO2↑ ●用小苏打治疗胃酸过多：NaHCO3+HCl=NaCl+H2O+CO2↑ ●硝酸银溶液与稀盐酸反应：AgNO3+HCl=HNO3+AgCl↓ ●钡盐与稀硫酸反应：Ba(NO3)2+H2SO4=2HNO3+BaSO4↓BaCl2+H2SO4=2HCl+BaSO4↓BaCO3+H2SO4=BaSO4↓ +H2O+CO2↑ ●工业制取烧碱：Ca(OH)2+Na2CO3=2NaOH+CaCO3↓ ●氯化铵与氢氧化钠溶液反应：NH4Cl+NaOH=NaCl+NH3↑+H2O ●硫酸铵与氢氧化钠溶液反应：(NH4)2SO4+2NaOH=Na2SO4+2NH3↑+2H2O ●将熟石灰与氯化铵两种固体一起研磨，闻到刺激性气味：2NH4Cl+Ca(OH)2=CaCl2+2NH3↑+2H2O ●将熟石灰与硫酸铵两种固体一起研磨，闻到刺激性气味：(NH4)2SO4+Ca(OH)2=CaSO4+2NH3↑+2H2O ●生成蓝色沉淀的反应：CuSO4+2NaOH=Cu(OH)2↓+Na2SO4 ●其他常见的反应： ?NaCl+AgNO3=NaNO3+AgCl↓ ?CaCl2+Na2CO3=2NaCl+CaCO3↓（CaCl2可以换成Ca(NO3)2，Na2CO3可以换成K2CO3） ?BaCl2+Na2CO3=2NaCl+BaCO3↓（BaCl2可以换成Ba(NO3)2，Na2CO3可以换成K2CO3） ?BaCl2+Na2SO4=2NaCl+BaSO4↓（BaCl2可以换成Ba(NO3)2，Na2SO4可以换成K2SO4） ●证明NaOH变质的三种方法： ?Na2CO3+2HCl=2NaCl+H2O+CO2↑ ?Na2CO3+Ca(OH)2=2NaOH+CaCO3↓ ?Na2CO3+CaCl2=2NaCl+CaCO3↓ Na2CO3+Ca(NO3)2=2NaNO3+CaCO3↓ ●证明NaOH部分变质（先用下面的方法除去Na2CO3，然后向溶液中滴加酚酞，如果溶液变红说明 NaOH部分变质）： ?Na2CO3+CaCl2=2NaCl+CaCO3↓ ?Na2CO3+Ca(NO3)2=2NaNO3+CaCO3↓ ●证明Ca(OH)2变质的方法：CaCO3+2HCl=CaCl2+H2O+CO2↑ ●证明Ca(OH)2部分变质的方法（取两份相同的样品，分别按以下方法做） ?证明Ca(OH)2变质：CaCO3+2HCl=CaCl2+H2O+CO2↑ ?证明还有Ca(OH)2存在：Ca(OH)2+2NH4Cl=CaCl2+2H2O+2NH3↑ ●证明CaO部分变质的方法（取三份相同的样品，分别按以下方法做）： ?证明CaO仍然存在：CaO+H2O=Ca(OH)2 ?证明CaCO3的存在：CaCO3+2HCl=CaCl2+H2O+CO2↑ ?证明Ca(OH)2的存在：Ca(OH)2+2NH4Cl=CaCl2+2H2O+2NH3↑ 非基本类型 ●一氧化碳还原氧化铜（检验一氧化碳的反应原理）：CO+CuO Cu+CO2 ●一氧化碳还原氧化铁（用赤铁矿炼铁、高炉炼铁的反应原理）：3CO+Fe2O 32Fe+3CO2 圆知识点学案 考点一、圆的相关概念 1、圆的定义 在一个平面，线段OA绕它固定的一个端点O旋转一周，另一个端点A随之旋转所形成的图形叫做圆，固定的端点O叫做圆心，线段OA叫做半径。 2、圆的几何表示 以点O为圆心的圆记作“⊙O”，读作“圆O” 考点二、弦、弧等与圆有关的定义 （1）弦 连接圆上任意两点的线段叫做弦。（如图中的AB） （2）直径 经过圆心的弦叫做直径。（如途中的CD） 直径等于半径的2倍。 （3）半圆 圆的任意一条直径的两个端点分圆成两条弧，每一条弧都叫做半圆。 （4）弧、优弧、劣弧 圆上任意两点间的部分叫做圆弧，简称弧。 弧用符号“⌒”表示，以A，B为端点的弧记作“”，读作“圆弧AB”或“弧AB”。 大于半圆的弧叫做优弧（多用三个字母表示）；小于半圆的弧叫做劣弧（多用两个字母表示） 考点三、垂径定理及其推论 垂径定理：垂直于弦的直径平分这条弦，并且平分弦所对的弧。 推论1：（1）平分弦（不是直径）的直径垂直于弦，并且平分弦所对的两条弧。（2）弦的垂直平分线经过圆心，并且平分弦所对的两条弧。 （3）平分弦所对的一条弧的直径垂直平分弦，并且平分弦所对的另一条弧。 推论2：圆的两条平行弦所夹的弧相等。 垂径定理及其推论可概括为： 过圆心 垂直于弦 直径平分弦知二推三 平分弦所对的优弧 平分弦所对的劣弧 考点四、圆的对称性 1、圆的轴对称性 圆是轴对称图形，经过圆心的每一条直线都是它的对称轴。 2、圆的中心对称性 圆是以圆心为对称中心的中心对称图形。 考点五、弧、弦、弦心距、圆心角之间的关系定理 1、圆心角 顶点在圆心的角叫做圆心角。 2、弦心距 从圆心到弦的距离叫做弦心距。 3、弧、弦、弦心距、圆心角之间的关系定理 在同圆或等圆中，相等的圆心角所对的弧相等，所对的弦想等，所对的弦的弦心距相等。 推论：在同圆或等圆中，如果两个圆的圆心角、两条弧、两条弦或两条弦的弦心距中有一组量相等，那么它们所对应的其余各组量都分别相等。 考点六、圆周角定理及其推论 1、圆周角 顶点在圆上，并且两边都和圆相交的角叫做圆周角。 2、圆周角定理 一条弧所对的圆周角等于它所对的圆心角的一半。 推论1：同弧或等弧所对的圆周角相等；同圆或等圆中，相等的圆周角所对的弧也相等。 推论2：半圆（或直径）所对的圆周角是直角；90°的圆周角所对的弦是直径。推论3：如果三角形一边上的中线等于这边的一半，那么这个三角形是直角三角形。 考点七、点和圆的位置关系 设⊙O的半径是r，点P到圆心O的距离为d，则有： d 圆的知识点总结 （一）圆的有关性质 ［知识归纳］ 1. 圆的有关概念： 圆、圆心、半径、圆的内部、圆的外部、同心圆、等圆； 弦、直径、弦心距、弧、半圆、优弧、劣弧、等弧、弓形、弓形的高； 圆的内接三角形、三角形的外接圆、三角形的外心、圆内接多边形、多边形的外接圆；圆心角、圆周角、圆内接四边形的外角。 2. 圆的对称性 圆是轴对称图形，经过圆心的每一条直线都是它的对称轴，圆有无数条对称轴； 圆是以圆心为对称中心的中心对称图形； 圆具有旋转不变性。 3. 圆的确定 不在同一条直线上的三点确定一个圆。 4. 垂直于弦的直径 垂径定理垂直于弦的直径平分这条弦，并且平分弦所对的两条弧； 推论1 （1）平分弦（不是直径）的直径垂直于弦，并且平分弦所对的两条弧； （2）弦的垂直平分线经过圆心，并且平分弦所对的两条弧； （3）平分弦所对的一条弧的直径垂直平分弦，并且平分弦所对的另一条弧。 垂径定理及推论1 可理解为一个圆和一条直线具备下面五个条件中的任意两个，就 可推出另外三个：①过圆心；②垂直于弦；③平分弦（不是直径）； ④平分弦所对的优弧；⑤平分弦所对的劣弧。 1 推论2圆的两条平行弦所夹的弧相等。 5. 圆心角、弧、弦、弦心距之间的关系 定理在同圆或等圆中，相等的圆心角所对的弧相等，所对的弦相等；所对的弦的弦心距相等。 推论在同圆或等圆中，如果两个圆心角、两条弧、两条弦或两条弦的弦心距中有一组量相等，那么它们所对应的其余各组量都分别相等。 此定理和推论可以理解成：在同圆或等圆中，满足下面四个条件中的任何一个就能推出另外三个：①两个圆心角相等；②两个圆心角所对的弧相等；③两个圆 心角或两条弧所对的弦相等；④两条弦的弦心距相等。 圆心角的度数等于它所对的弧的度数。 6. 圆周角 定理一条弧所对的圆周角等于它所对的圆心角的一半； 推论1同弧或等弧所对的圆周角相等；在同圆或等圆中，相等的圆周角所对的弧也相等； 推论2半圆（或直径）所对的圆周角是直角；90°的圆周角所对的弦是直径； 推论3如果三角形一边上的中线等于这边的一半，那么这个三角形是直角三角形。 圆周角的度数等于它所对的弧的度数的一半。 7. 圆内接四边形的性质 圆内接四边形的对角互补，并且任何一个外角都等于它的内对角。 ※8. 轨迹 轨迹符合某一条件的所有的点组成的图形，叫做符合这个条件的点的轨迹。 （1）平面内，到一定点的距离等于定长的点的轨迹，是以这个定点为圆心，定长为半径的圆； （2）平面内，和已知线段两个端点的距离相等的点的轨迹，是这条线段的垂直平分线； （3）平面内，到已知角两边的距离相等的点的轨迹，是这个角的平分线。 ［例题分析］ 例1. 已知：如图1，在⊙O中，半径OM⊥弦AB于点N。 图1 ①若AB ＝，ON＝1，求MN的长； ②若半径OM＝R，∠AOB＝120°，求MN的长。 解：①∵AB ＝，半径OM⊥AB，∴AN＝BN ＝ ∵ON＝1，由勾股定理得OA＝2 ∴MN＝OM－ON＝OA－ON＝1 ②∵半径OM⊥AB，且∠AOB＝120°∴∠AOM＝60° 2 中考初三化学知识点总结归纳(完整版) 初中化学知识点全面总结(完整版) 第1单元走进化学世界 1、化学是研究物质的组成、结构、性质以及变化规律的基础科学。 2、我国劳动人民商代会制造青铜器，春秋战国时会炼铁、炼钢。 3、绿色化学-----环境友好化学 (化合反应符合绿色化学反应) ①四特点P6（原料、条件、零排放、产品）②核心：利用化学原理从源头消除污染 4、蜡烛燃烧实验（描述现象时不可出现产物名称） （1）火焰：焰心、内焰（最明亮）、外焰（温度最高） （2）比较各火焰层温度：用一火柴梗平放入火焰中。现象：两端先碳化；结论：外焰温度最高 （3）检验产物 H2O：用干冷烧杯罩火焰上方，烧杯内有水雾 CO2：取下烧杯，倒入澄清石灰水，振荡，变浑浊（4）熄灭后：有白烟（为石蜡蒸气），点燃白烟，蜡烛复燃。说明石蜡蒸气燃烧。 5、吸入空气与呼出气体的比较 结论：与吸入空气相比，呼出气体中O2的量减少，CO2和H2O的量增多 （吸入空气与呼出气体成分是相同的） 6、学习化学的重要途径——科学探究 一般步骤：提出问题→猜想与假设→设计实验→实验验证→记录与结论→反思与评价 化学学习的特点：关注物质的性质、变化、变化过程及其现象； 7、化学实验（化学是一门以实验为基础的科学） 一、常用仪器及使用方法 （一）用于加热的仪器－－试管、烧杯、烧瓶、蒸发皿、锥形瓶 （二）测容器－－量筒 (1)量取液体体积时，量筒必须放平稳。视线与刻度线及量筒内液体凹液面的最低点保持水平。(2)量筒不能用来加热，不能用作反应容器。(3)量程为10毫升的量筒，一般只能读到0.1毫升。 （三）称量器－－托盘天平（用于粗略的称量，一般能精确到0.1克。） 注意点：（1）先调整零点 （2）称量物和砝码的位置为“左物右码”。 （3）称量物不能直接放在托盘上。 初中化学知识点总结 1、常见元素、原子图化合价口诀 正一氢锂钠钾银铵根；负一氟氯溴碘氢氧根；二价氧钙镁钡锌;三铝四硅五价磷;二三铁、二四碳,二四六硫都齐全;锰有二四六和七，铜汞二价最常见,单质为0永不变;酸根负，一价硝酸根,二价硫酸碳酸根，三价就是磷酸根。 一些常见元素、原子团(根）的化合价 2、初中常见物质的化学式 ) 白色沉淀:CａCO3、BaCO3、Mg（OH)2、Al(OH)3、Zn(OH)2、AgＣl、BaSO４(其中仅ＢaＳO４、AｇＣl是不溶于HNO3的白色沉淀)微溶于水：Cａ（OH)２、CａSO４、Aｇ2SO4 3、物质的学名、俗名及化学式 (1）金刚石、石墨:C （2)水银、汞:Hｇ (3)生石灰、氧化钙:CaO （4）干冰（固体二氧化碳）:CO2 （5)）盐酸、氢氯酸:HCｌ (6）亚硫酸：H２SO3 S （７)氢硫酸:H ２ （８）熟石灰、消石灰：Ca（ＯH）2 （９)苛性钠、火碱、烧碱：ＮaOＨ (1０)纯碱、苏打:Nａ2ＣO３碳酸钠晶体、纯碱晶体：Na2ＣO3?10H２O (11)碳酸氢钠、酸式碳酸钠、小苏打：NaＨCＯ３ （１２)胆矾、蓝矾、硫酸铜晶体：CuSO４?5Ｈ2O (13）铜绿、孔雀石:Cｕ２(OH)2CO3(分解生成三种氧化物的物质） (14)甲醇(有毒、误食造成失明甚至死亡):CＨ3OH (15)酒精、乙醇：Ｃ2H5OH (1６)醋酸、乙酸(具有酸的通性）ＣH3COOＨ(CＨ3CＯＯ—醋酸根离子） (17)氨气：NH3(碱性气体) （１8)氨水、一水合氨：NH3?H2Ｏ（为常见的碱，具有碱的通性,是一种不含金 属离子的碱） (１９)亚硝酸钠:NaNO2 (工业用盐、有毒) ４、常见物质的颜色 （1）固体物质颜色 A 、白色固体：氧化钙、氢氧化钙、碳酸钠、碳酸钙、氢氧化钠、五 氧化二磷、白磷、氧化镁、氯酸钾、氯化钾、氯化钠、 Ｂ、黄色固体：硫粉(S） C、红色固体：红磷（P）、氧化铁、铜（Ｃu）、氧化汞(ＨｇＯ) ．５H2O Ｄ、蓝色固体：胆矾CuSＯ ４ E、黑色固体：木炭、石墨、氧化铜、二氧化锰、四氧化三铁、铁粉、 F 、绿色固体:碱式碳酸铜Cu2(OＨ)2CＯ3、锰酸钾K2MnO4 G、紫黑色固体：高锰酸钾 H、无色固体：冰，干冰，金刚石 I 、银白色固体:银、铁、镁、铝、锌等金属。 一 1.数字媒体的概念：以二进制数的形式存储、处理、传播、获取的信息媒体，这些媒 体包括数字化的文字、图形、图像、声音、视频、化的文字、图形、图像、声音、视频、动画及其编码和存储、传输、分发、显示的物理媒体。 .新媒体、多媒体、超媒体、全媒体、融媒体…… 2. 数字媒体系统 从数字媒体的策划、制作、传播到用户消费的全过程来看，数字媒体系统是由媒体机构、媒体产品、媒体技术、媒体内容、媒体网络和媒体终端6个方面构成的一个数字媒体系统。【数字媒体机构：负责监管媒体产业的政府部门以及从事数字媒体信息采集、加工、制作和传播的社会组织。如政府、企业等。 2.数字媒体产品：又称数字媒体服务，向用户提供文化、艺术、商业等各领域的服务产品。如视频节目、网络游戏、手机报等。 3.数字媒体技术：指数字媒体信息获取、处理、存储、生成、输出等技术，使抽象的信息变成可感知、可管理和交互的技术，主要包括存储技术、数字音频处理技术、数字图像处理技术、数字影视剪辑技术等。 4.数字媒体内容：又称数字媒体艺术，是指以计算机技术和现代网络技术为基础，将人的理性思维和艺术的感性思和现代网络技术为基础，将人的理性思维和艺术的感性思维融为一体的新的艺术形式。 5.数字媒体网络：服务于数字媒体产品的传播。按照依托网络的不同，主要包数字广播电视网、Internet、移动互联网等网络。 6.数字媒体终端：数字媒体产品的承载设备，是用户享受数字媒体产品，感受数字媒体内容的有形载体。如笔记本电脑、智能电视机、手机等。】 3. 传统媒体和数字媒体的关系 传统媒体和数字媒体的核心区别在于媒体传播的渠道是否具有数字化、网络化、信息化的特征，而不是媒体存在的形式。数字媒体时代 “渠道为王”“内容为后”“商务飞妃”传媒产业科技新热点 大传媒时代的传媒产业之“变”大传媒产业的出现移动互联上的大传媒平台 网络与受众环境的变化多屏融环境合、三网融合与产业融合传媒企业成长与资本运营 6. 三网融合 2015年8月25日，国务院办公厅印发《三网融合推广方案》 2015年8月20日，浙江省人民政府办公厅发布《关于加快推进无线宽带网络建设的实施意见》 7. 、传媒产业科技新热点 NGB（下一代广播电视网） /以有线数字电视网和移动多媒体广播网络为基础，以高性能宽带信息网核心技术为支撑，将有线和无线相结合，实现全程全网的广播电视网络。 /NGB要求全程全网、互联互通、可管可控 OTT TV 专网OTT TV、公网OTT TV Apple TV、Google TV 2019年中考数学圆的知识点总结 一、圆及圆的相关量的定义(28个) 1.平面上到定点的距离等于定长的所有点组成的图形叫做圆。定点称为圆心，定长称为半径。 2.圆上任意两点间的部分叫做圆弧，简称弧。大于半圆的弧称为优弧，小于半圆的弧称为劣弧。连接圆上任意两点的线段叫做弦。经过圆心的弦叫做直径。 3.顶点在圆心上的角叫做圆心角。顶点在圆周上，且它的两边分别与圆有另一个交点的角叫做圆周角。 4.过三角形的三个顶点的圆叫做三角形的外接圆，其圆心叫做三角形的外心。和三角形三边都相切的圆叫做这个三角形的内切圆，其圆心称为内心。 5.直线与圆有3种位置关系：无公共点为相离;有2个公共点为相交;圆与直线有唯一公共点为相切，这条直线叫做圆的切线，这个唯一的公共点叫做切点。 6.两圆之间有5种位置关系：无公共点的，一圆在另一圆之外叫外离，在之内叫内含;有唯一公共点的，一圆在另一圆之外叫外切，在之内叫内切;有2个公共点的叫相交。两圆圆心之间的距离叫做圆心距。 7.在圆上，由2条半径和一段弧围成的图形叫做扇形。圆锥侧面展开图是一个扇形。这个扇形的半径成为圆锥的母线。 二、有关圆的字母表示方法(7个) 圆--⊙半径—r 弧--⌒直径—d 扇形弧长/圆锥母线—l 周长—C 面积—S三、有关圆的基本性质与定理(27个) 1.点P与圆O的位置关系(设P是一点，则PO是点到圆心的距离)： P在⊙O外，POP在⊙O上，PO=r;P在⊙O内，PO 2.圆是轴对称图形，其对称轴是任意一条过圆心的直线。圆也是中心对称图形，其对称中心是圆心。 3.垂径定理：垂直于弦的直径平分这条弦，并且平分弦所对的弧。逆定理：平分弦(不是直径)的直径垂直于弦，并且平分弦所对的弧。 4.在同圆或等圆中，如果2个圆心角，2个圆周角，2条弧，2条弦中有一组量相等，那么他们所对应的其余各组量都分别相等。 5.一条弧所对的圆周角等于它所对的圆心角的一半。 6.直径所对的圆周角是直角。90度的圆周角所对的弦是直径。 7.不在同一直线上的3个点确定一个圆。 8.一个三角形有唯一确定的外接圆和内切圆。外接圆圆心是三角形各边垂直平分线的交点，到三角形3个顶点距离相等;内切圆的圆心是三角形各内角平分线的交点，到三角形3边距离相等。 9.直线AB与圆O的位置关系(设OP⊥AB于P，则PO是AB 期中考试知识点总结 1、生物的种类有哪些？动物、植物、微生物（细菌、真菌、病毒） 2、生物最基本的特征？新陈代谢 3、生物与非生物的区别？有没有生命 4、生物的基本特征有哪些？新陈代谢/生长、发育、繁殖/遗传变异/应激性 都有严整的结构(除病毒外，生物均由细胞构成)/生物即能适应环境，也能影响环境 5、没有细胞结构的是谁？病毒 6、生物科学探究的过程是什么？提出问题、作出假设、制定计划、实施计划、得出结论、表达交流 7、生物学的研究方法有哪些？实验法、观察法、测量法、调查法、抽样调查 8、巴斯德曲颈瓶实验中提出的问题是什么？变量是什么？实验组对照组分别是什么？实验结果是什么？ 实验结论是什么？ 肉汤变酸是空气中的微生物引起的吗？ 微生物的有无？ 曲颈瓶直颈瓶 曲颈瓶肉汤未变酸，直颈瓶肉汤变酸 肉汤变酸是空气中微生物引起的 9、对照实验中对照组的作用？与实验组相比几个变量不同？作对照一个 10、怎样避免偶然性？多做几次足够多的数量 11、显微镜各部分的结构名称及功能？ 12、显微镜最重要的结构？目镜物镜 13、显微镜放置的位置？实验台左侧，距边缘7cm 14、调节光线的结构？怎样调节？遮光器反光镜/调亮：大光圈，凹面镜/调暗：小光圈，平面镜 15、使物象更清晰的结构？细准焦螺旋 16、污点存在的位置？目镜、物镜或装片 17、目镜/物镜长短与放大倍数的关系?物镜距标本距离与放大倍数关系？ 目镜无螺纹，越长放大倍数越小物镜有螺纹，越长放大倍数越大 18、低倍镜换高倍镜怎样操作？移装片转转换器调光圈、反光镜调细准焦螺旋 19、显微镜放大倍数怎样计算？物镜×目镜 20、低倍镜换高倍镜视野有何变化？变暗数目变少形态变大 21、实验材料要求？薄且透明 22、显微镜整理存放时注意事项？物镜偏向两旁，反光镜竖立，镜筒降至最低 23、观察时镜筒应该先降后升，双目睁开 24、两个规律性题目物象偏哪即往哪移，即可将物像移至视野中央。显微镜观察到的物像相当于将物 体旋转180°后的图像；其移动方面与希望移动的方向正相反。 25、制作临时装片的步骤？擦滴取放盖染吸 26、制作植物和动物细胞临时装片时分别滴的是什么？清水生理盐水 27、制作口腔上皮时滴加的生理盐水浓度为？滴加生理盐水的作用是？0.9% 维持细胞正常形态 28、怎样防止气泡的产生？正确盖盖玻片（镊子夹盖盖玻片一侧接触液滴缓缓放下） 29、怎样防止杂质的产生？漱口擦干净玻片 30、怎样防止细胞重叠？涂匀 31、用什么染色？起什么作用？碘液更清楚观察 32、显微镜下怎样区别气泡？周围暗中间亮 33、用什么画生物图？较暗的地方用什么表示？3h铅笔密集的细点 34、显微镜下观察洋葱细胞不易观察到的结构是？为什么？细胞膜细胞壁和细胞膜紧密相连 35、动物细胞和植物细胞的区别？植物细胞有细胞壁、液泡、叶绿体，而动物细胞没有。 初中化学知识点总结 一基本概念： 1、化学变化：生成了其它物质的变 2、物理变化：没有生成其它物质的变化 3、物理性质：不需要发生化学变化就表现出来的性质 (如:颜色、状态、密度、气味、熔点、沸点、硬度、水溶性等) 4、化学性质：物质在化学变化中表现出来的性质 (如:可燃性、助燃性、氧化性、还原性、酸碱性、稳定性等) 5、纯净物：由一种物质组成 6、混合物：由两种或两种以上纯净物组成,各物质都保持原来的性质 7、元素：具有相同核电荷数(即质子数)的一类原子的总称 8、原子：是在化学变化中的最小粒子，在化学变化中不可再分 9、分子：是保持物质化学性质的最小粒子，在化学变化中可以再分 10、单质：由同种元素组成的纯净物 11、化合物：由不同种元素组成的纯净物 12、氧化物：由两种元素组成的化合物中,其中有一种元素是氧元素 13、化学式：用元素符号来表示物质组成的式子 14、相对原子质量：以一种碳原子的质量的1/12作为标准,其它原子的质量跟它比较所得的值 某原子的相对原子质量= 相对原子质量≈ 质子数 + 中子数 (因为原子的质量主要集中在原子核) 15、相对分子质量：化学式中各原子的相对原子质量的总和 16、离子：带有电荷的原子或原子团 17、原子的结构： 原子、离子的关系： 注：在离子里，核电荷数 = 质子数≠ 核外电子数 18、四种化学反应基本类型：（见文末具体总结） ①化合反应：由两种或两种以上物质生成一种物质的反应 如：A + B = AB ②分解反应：由一种物质生成两种或两种以上其它物质的反应 如：AB = A + B ③置换反应：由一种单质和一种化合物起反应，生成另一种单质和另一种化合物的反应如： A + BC = AC + B ④复分解反应：由两种化合物相互交换成分，生成另外两种化合物的反应如：AB + CD = AD + CB 19、还原反应：在反应中，含氧化合物的氧被夺去的反应(不属于化学的基本反应类型) 氧化反应：物质跟氧发生的化学反应(不属于化学的基本反应类型) 缓慢氧化：进行得很慢的,甚至不容易察觉的氧化反应 自燃：由缓慢氧化而引起的自发燃烧 20、催化剂：在化学变化里能改变其它物质的化学反应速率,而本身的质量和化学性在化学变化前后都没有变化的物质（注：2H2O2 === 2H2O + O2 ↑ 此反应MnO2是催化剂）21、质量守恒定律：参加化学反应的各物质的质量总和，等于反应后生成物质的质量总和。 （反应的前后，原子的数目、种类、质量都不变；元素的种类也不变） 22、溶液：一种或几种物质分散到另一种物质里，形成均一的、稳定的混合物 溶液的组成：溶剂和溶质。（溶质可以是固体、液体或气体；固、气溶于液体时，固、气是溶质，液体是溶剂；两种液体互相溶解时，量多的一种是溶剂，量少的是溶质；当溶液中有水存在时，不论水的量有多少，我们习惯上都把水当成溶剂，其它为溶质。） 23、固体溶解度：在一定温度下，某固态物质在100克溶剂里达到饱和状态时所溶解的质量，就叫做这种物质在这种溶剂里的溶解度 25、酸性氧化物（属于非金属氧化物）：凡能跟碱起反应，生成盐和水的氧化物 碱性氧化物（属于金属氧化物）：凡能跟酸起反应，生成盐和水的氧化物 26、结晶水合物：含有结晶水的物质（如：Na2CO3 .10H2O、CuSO4 . 5H2O） 27、潮解：某物质能吸收空气里的水分而变潮的现象 风化：结晶水合物在常温下放在干燥的空气里， 能逐渐失去结晶水而成为粉末的现象 28、燃烧：可燃物跟氧气发生的一种发光发热的剧烈的氧化反应 燃烧的条件：①可燃物；②氧气(或空气)；③可燃物的温度要达到着火点。 初中数学——《圆》 【知识结构】 ????? ??????? ? ? ? ?? ? ? ????? ??????? ? ? ? ?? ? ?? ? ? ???????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????? ???????? ?? ????????? ?? ??侧面积、全面积计算侧面展开图定义圆柱和圆锥形面积计算圆面积、扇形、组合图形周长计算圆周长、弧长、组合图画法应用边长、面积的计算计算半径、边心距、中心角计算概念正多边形正多边形与圆内含 内切相交外切外离圆和圆的位置关系切割线定理及推论相交弦定理及推论相交性质判定相切相离直线和圆的位置关系反证法点的轨迹圆内接四边形圆周角定理距之间的关系圆心角、弧、弦、弦心垂径定理及推论基本性质三点定圆定理点与圆的位置关系定义圆的有关性质圆 一、圆及与圆相关的概念 二、圆的对称性 （1）圆既是轴对称图形，又是中心对称图形。 （2）对称轴——直径所在的直线，对称中心——圆心。 三、垂径定理 垂径定理：垂直于弦的直径平分弦且平分弦所对的弧。 推论1：平分弦（不是直径）的直径垂直于弦，并且平分弦所对的两条弧； 知2推3定理：①AB是直径②AB CD ⊥③CE DE =④弧BC=弧BD⑤弧AC=弧AD 推论2：圆的两条平行弦所夹的弧相等。 四、圆心角定理 圆心角定理：同圆或等圆中，相等的圆心角所对的弦相等，所对的弧相等，弦心距相等。 知1推3定理： ①AOB DOE ∠=∠；②AB DE =；③OC OF =；④弧BA=弧BD 五、圆周角定理 1、圆周角定理：同弧所对的圆周角等于它所对的圆心的角的一半。 2、推论： 1：同弧或等弧所对的圆周角相等；同圆或等圆中，相等的圆周角 所对的弧是等弧； 2 对的弦是直径。 3：若三角形一边上的中线等于这边的一半，那么这个三角形是直角 三角形。 六、圆内接四边形 圆的内接四边形定理：圆的内接四边形的对角互补，外角等于它的内 对角。 七、点与圆的位置关系 1、点在圆内? d r ?点A在圆外； 八、三点定圆定理——三角形外接圆 1、三点定圆：不在同一直线上的三个点确定一个圆。 2、三角形的外接圆：经过三角形的三个顶点的圆叫做三角形的外 接圆。 3、三角形的外心：三角形的外接圆的圆心是三角形三条边的垂直平分线的交点，它叫做这个三角形的外心。 九、直线与圆的位置关系 1、直线与圆相离?d r >?无交点； 2、直线与圆相切?d r =?有一个交点； 3、直线与圆相交?d r 《圆》题型分类资料 一．圆的有关概念： 1.下列说法：①直径是弦②弦是直径③半圆是弧，但弧不一定是半圆④长度相等的两条弧是等弧，正确的命题有（） A. 1个 B.2个 C.3个 D.4个 2．下列命题是假命题的是（） A．直径是圆最长的弦B．长度相等的弧是等弧 C．在同圆或等圆中，相等的圆心角所对的弧也相等 D．如果三角形一边的中线等于这条边的一半，那么这个三角形是直角三角形。 3.下列命题正确的是（） A．三点确定一个圆B．长度相等的两条弧是等弧 C．一个三角形有且只有一个外接圆D.一个圆只有一个外接三角形 4.下列说法正确的是( ) A．相等的圆周角所对的弧相等B．圆周角等于圆心角的一半 C．长度相等的弧所对的圆周角相等D．直径所对的圆周角等于90° 5.下面四个图中的角，为圆心角的是( ) A．B．C．D． 二．和圆有关的角： 1. 如图1，点O是△ABC的内心，∠A=50 ，则∠BOC=_________ 图1 图2 2.如图2，若AB是⊙O的直径，CD是⊙O的弦，∠ABD=58°，则∠BCD的度数为( ) A.116° B.64° C. 58° D.32° 3. 如图3，点O为优弧AB所在圆的圆心，∠AOC=108°，点D在AB的延长线上，BD=BC，则∠D的度数为 A 图3 图4 4. 如图4，AB、AC是⊙O的两条切线，切点分别为B、C，D是优弧BC上的一点，已知∠BAC＝80°， 那么∠BDC＝_________度． 5. 如图5，在⊙O中，BC是直径，弦BA，CD的延长线相交于点P，若∠P＝50°，则∠AOD＝． A 图5 图6 6. 如图6，A，B，C，是⊙O上的三个点，若∠AOC＝110°，则∠ABC＝°． 7.圆的内接四边形ABCD中，∠A：∠B：∠C=2：3：7，则∠D的度数为。 8. 若⊙O的弦AB所对的劣弧是优弧的 1 3 ，则∠AOB＝ . 9.如图7，AB是⊙O的直径，C、D、E都是⊙O上的点，则∠1＋∠2=________ A 图7 图8 10.如图8，△ABC是O的内接三角形，点C是优弧AB上一点（点C不与A，B重合），设OABα ∠=，Cβ ∠=（1）当35 α=时，求β的度数； （2）猜想α与β之间的关系为 11.已知：如图1，四边形ABCD内接于⊙O，延长BC至E，求证：∠A+∠B C D=180°，∠DCE=∠A； 如图2，若点C在⊙O外，且A、C两点分别在直线BD的两侧，试确定∠A+∠BCD与180°的大小关系； 初中语文总复习资料(条理清晰) 一、表达方式：记叙、描写、抒情、说明、议论 二、表现手法：象征、对比、烘托、设置悬念、前后呼应、欲扬先抑、托物言志、借物抒情、联想、想象、衬托(正衬、反衬) 三、修辞手法：比喻、拟人、夸张、排比、对偶、引用、设问、反问、反复、互文、对比、借代、反语 四、记叙文六要素：时间、地点、人物、事情的起因、经过、结果 五、记叙顺序：顺叙、倒叙、插叙 六、描写角度：正面描写、侧面描写 七、描写人物的方法：语言、动作、神态、心理、外貌 八、描写景物的角度：视觉、听觉、味觉、触觉 九、描写景物的方法：动静结合(以动写静)、概括与具体相结合、由远到近(或由近到远) 十、描写(或抒情)方式：正面(又叫直接)、反面(又叫间接) 十一、叙述方式：概括叙述、细节描写 十二、说明顺序：时间顺序、空间顺序、逻辑顺序 十三、说明方法：举例子、列数字、打比方、作比较、下定义、分类别、作诠释、摹状貌、引用 十四、小说情节四部分：开端、发展、高潮、结局 十五、小说三要素：人物形象、故事情节、具体环境 十六、环境描写分为：自然环境、社会环境 十七、议论文三要素：论点、论据、论证 十八、论据分类为：事实论据、道理论据 十九、论证方法：举例(或事实)论证、道理论证(有时也叫引用论证)、对比(或正反对比)论证、比喻论证 二十、论证方式：立论、驳论(可反驳论点、论据、论证) 二十一、议论文的文章的结构：总分总、总分、分总;分的部分常常有并列式、递进式。 二十二、引号的作用：引用;强调;特定称谓;否定、讽刺、反语 二十三、破折号用法：提示、注释、总结、递进、话题转换、插说。 二十四、特殊句式：判断句(者…..也为…..是“即” “乃” “则” “皆” “本” “诚” “亦” “素”“必”)、被动句(“于” “见” “为” “受” “被” “受……于”)、省略句(承前，蒙后，自述，对话“人物/曰：….”)、倒装句(主谓倒装，宾语前置，定语后置，)、疑问句 二十五、句子成分： 主语：表示句子主要说明的人或事物，一般由名词.代词.数词.动名词.动词不定式等充当 谓语：谓说明主语的动作，状态或特征.行为。 第1单元走进化学世界 1、化学是研究物质的组成、结构、性质以及变化规律的基础科学。 2、我国劳动人民商代会制造青铜器，春秋战国时会炼铁、炼钢。 3、绿色化学-----环境友好化学 (化合反应符合绿色化学反应) ①四特点P6（原料、条件、零排放、产品）②核心：利用化学原理从源头消除污染 4、蜡烛燃烧实验（描述现象时不可出现产物名称） （1）火焰：焰心、内焰（最明亮）、外焰（温度最高） （2）比较各火焰层温度：用一火柴梗平放入火焰中。现象：两端先碳化；结论：外焰温度最高 （3）检验产物 H2O：用干冷烧杯罩火焰上方，烧杯内有水雾 CO2：取下烧杯，倒入澄清石灰水，振荡，变浑浊 （4）熄灭后：有白烟（为石蜡蒸气），点燃白烟，蜡烛复燃。说明石蜡蒸气燃烧。 5、吸入空气与呼出气体的比较 结论：与吸入空气相比，呼出气体中O2的量减少，CO2和H2O的量增多 （吸入空气与呼出气体成分是相同的） 6、学习化学的重要途径——科学探究 一般步骤：提出问题→猜想与假设→设计实验→实验验证→记录与结论→反思与评价 化学学习的特点：关注物质的性质、变化、变化过程及其现象； 7、化学实验（化学是一门以实验为基础的科学） 一、常用仪器及使用方法 （一）用于加热的仪器－－试管、烧杯、烧瓶、蒸发皿、锥形瓶 可以直接加热的仪器是－－试管、蒸发皿、燃烧匙 只能间接加热的仪器是－－烧杯、烧瓶、锥形瓶（垫石棉网—受热均匀） 可用于固体加热的仪器是－－试管、蒸发皿 可用于液体加热的仪器是－－试管、烧杯、蒸发皿、烧瓶、锥形瓶 不可加热的仪器——量筒、漏斗、集气瓶 （二）测容器－－量筒 量取液体体积时，量筒必须放平稳。视线与刻度线及量筒内液体凹液面的最低点保持水平。量筒不能用来加热，不能用作反应容器。量程为10毫升的量筒，一般只能读到0.1毫升。（三）称量器－－托盘天平（用于粗略的称量，一般能精确到0.1克。） 注意点：（1）先调整零点 （2）称量物和砝码的位置为“左物右码”。 （3）称量物不能直接放在托盘上。 一般药品称量时，在两边托盘中各放一张大小、质量相同的纸，在纸上称量。潮湿 的或具有腐蚀性的药品（如氢氧化钠），放在加盖的玻璃器皿（如小烧杯、表面皿） 中称量。 （4）砝码用镊子夹取。添加砝码时，先加质量大的砝码，后加质量小的砝码（先大后小）（5）称量结束后，应使游码归零。砝码放回砝码盒。 （四）加热器皿－－酒精灯 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