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Globular Cluster and Galaxy Formation M31, the Milky Way and Implications for Globular Clus

Globular Cluster and Galaxy Formation M31, the Milky Way and Implications for Globular Clus
Globular Cluster and Galaxy Formation M31, the Milky Way and Implications for Globular Clus

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Globular Cluster and Galaxy Formation:M31,the Milky Way and Implications for Globular Cluster Systems of Spiral Galaxies David Burstein 1,Yong Li 1,Kenneth C.Freeman 2,John E.Norris 2,Michael S.Bessell 2,Joss Bland-Hawthorn 3,Brad K.Gibson 4,Michael A.Beasley 4,Hyun-chul Lee 4,Beatriz Barbuy 5,John P.Huchra 6,Jean P.Brodie 7,Duncan A.Forbes 4ABSTRACT We ?nd that the globular cluster systems of the Milky Way and of our neigh-boring spiral galaxy,M31,comprise two distinct entities,di?ering in three re-spects.First,M31has a set of young globular clusters (GCs),ranging in age from a few 100Myr to 5Gyr old,as well as old globular clusters.No such very young GCs are known in the Milky Way.Second,we con?rm that the oldest M31GCs have much higher nitrogen abundances than do Galactic GCs at equivalent metallicities.Third,Morrison et al.have shown that M31has a subcomponent of GCs that follow closely the disk rotation curve of that galaxy.Such a GC sys-tem in our own Galaxy has yet to be found.The only plausible scenario for the existence of the young M31GC comes from the hierarchical-clustering-merging (HCM)paradigm for galaxy formation.We infer that M31has absorbed more of its contingent of dwarf systems in the recent past than has the Milky Way.This inference has three implications:First,that all spiral galaxies could di?er in their globular cluster properties,depending on how many companions each galaxy has,and when the parent galaxy absorbs them.In this spectrum of pos-sibilities,apparently the Milky Way ties down one end,in which almost all of its GCs were absorbed 10-12Gyr ago.Second,it suggests that young globular

clusters are preferentially formed in the dwarf companions of parent galaxies,and

then absorbed by the parent galaxy during mergers.Third,the young GCs seen

in tidally interacting galaxies might come from the dwarf companions of these

galaxies,rather than be made a-new in the tidal interaction.Yet,there is no

ready explanation for the marked di?erence in nitrogen abundance for the stars

in the old M31GCs relative to those in the oldest Galactic GCs,especially the

most metal-poor GCs in both galaxies.The predictions made by Li&Burstein

regarding the origin of nitrogen abundance in globular clusters are consistent

with what is found for the old M31GCs compared to that for the two5Gyr-old

M31GCs.1

Subject headings:globular clusters,formation;galaxies,formation

1.Introduction

The most studied globular system in our?eld of study are the globular clusters(GCs) in our own Galaxy.These clusters have been studied in numerous ways,including:detailed modeling of their color-magnitude diagrams(e.g.,Bergbusch&Vandenberg2001,and ref-erences therein)and spectra obtained of their giant stars,horizontal branch stars and their main sequence stars(e.g.,Kraft&Ivans2003;Castilho et al.2000;Carretta et al.2004;Behr 2003).Yet,it was not until Li&Burstein(2003)that it was discovered that in integrated light,the most metal-poor Galactic GCs show relatively strong molecular absorption systems for NH at3360?A.

Given all that we know about Galactic GCs,it was reasonable to assume that the GC systems around other spiral galaxies similar to ours would also be similar to ours:gener-ally old GCs having similar ages and metallicities among their constituent stars.However, recently several groups who have studied the M31globular cluster system have uncovered signi?cant di?erences between that system and that of our own Galaxy.

Morrison et al.(2004)have shown that one can use accurate radial velocities for M31 GCs to divide them into disk and bulge categories,with the disk GCs having radial velocities that closely follow the disk rotation curve of M31.Beasley,et al.(2004)and Barmby et al. (2000)show that M31has globular clusters that show A-type spectra,from which one infers that these GCs are very young.Two of us(YL and DB)have recently shown that four of

the most luminous M31GCs have far stronger NH features in them than do Galactic GCs measured at otherwise similar,other metal-line indices,such as CH or Mg2(Li&Burstein 2003).

In a follow-up to the Li&Burstein paper,our group has obtained spectra down to3250?A of22new M31globular clusters spanning a wider range in absolute magnitude than the HST sample used by Ponder et al.(1998).These are combined with6young M31globular clusters observed by Barmby et al.(2000)to present a more coherent picture of the M31GC system. Section2of the present paper details the new MMT observations.Section3presents the spectra,together with spectra for the Galactic GCs we presented in Li&Burstein(2003). These spectra convincingly show that M31contains GCs with a range of age from as young as~100Myr to5Gyr-old,to as old as the oldest Galactic GCs.They also clearly show the di?erences in nitrogen abundance between the old M31GCs and the old Galactic GCs. Section4discusses the various implications of the di?erences found between the M31and Milky Way GC systems for galaxy formation and the existence of young globular clusters in spiral galaxies and tidally-interacting galaxies.Section5contains our summary.

2.The MMT Observations

Li&Burstein were assigned two nights with the6.5m MMT on26/27Sep03and27/28Sep03 to use the Blue Channel spectrograph to obtain spectra that reach to the blue atmospheric limit of a selection of M31GCs.The GCs chosen for this study were taken from two sources: First,it was desirous to re-observe many of the M31GCs observed by Burstein,et al.(1984) in order to insure we were on the same absorption-line system as de?ned by the Lick Obser-vatory data.Many of these are also among the brightest M31GCs.For all but one of these Lick Observatory-observed M31GCs,Morrison et al.have de?ned whether or not these systems follow closely the rotation curve of M31or not.

Second,our remaining GC sample are taken randomly from among the GCs that have the“residual”parameter de?ned by Morrison et al.It is this“residual”parameter that Morrison et https://www.doczj.com/doc/9a12333661.html,e to measure how close or how far the radial velocity of a GC in M31is to the rotation curve of that galaxy.However,one can only be sure if a GC is a bulge GC, as there are no disk GCs with a residual parameter greater than2.2(e.g.,as can be seen in Fig.6of Morrison et al.2004).Hence,while one can choose GCs that are clearly bulge GCs,choosing disk GCs is more problematical.Given the distribution of residuals for disk GCs in Fig.6of Morrison et al.,we chose those M31GCs with residual parameters close to zero to maximize our chances of picking up true disk GCs in M31.

We employed the300l blue grating with the Blue Channel of the MMT spectrograph blazed at4800?A with a2′′×180′′long slit.(The2′′width to cover most of the area of these spatially-resolved GCs,the length to provide the background for many of these GCs, most of which was due to M31itself.).This combination yielded a spectral resolution close to13?A.A grating angle of1.12?was su?cient to get us to3200?A in the blue,but still gives us out to6000?A in the red,redward of which we run into2nd-order confusion with the spectra.Standard star observations of BD+332642,G138-31,BD+284211,G191-B2B and Feige110are interspersed with the program objects,to provide calibrations for spectral energy distributions for these GCs.Table1gives a log of our observations,including:the globular clusters observed,giving their Battistini et al.(B)and Sargent et al.(S)numbers, as well as their Vetesnik numbers(when available)Battistini,et al.(1980);Sargent,et al. (1977);Vetesnik1962(a,b));if there are HST(H)or Burstein et al.(L)observations of these clusters;the exposure times used for their spectra;their apparent magnitudes(not corrected for Galactic extinction);and their Morrison et al.residual parameters.We adopt a value for V mag Galactic extinction for these M31GCs from Burstein,et al.(1984)of A V=0.25 mag.

3.The Spectra

As seen in Table1and stated above,11of the M31GCs in our sample were nominally observed by Burstein,et al.(1984).However,as we will see when we compare line strengths to the Lick Observatory M31GC sample,there is a question about the identity of one of the Lick Observatory M31GCs.Figures1-4contain the spectra we obtained for these22 M31GCs.Both their apparent V mag and their Morrison et al.residual parameter is given for each GC in Figs.1-4(when available).Figure5gives the spectra that we published in Li&Burstein(2003)for eight Galactic globular clusters for comparison.Figure6gives the Keck spectra from Barmby et al.(2000)for six of the globular clusters that they indicated in their table as being“young?”.Only two of the Barmby et al.GCs shown in Figure6 have Morrison et al.residual parameters,and both of these are consistent with these being disk GCs.The Keck spectra have been“Hanning-smoothed”(i.e,a running average of?ux of(0.5×f1+f2+0.5×f3)/2).(Note that the Barmby et al.Keck spectra do not go much below3700?A.)All spectra in Figures1-6are displayed in terms of log(?ux)versus wavelength.The log stretch used for all of the spectra in this paper is1.1dex(versus0.7 dex used in Li&Burstein(2003)).

Three things are notable about these new M31GC spectra:

1.For the oldest12of the new M31GC(two are the same as previously observed by

HST;cf.Table1),it is obvious that the strong NH absorption we saw for the spectra of4 M31GCs in Ponder et al.(1998)is also present in these new M31GC spectra.However, there is only one M31GC with a V mag fainter than17in this group(B001-S039),and its spectrum is far noisier than the other spectra in this group.Otherwise,all of the GCs with strong NH in their spectra have V mags between13.7and16.5(or,given a distance modulus to M31of24.38Freedman,et al.(2001),absolute V mags from near-11to-8,once Galactic extinction is taken into account).Most of the14GCs in Figures1and2are bulge/halo clusters,according to either their position on the sky(Mayall II)or their Morrison et al. residual parameter.Several have disk-like Morrison et al.residuals,but have spectra like those of the other bulge GCs(and,hence,are put in Figures1-2).

2.In contrast,six of the M31GCs we observed have Morrison et al.residual parameters that place them squarely within the M31disk system.All six have quite remarkable spectra (Figure3).All show a very strong Balmer decrement,and a strong Balmer line series with the broad absorption hydrogen lines typical of dwarf A stars,and Ca II H+H?much stronger than the Ca II K line.Of these six M31GCs,two are in common with the Barmby et al. published sample of M31GCs(B216-S267and B315-S038).The spectra of six GCs taken from the sample observed by Barmby et al.(Figure6)show similar A-type stellar behavior, with a wider range Ca II H+K issues than those observed with the MMT.If we include all of the M31GCs indicate as“young?’by Barmby et al.,this makes as many as19young GCs in M31known so far.(However,not all of the Barmby et al.“young?”GCs have Morrison et al.parameters,so it is not clear if only disk GCs are preferentially young GCs.) We can an estimate of how young these M31GCs are by using the published integrated spectra of the young GCs in the Large Magellanic Cloud(LMC)given by Leonardi&Rose (2003).As the LMC spectra are also?uxed,we see that the youngest LMC clusters(ages 200Myr or younger)have spectra that have deeper Balmer lines than the young M31GC in Fig.

3.Hence,an estimate of500Myr is not an unreasonable estimate for the ages of these six MMT M31GC.It is possible that some of the Barmby et al.clusters are somewhat younger than this age(e.g.,B380-S313and B321-S046)and one perhaps as old as1Gyr (B347-S154).While Barmby et al.point out that others in the past have indicated that M31contains such young GCs,it really takes these kind of spectra to bring this issue home to all of us.

3.The two M31GCs in Fig.4(B232-S286and B311-S033)also seem younger than the oldest M31GCs.Their spectra appear similar(modulo S/N issues)with the spectra of the LMC clusters NGC1795and NGC1754as seen in Leonardi&Rose(2003),which have estimated ages of order5Gyr.

We can compare the absolute magnitudes of these young M31GCs with their com-

patriots in the https://www.doczj.com/doc/9a12333661.html,ing a distance modulus of18.50to the LMC(e.g.,Freedman,et al.2001),the LMC GCs that have ages200Myr and younger have absolute B magnitudes from M B=?6.5to-9.0,reddening-corrected.The two older,~5Gyr-old LMC GCs have absolute magnitudes of-6.5and-7.3.

There is no evidence from the?uxed spectra shown in Figures1-4that any of the M31 GCs we observed have signi?cant reddening from inside M31itself,so we use the Galactic estimate of A V=0.25mag for all of the clusters.With this value of extinction,the younger M31GCs in Figs.3and6have apparent V magnitudes15.3-18.6,or absolute mags from -9to-5.5.This is quite similar to the range of absolute magnitudes of the200Myr LMC GCs.The absolute B magnitudes of the two~5Gyr GCs are both close to-9.From this, we think we can conclude that the younger M31GCs are quite analogous to the younger LMC GCs,in that their high luminosities are not necessarily indicative of their overall mass. In contrast,the absolute magnitudes of the2,5-Gyr-old M31GCs indicate that they are considerably more massive than their LMC counterparts.

3.1.The Line Strength Measures

Among the absorption line systems we have measured in our MMT spectra,for the present paper we include those of NH,CH(the G-band)and Mg2.2Measurement of the latter two indices are de?ned on the Lick Observatory system(e.g.,Burstein,et al.1984), but with the caveat that our?uxed spectra de?ne a di?erent long-wavelength continuum than do the quartz-calibrated spectra that de?ne the Lick system.We de?ne the NH parameters according to the precepts of Davidge&Clark(1994),who did use?uxed data to obtain their measurements.Further,given that we separately observed the Galactic globular clusters by scanning the telescope in a large swath over them,we also need to see if the transformation to the Lick system is di?erent for the Galactic GC as opposed to our MMT spectra for the M31GC.We give both our line strength data and those from the Lick observations(taken from Trager,et al.1998,for consistency)in Table2.

We note that one of the M31GC in Table2shows a marked di?erence in the Mg2and CH measures we obtained for it compared to what was published in1984:B232-S288/Vetesnik 99.Our spectra clearly show this cluster to be very metal-poor,while the Lick spectra clearly show it to be more metal-rich.A check of our observing log position for this cluster con?rms that we observed the cluster we have so-identi?ed.Such con?rmation is not available for

the older Lick data,so we assume that the M31cluster listed as V99in the Lick paper is not V99.Hence,we exclude this cluster from the line-strength comparisons with the Lick Observatory data(but not from other analyses).

For the eight Galactic GC,we?nd that the di?erence in magnitude for Mg2,in the sense of Trager et al.minus us,is?0.008±0.003average di?erence,with0.008mag error per object.Essentially all of the error is observational.For the10remaining M31GCs that are in common with the Trager et al.data,we have+0.029±0.003mag average di?erence,or 0.010mag error per observation.Most of the error is a combination of observational errors from both data sets.

In the case of CH we?nd an average di?erence for the8Galactic GCs of0.006?A(Trager et al.minus Us),with a mean error of0.171?A,and a single observational error of0.484?A. We note that the mean error of the Lick observations is0.36?A,more than su?cient to account for the errors observed between these two sets of data.For the10M31GCs,we get an average di?erence of0.146?A with a mean error of0.235?A with a single observational error of0.742?A.Given that the mean di?erence is much smaller than the mean errors for the CH measurements of both the Galactic GCs and the M31GCs,we assume that we are on the Lick Observatory line-strength system for CH for both sets of data.

We note that to place the2.4m Bok telescope observations of the125Lick Observatory stars observed by YL for his Ph.D.thesis,o?sets in the sense of Trager et al.minus YL are +0.006±0.001for Mg2and+0.211±0.04for CH.These di?erences have been applied to the stellar data used in our?gures.The di?erences in getting to the standard Lick system for stars versus GCs is understandable in terms of both Mg2and CH,given the wide wavelength regions that de?ne both indices,and the di?erences in spectral energy distributions between individual stars and integrated stellar populations.

In Table2we list the absorption line values for NH,CH and Mg2for both the M31GCs we observed here and the Galactic globular clusters we presented in Li&Burstein(2003), together with their errors and the absolute magnitudes of these clusters.In Figure7we present the relationships among NH,CH and Mg2for the17older M31GCs(including the two5-Gyr-old GCs,but not the500-Myr-old GCs),including the two HST-observed M31 GCs not observed by us with the MMT,as well as for the Galactic GCs.The M31GCs observed with the MMT and the Galactic GCs have their Mg2corrected by adding0.029 and-0.008mag,respectively,to their measured values to bring them into accord with the Lick standard system.(We note that,given the scale at which Figure7is plotted for CH, that mean o?set calculated for CH for the M31GCs is smaller than the sizes of the symbols used to represent these GCs.)

As one can see,the new M31GCs that are the oldest have the same kind of enhanced NH absorption feature as do the original4M31GCs that we investigated with HST/FOS. It is only the two5-Gyr-old M31GCs that have NH indices similar to that of Galactic GCs. Thus,we?nd three di?erences among the globular clusters of M31and those of our own Milky Way:

1.M31contains globular clusters with a range of age from~100Myr old to500Myr old to5Gyr old to as old as the oldest Galactic GCs.In other words,M31contains GCs that are much younger than the known GC in our own Galaxy.

2.While both the oldest and most metal-poor M31and Galactic GCs show enhanced nitrogen abundances in their integrated spectra,the main sequence stars in the M31GCs have markedly more nitrogen in their atmospheres than do the main sequence stars in either the Milky Way GCs or most?eld stars in the Milky Way that are of similar CH or Mg2line strengths.

3.As Morrison et al.(2004)have shown,M31has a set of globular clusters that closely follow the rotation curve of M31.None of the known GCs in the Milky Way do this.

3.2.Keeping Score with the Predictions

One of the predictions of Li&Burstein(2003)from their GC and halo formation scenario is that younger GCs in other galaxies should have NH in proportion to their normal metallicity,as compared to the enhanced NH we see in the oldest clusters.In this regard, we note that the two5Gyr-old GCs in M31do have NH much weaker than their10-Gyr-old GC cousins,consistent with this prediction.Note,however,that even though the5Gyr-old M31GCs are weaker in NH than their older cousins,they are of comparable NH strength relative to the NH measures for the old Galactic GCs.This is perhaps an indication that nitrogen is greatly enhanced in M31GCs in general,not just in their oldest GCs.This makes one wonder whether older?eld stars in M31have enhanced nitrogen abundances relative to Galactic?eld stars.

Separately,as pointed out by Tomkin&Lambert(1984),CH(the G-band)and NH have very similar dissociation energies.The fact that CH lies1000?A to the red of NH implies that the weakness of CH in the integrated spectra of the M31GCs relative means that carbon is very under abundant relative to nitrogen in these GCs(and also,in the Galactic GCs). Such was also found for main sequence stars in several Galactic GCs(e.g.Briley,Cohen,& Stetson2003).If these abundance di?erences are truly primordial in origin,are not these abundance anomalies telling us something about the elements the?rst stars produced?

4.The Hierarchical-Clustering-Merging Paradigm and its Implication for

Globular Clusters of Other Galaxies

The hierarchical-clustering-merging(HCM)paradigm is the current view of galaxy for-mation(e.g.,Burstein,et al.1997;Kau?mann,et al.1997).HCM pictures galaxy formation as small galaxies combining to form larger galaxies.In an HCM-dominated universe,each galaxy will undergo a series of major and minor mergers in its lifetime.If the merger pro-cess does not produce an E or S0galaxy,then it will produce a spiral galaxy.Since there are more spirals than E/S0galaxies in the Universe(e.g.,the galaxies in both the Uppsala General Catalog,Nilson(1973),and in the Third Reference Catalog of Bright Galaxies,de Vaucouleurs,et al.(1991),are dominated by spirals),it is clear that if HCM is the dominant mode of galaxy formation,spirals are its preferred output.In sum,the current evidence is consistent with the hypothesis that the HCM paradigm applies to all giant galaxies,Es,S0s and spirals(e.g.,Burstein,et al.1997).

This,then begs a series of questions that follow in logical steps:1.How does the HCM paradigm relate to young M31GCs that we?nd in M31but do not?nd in our own Galaxy?

2.Where else do we?nd young globular clusters in the Local Group?

3.Where do we?nd most of the dwarf systems in the Local Group?

4.Why do young GCs preferentially form in irregular or small spiral galaxies?

5.Where do the young GCs seen in tidally interacting galaxies come from?

The second question is the most obvious to answer.We see young GCs in the irregular companion galaxies to the Milky Way,the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds,as well as likely in the low luminosity Sc galaxy in the Local Group,M33(e.g.Ma,et al.2001).Indeed, we have used the integrated SEDs of LMC young GCs obtained by Leonardi&Rose(2003) to estimate the ages of our younger M31GCs.

The answer to the third question comes from the fact that98%of the mass and lumi-nosity of galaxies in the Local Group is contained in just M31and the Milky Way.If you plot the known positions of the dwarf galaxies in the Local Group(data kindly given DB by Eva Grebel),one sees that both M31and the Milky Way have close contingents of these dwarf galaxies(e.g.,the LMC,SMC,and various dEs and dSphs close to the Milky Way).

Put the answers together to the previous two questions and we have our answer to the ?rst question.The young GCs seen in M31likely came from the small spiral and/or irregular galaxies that once were companions of M31and have since merged with M31.Since the LMC is less than1%the mass of M31,mergers with LMC-like irregulars would do little to the disk of this galaxy.That such a merger history has taken place in M31is consistent with what Brown et al..(2003)have found in their deep HST investigation of the halo of M31.

Namely,they?nd an intermediate-aged stellar population,which could be the remnants of the dwarf system that produced the5Gyr-old GCs in M31.Furthermore,the fact that one sees what has been interpreted as a severe warp in front on the bulge of M31(Bajaja& Shane1982;Brinks&Burton1984)now can also be interpreted as the wrap-around debris from merger remnants.

If a galaxy similar to the LMC were accreted by M31during the past100-200Myr,then all of the GCs in that irregular galaxy would now become GCs of M31,would they not? And,if that accretion took place such that the irregular galaxy would be tidally disrupted along the disk of M31,most of the GCs in this irregular galaxy would assume the rotation velocity of M31,forming its thin disk of GCs.And,it is in this thin disk of GCs that we ?nd the young GCs of M31.(However,as noted above,these may not be the only types of disk GCs in M31.)

If this is true for M31,why is it not true for the Milky Way?Because,in the HCM paradigm,what the merger history is of one galaxy does not predict what the merger history of another galaxy will be,even if they are close neighbors!Evidently,the Milky Way has not had a merger of an irregular galaxy like the LMC or the SMC in the past10billion years or so,else we would see younger GCs in our own Galaxy.

Is it not likely that many,if not most,of the GCs in spiral galaxies were once in the smaller systems that combined to make the spirals we see today?If this is true,it is also true that the HCM paradigm does not dictate how and when such accretion will take place. As such,we feel it is a prediction of the HCM paradigm that the GC systems of all spiral galaxies(and for that matter,also gE and S0galaxies)are assembled in a rather haphazard “big-?sh-eats-small-?sh”manner.We see this happening today in our own Galaxy with the Sagittarius dwarf galaxy(e.g.,Ibata,Gilmore&Irwin1994)and the Canis Major dwarf (Forbes,Strader,&Brodie2004),both of which we are accreting,each adding4-6GCs to our GC contingent.(We note that two of GCs the Milky Way is accreting from each dwarf galaxy have ages~7Gyr;e.g.,Forbes,Strader,&Brodie(2004).)

Why do small spirals and irregulars preferentially form young GCs?We think this is because in such galaxies one does not have substantial rotational shear.This permits large molecular clouds(e.g.,with masses up to109M⊙Harris&Pudritz1994),to form that will not be sheared into smaller systems.In the Milky Way such sheared-stellar systems tend to form the open clusters we?nd in our disk.If this interpretation is correct,then the fact that M31has both relatively young GCs(~500Myr)as well as moderately old GCs(~5 Gyr)strongly suggests that M31went at least a series of separate merging events with its contingent of small companion galaxies that contained many more GCs than the two dwarf galaxies that the Milky Way is currently absorbing(e.g,the Sagittarius dwarf galaxy and the

Canis Major dwarf;Ibata,Gilmore&Irwin(1994)and Forbes,Strader,&Brodie(2004)).

If our interpretation of the origin of the young GCs in M31is correct,then it shows that we might be able to study the relatively recent(say,the last10Gyr or so)merger history of other spiral galaxies by measuring the ages of their globular clusters.This possibility needs to be tested.

If young GCs are preferentially formed in small galaxies with little or no net rotation velocities,then where do the young GCs that have been found around the Antennae galaxies (e.g.,Whitmore&Schweizer1995)come from?As an alternative hypothesis to these young clusters having been formed during the tidal interaction,what is the chance that either of the Antennae galaxies(NGC4038/9)had a one or two irregular galaxies containing young GCs that were“brought along for the ride”?Until we know more about where and how young globular clusters are formed outside of the Local Group,this idea is consistent with what we see for tidally interacting galaxies.

The di?erence between M31and Milky Way GCs that we cannot explain is why the GCs in M31have markedly stronger NH absorption than do Galactic GCs of similar metalliticies. To-date,the M31GCs for which we have found very strong NH absorptions have luminosities ranging from-11(MII)to-8.5to-9(with apparent V mags of15.5-16.0).Ironically,all of the less luminous M31GCs we took with the MMT are of the young kind.

However,even if this an issue of the luminosities of the oldest GCs in spiral galaxies, this still begs the question of how one gets a wide range of metallicity among these luminous GCs that spans a similar range as among the Galactic GCs.Of the three known di?erences among the GC systems of M31and the Galaxy,it is the di?erence in nitrogen abundance in them that is still the most puzzling and opens up a number of questions that need answers.

5.Summary

In this paper we present evidence that the globular cluster systems of the Milky Way and of M31,the two large spirals in the Local Group,have very di?erent evolutionary histories. Whereas the Milky Way globular clusters are uniformly very old(10-12Gyr),those of M31 evidence at least three separate age epochs:100-500Myr,5Gyr and10-12Gyr old.We strongly suspect that the younger GCs in M31came from mergers of M31with its associated irregular galaxies in the past.We note that it might be happenstance that the Milky Way has not yet absorbed the Magellanic Clouds,for if it did,our Galaxy would also have a large number of young globular clusters in it.

We now?nd that there are at least three clear di?erences between the GCs in M31and those in the Milky Way:

1.M31contains globular clusters with a wide range in age,the Milky Way does not.

2.While both Milky Way and M31GCs both show enhanced nitrogen abundances, the nitrogen abundance of the M31GCs is clearly greatly enhanced relative to that seen in the Milky Way GCs.Why this is the case is still unknown.Is it possible that nitrogen is overabundant in M31as a system,as opposed to just in its old GCs?

3.Morrison et al.?nd that M31contains a subset of GCs whose radial velocities closely follow the disk rotation curve of M31.All of the500Myr-old GCs we and Barmby et al.?nd in M31that have Morrison et al.residual parameters(about half)are part of these disk clusters.No such GC component of the Milky Way has yet been discovered.

From this evidence,it is clear that if galaxies are formed via the hierarchical-clustering-merging(HCM)paradigm,then it is likely the case that each spiral galaxy has its own contingent of globular clusters acquired from its contingent of dwarf systems which,in prin-ciple,can span a wide range in age.Furthermore,it also pegs the Milky Way at one end of this spectrum,in that almost all of the GCs in the Milky Way are old,implying that the vast majority of such mergers occurred more than10Gyr for our Galaxy.As such,we have a very biased view of GC formation history in spiral galaxies through the study of the GCs in our own Galaxy.It will only be by more thorough spectroscopic investigation of the GCs in spiral(and,also elliptical?)galaxies outside the Local Group that the full extent of what the HCM paradigm means for the GC systems of galaxies will be understood.

DB and YL would like to thank the telescope operators at the MMT for their help,and the anonymous referee for helpful comments.DB thanks Eva Grebel for sending him her data on distances of Local Group galaxies.

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Barmby,P.,Huchra,J.P.,Brodie,J.P.,Forbes,D.A.,Schroder,L.L.,&Grillmair,C.J.,2000, AJ,119,727

Battistini,P.;Bonoli,F.;Braccesi,A.;Fusi-Pecci,F.;Malagnini,M.L.;Marano,B.,1980, A&AS,42,357

Beasley,M.,Brodie,J.P.,Strader,J.,Forbes,D.A.,Proctor,R.N.,Barmby,P&Huchra, J.P.,2004,AJ,submitted,astrop-ph/0405009

Behr,B.B.,2003,ApJS,149,67

Bergbusch,P.A.&Vandenberg,D.A.2001,ApJ,556,322

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Carretta,E.,Gratton,R.G.,Bragaglia,A.,Bonifacio,P.,Pasquini,L.2004,?a,416,925 Castilho,B.,Pasquini,L.,Allen,D.,Barbuy,B.,Molaro,P.2000,?a,361,92

Davidge,T.J.&Clark,C.C.,1994,AJ,107,946

de Vaucouleurs,G.,de Vaucouleurs,A.,Corwin,H.G.,Jr.,Buta,R.J.,Paturel,G.,&Fouqu′e, P.,1991,Third Reference Catalogue of Bright Galaxies,Springer-Verlag(New York) Forbes,D.,Strader,J.,&Brodie,J.,2004,AJ,submitted(astro-ph/0403136) Freedman,W.L.,et al.,2001,ApJ,553,47

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Table1.Basic Information for22M31Globular Clusters

Globular Cluster a V Mag b Lick/HST c Date Obs Exp Time Resid Param d

a The?rst designations conform to the Barmby et al.M31GC designations;May II= Mayall II,which is also called G1in some papers;V=Vetesnik number.

b The observed V magnitude of the cluster,taken either from the Sargent et al.list(as given in Burstein et al.1984),or the Barmby et al.list.

c=also observed by Burstein et al.1984;H=also observed by Ponder et al.1998.

d Th

e residual parameter o

f Morrison et al.;a value less than±2.2makes it possible that this is a disk GC in M31.However,not all M31GCs with such residual parameters are disk GCs,as is evident in our own data.

Fig.1.—Spectra for seven of the14M31GCs observed with the MMT that are both as old as the oldest Galactic GCs and have strong NH in their spectra.Their V magnitudes and Morrison et al.residual parameters are given by their names.The?uxes for these spectra

are plotted on a1.1dex log scale

Fig.2.—Spectra for the seven other old M31GCs,plotted on the same log?ux scale as in

Figure1.

联想乐Pad A1刷机详细图文教程

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且确定能在A1系统中被识别。 刷机前必须关机。把联想A1关机(长按电源键10秒可强行关机,请确定保持A1在关机状态)

同时按住“电源键”和“音量小键”,A1会震动一次,这时A1 开机,持续按住两个按键不松手,当第一次出现Lenovo字样的logo 时,松开两个按键。(提醒一下急性子的人,出现logo时候挺一秒,再松手吧。我觉得0.05秒时候是最好)

8500使用说明书

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(图3) 1:解析刷机包 打开线刷宝客户端——点击“一键刷机”—点击“选择本地ROM”,打开您刚刚下载的线刷包,线刷宝会自动开始解析(如图4)。 (图4)

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(图6) 第四步:手机进入刷机模式 线刷包解析完成后,按照线刷宝右边的提示操作手机(图7),直到手机进入刷机模式(不知道这么进?看这里!): (图7)第五步:线刷宝自动刷机

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4、确定全部勾已经勾选,然后点击Ferware-upgade,然后插上你的联想A820(装电池的),然后进度条会走,四五分钟之后,刷成功,会弹出一个小小的窗口,表示成功刷入中文rec overy。如图: 5.弹出下面的绿色圈圈窗口之后,表示成功刷入中文recovery,拔掉数据线,按住电源键2秒左右,再同时按音量加、减键(此时3个键一起),一直到进入中文recovery模式。或者借助刷机精灵、卓大师等软件重启到recovery模式!

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AMIDEDOS.EXE /ss "111111" IF errorlevel 1 goto end :end AFUdos4(错误)修改:AFU417 00020003000400050006000700080009修改成你的UUID号。

联想a60刷机步骤

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6、把手机usb线拔下来,记得一定机先拔下来。 7、按软件中的下载,如上图中2处。 8、这里会出现倒计时:如图 9、把手机usb 线插上。 10、出现如下图的黄色条和绿色圈就已经root成功了。 二、刷入第三方recovery。(recover是卡刷系统的前提) 11、下载:下载地址:https://www.doczj.com/doc/9a12333661.html,/index.php?ac=file&oid=9015011800255250, 解压m44-20110812-a60-2[1].3-recovery.rar,得到m44-20110812-a60-2.3-recovery.img文件。 12、下载https://www.doczj.com/doc/9a12333661.html,/index.php?ac=file&oid=9015011800255289,得到m44tools.apk 文件。 13、手机开机,把上面两个文件拷贝到手机卡的根目录中。 14、在手机上安装m44tools.apk文件,出现“移动叔叔工具箱”软件。

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1. intel 82559或者550ey等带bootrom的网卡,启动芯片为eeprom可带电擦除。 2. intel网卡驱动12.0版或更高版本,包含intel proset工具包。 3. ProBoot工具。 4. PCI模块。 5. 网卡换SLIC工具。 6. 超级急救盘光盘版(DOS之家有最新版下载,请自行刻录成光盘) ――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

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酷派手机怎么双清 酷派是一个比较知名的手机品牌了,前几年,酷派和中兴、华为、联想并称“中华酷联”,是中国四家手机品牌。酷派的手机一般是运营商运营商定制销售,前几年是市场份额很高,这两年已经下降了很多,不过市面上的酷派手机还是很多的。那么,酷派的手机要如何双清呢? 什么是双清? 双清就是指清掉手机的数据,包括用户数据和缓存数据。也叫双wipe。wipe的中文翻译就是"擦,拭,擦去,涂上”。所以双wipe,和双清实际上是一个意思。 为什么要双清呢? 1、刷机之前一般要双清,避免之前的数据和新刷机的系统产生冲突; 2、当许多应用都有问题(比如闪退),但是又无法确定问题的原因时,可以使用双清,基本就能解决问题; 3、觉得自己手机内软件垃圾太多了,而无所适从时,可以使用双清,还原一个崭新的系统。

那么再来看看酷派手机要怎么双清呢? 手机双清,需要先进入recovery模式,那么酷派的手机怎么进入recovery模式呢? 一、将手机彻底关机。 二、在关机状态下同时按住:电源按键+音量下,进入Recovery。 三、在recovery模式下使用音量键选择,电源键确认。就可以双清手机了: 1、进入到Recovery模式后,通过“音量-”键选中“wipe data/factory reset”,按“音量+”键确认(进入下一个界面)。 2、通过“音量-”键选中“Yes – delete all user data”,通过“音量+”键确认执行清掉DATA分区数据操作。 3、进入到Recovery模式后,通过“音量-”键选中“Wipe cache partition”,按“音量+”键确认执行清掉CACHE分区数据操作。 4、完成后重启手机。 双清完成,接下来就可以刷机了。 酷派手机线刷工具: https://www.doczj.com/doc/9a12333661.html,/ashx/downloadTransfer.ashx 酷派手机刷机包下载:https://www.doczj.com/doc/9a12333661.html,/rom/coolpad/ 酷派手机刷机教程:https://www.doczj.com/doc/9a12333661.html,/guide?brandId=1666

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A820T刷机教程

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