International Review of Education(2010)56:51–61óSpringer2010 DOI10.1007/s11159-009-9150-3
EXPANSION VS.QUALITY:EMERGING ISSUES OF FOR-PROFIT PRIVATE HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN ETHIOPIA
DANIEL S.ALEMU
Abstract–Private for-pro?t higher education has been rapidly expanding in developing countries worldwide since the early1990s.This global trend has been particularly evident in Ethiopia,where only three public universities existed until1996.By2005,about60 private for-pro?t higher education institutions had been founded in Ethiopia.This has led to mixed feelings among the Ethiopian public.While some laud the opportunities and advantages these new institutions bring,others are apprehensive that the quality of education might be compromised by an expansion motivated by monetary gain.This article sheds light on these paradoxes and provides suggestions for policy and practices. Re sume–EXPANSION VS QUALITE:LES QUESTIONS POSE ES PAR LES E TABLISSEMENTS A BUT LUCRATIF D’ENSEIGNEMENT SUPE RIEUR EN E THIOPIE–L’enseignement supe rieur prive a but lucratif s’est de veloppe rapidement dans les pays en de veloppement du monde entier depuis le de but des anne es1990.Cette tendance mondiale s’est particulie rement ve ri?e e en E thiopie,qui ne posse dait que trois universite s publiques jusqu’en1996.En2005,une soixantaine d’e tablissements prive s a but lucratif de l’enseignement supe rieur avait vu le jour en E thiopie.Cette e volution suscite des sentiments mitige s parmi la population du pays.Certains soulignent les per-spectives d’avenir et les avantages qu’apportent ces institutions,d’autres craignent que la qualite de l’enseignement sou?re d’une expansion motive e par le gain?nancier.L’auteur met en lumie re ces paradoxes et e met des propositions pour les politiques et les pratiques. Zusammenfassung–EXPANSION VERSUS QUALITA T:DIE PROBLEMATIK PROFITORIENTIERTER EINRICHTUNGEN DER HO HEREN BILDUNG IN A THIOPIEN–Die private,pro?torientierte ho here Bildung ist seit Anfang der1990er-Jahre in Entwicklungsla ndern u berall auf der Welt auf dem Vormarsch.Dieser globale Trend fa llt insbesondere in A thiopien auf,wo es bis1996nur drei staatliche Universi-ta ten gab.Bis2005wurden in A thiopien ungefa hr60private,pro?torientierte Ein-richtungen der ho heren Bildung gegru ndet.Dies hat in der a thiopischen O?entlichkeit gemischte Gefu hle hervorgerufen.Wa hrend manche die Mo glichkeiten und Vorteile loben,die diese neuen Einrichtungen mit sich bringen,befu rchten andere,dass die Bildungsqualita t unter deren pro?torientierten Expansionsbestrebungen leiden ko nnte. In diesem Artikel werden diese inneren Widerspru che beleuchtet und Vorschla ge fu r politische und praktische Ma?nahmen unterbreitet.
Resumen–EXPANSIO N VERSUS CALIDAD:CUESTIONES QUE SUSCITA LA COMERCIALIZACIO N DE LA EDUCACIO N SUPERIORr EN ETIOPI A–Desde el comienzo de los an os noventa,la educacio n privada y comercializada se ha expandido ra pidamente en los pa?ses de desarrollo en todo el mundo.Esta tendencia mundial es particularmente evidente en Etiop?a,donde hasta el an o1996solamente exist?an tres universidades pu blicas;en2005,ya se hab?an fundado en Etiop?a60instituciones de
52Daniel S.Alemu
educacio n superior privadas y con cara cter lucrativo.Este desarrollo ha provocado sentimientos encontrados entre el pu blico et?ope:una parte de la poblacio n alaba las oportunidades y ventajas que traen estas nuevas instituciones,mientras que la otra teme que una expansio n motivada por el a nimo de lucro podr?a ir en desmedro de la calidad de la ensen anza.Con este art?culo,el autor analiza esta situacio n parado gica y ofrece sugerencias pol?ticas y pra cticas.
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Background:higher education in Ethiopia
Throughout its short history,higher education in Ethiopia has experienced numerous challenges,the obvious ones being its inability to produce su?-cient manpower to meet the country’s needs,the unresponsiveness of the programmes and the curriculum to the practical needs of the country,the extremely conservative orientation of the institutions,a lack of genuine com-mitment to academic freedom and institutional autonomy,and scarcity of resources.These issues,directly or indirectly,impact the quality of education the institutions o?er and/or public access to higher education.After almost six decades,Ethiopia’s higher education‘‘remains highly underdeveloped’’and‘‘access is still very low and the quality and relevance of the educa-tion and research activities of the institutions are not up to expected stand-ards and levels’’(Yizengaw2005;1).
Recent developments
Following the break-up of the USSR,the introduction of a free market econ-omy has been a phenomenon in many previously socialist countries,including Ethiopia.This trend not only encouraged the private sector to invest in the various socio-economic activities including opening private higher education institutions but also demanded specialised skills and larger workforces that the–then highly centralised–government tertiary institutions could not
produce.This was precipitated by the policy of the new government that prioritised the issue of higher education reform and expansion on its agenda (Saint 2004).
Prior to 1991,Ethiopia had three,government-owned,degree-o?ering higher education institutions:Addis Ababa University system,Alemaya Uni-versity,and Asmara University (now in Eritrea).The relative expansion in government higher education institutions in recent years has increased their total numbers to 23,including the universities,technical colleges,and teacher training colleges (Saint 2004).Very recently,the government has announced its plan to open 13new universities across the country by 2010(Teklu 2006).Private higher education institutions did not exist in Ethiopia until in the mid 1990s.Between the years 1996and 2003about 37private institutions were founded,increasing higher education enrolment by 21%in 2003(World Bank 2003).By 2005,the number of private higher education institu-tions grew to 60,enrolling a quarter of all higher education students in the country (Teferra 2005).
This rapid expansion of private higher education institutions in Ethiopia,however,has undergone continuous debate among educators,intellectuals,students,parents and society at large.The debating parties could be broadly categorised into two:quality advocates and expansion advocates.The qual-ity advocates argue that the quality of higher education has been compro-mised for expansion motivated by a mere monetary pro?t.The expansion advocates,on the other hand,amplify the contribution of the institutions in terms of access,employment opportunity,and the choices of programmes that the new institutions o?er.
This paper focuses on quality vs.expansion issues regarding the newly-emerging private for-pro?t higher institutions in Ethiopia through addressing three basic questions:
?What are the major concerns regarding the rapid expansion of private higher education institutions in Ethiopia?
?What mechanism is there to control the quality of education being o?ered by higher education institutions?
?What can be done to ensure the quality of education while maintaining the expansion of higher education?
Finally,the article provides suggestions and draws implications for policy that promotes the expansion of private higher education without compro-mising the quality of education.
What are the major concerns regarding the rapid expansion of private for-pro?t higher education institutions in Ethiopia?
In a country like Ethiopia,where access to higher education is limited to less than one %of the expected age group (MOE 1999)or about 10–15%53
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of all high school graduates(Wondimu2003),expansion of private higher education institutions is to be welcomed.However,it should not be at the ex-pense of quality.The Education and Training Policy of the country clearly states the need for both expansion and quality when it put the issue of access as one of its priorities along with relevance,quality and equity(MOE1994).
The contributions of the newly opened for-pro?t private institutions include the fact that they:
?opened up opportunities for individuals/high school graduates who might not meet the extremely competitive entrance requirements of the public universities and colleges;
?enrolled more than20%of the country’s total higher education intake (World Bank2003);
?opened up employment opportunities for professionals and non-professionals;?bene?ted some public schools by renting their traditionally under-utilised facilities;
?motivated some private real-estate owners to build more facilities for rent;?provided scholarship opportunities for female students from low socio-economic status(e.g.Unity University College);
?o?ered students an opportunity to choose their course of study(unlike public higher institutions where the choice of major is dictated by the stu-dent’s cumulative grade point average and availability of places);?trained individuals for‘‘the shifting needs of the job market’’(World Bank2003:11).
Why do quality advocates feel apprehensive about the current expansion of higher education?Various general explanations could be given,such as fear of the unknown,a societal culture of low levels of risk-taking,and a lack of trust in the new institutions based on observations and experience.
The quality advocates,in this case,are very critical about rapid expansion for monetary gains which may lead to greater inequity in the population. Answering the following questions will help to better understand the situa-tion.How rapid is expansion?What factors have contributed to rapid expansion?What are the downsides of rapid expansion?
How rapid is expansion?
Determining whether the speed of the expansion is rapid or slow depends on the type of standard we use and the motivation for the expansion itself. Most often,people feel comfortable with what they are used to and tend to take that as a standard for comparing new phenomena.Higher education,in its modern/western sense,began in Ethiopia with the opening of the Emper-or Haileselassie I University in1950.Between1950and the late1980s the total number of universities in the country grew only to three.By any meas-ure,comparing the historical pace of the expansion of higher education in the country with the current trend of expansion of private colleges and
universities (the opening of 60private for-pro?t institutions between 1996and 2005),one can comfortably say that the latter is very rapid.Gener-ally speaking for-pro?t private higher education is a sector that is rapidly growing in developing countries worldwide (World Bank 2000).
What factors have contributed to rapid expansion?And what
are the downsides?
Several factors have contributed to the rapid expansion of for-pro?t private higher education in Ethiopia.Primarily mentioned are the education and economic policy of the country,the change in demography (demand),and the lucrative return from such investments.The debate is,however,centred on the last factor –the focus on monetary return.
It is obvious that private,for-pro?t colleges or universities cannot survive let alone expand if they do not generate monetary return.Their existence is based on pro?t and they should not be blamed for pro?ting from it.The peril comes with the following conditions:
When excessive focus is on pro?t
One could simply apply rudimentary economics to claim that pro?t is the total sale minus the total investment.One way of boosting pro?t is minimising the cost of investment without reducing the price of the product.In the case of most Ethiopian private for-pro?t higher education institutions,excessive prof-it motivation has been the accusation made by quality advocates.Excessive focus on pro?t can be manifested through various exercises.One of these could be undue enrolment increment.This happens when private for-pro?t institutions expand beyond their capacity.Such a measure often results in large class size,shortages of quali?ed instructors,and an inability to provide standard educational inputs all of which determine the quality of the outputs.The second manifestation of excessive pro?t orientation is an unduly fast rise in tuition and fees.This entails an ethical perspective on investing in education.What is and what is not reasonable is determined by the clients’ability to pay and the quality of services o?ered by the institution.Increas-ing tuition fees paid by students while lowering the quality of instruction might be a typical example of unethical practice.
The third issue is quality of entrants.Private higher education institutions in Ethiopia,in most cases,are not the ?rst choice of students with higher Grade Point Averages.Private institutions often take students who are not admitted to government universities and colleges.When private institutions focus merely on money,there is a tendency for them to accept those who can a?ord to pay while compromising entrance requirements.This takes us to the fourth characteristic of excessive pro?t motivation,which is the ques-tion of retention and attrition.High retention and low attrition rates indi-cate the success of the process of teaching and learning,everything else being 55
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equal.However,when retention is very close to100%and when attrition is almost zero%,it is worth investigating the how and the why.It is too na?ve to believe that all private college students(who have been admitted with lower grades)successfully complete their studies.Thus,if students are retained with-out progressing in their studies one can reasonably hypothesise that?nancial priorities have prevailed.The truth of the matter is,if a student lingers several years without completing a programme and has been admitted without restric-tions,he/she is paying in vain.Only institutions that emphasise?nancial gains recruit such students.Besides such an unethical approach,their statistics,with ostentatious retention and attrition rates,can only mislead gullible readers. When they create imbalance in accessibility
Most private institutions in Ethiopia are concentrated in the capital,Addis Ababa,and a few other large cities.The annual tuition fees they charge vary from$300to$400(World Bank2003).Government universities charge sig-ni?cantly less than this amount.For a country like Ethiopia,where85%of the population is rural and where the per capita income is seldom over$100, the current trend of city-centred expansion of private higher education insti-tutions coupled with their non-a?ordability would leave the rural majority disadvantaged and thereby widen the existing gap of accessibility between the rural and urban populations.
When quality is compromised because of under-?nancing
Accurately measuring the quality of education is not an easy endeavour; there are no perfect yardsticks.However,money and quality of education are positively correlated,everything else being equal.Hedges and Greenwald (1996)and Hedges et al.(1994)argue that money buys smaller classrooms, more quali?ed teachers,and better quality educational inputs.These require considerable investment.When investors pursue expansion before they are able to provide basic educational necessities for their existing clients,quality is compromised.
What mechanism is there to control the quality of education o?ered by higher education institutions?
The cry for quality education in Ethiopia has been echoed for many decades by concerned individuals and institutions in and out of the country.The pre-vious communist government focused on mass education and gave utmost attention to expansion of primary and secondary education together with mandatory adult literacy campaigns.Much focus has been given by the cur-rent government to the expansion of higher https://www.doczj.com/doc/9511802348.html,ernment universi-ties have been expanding and accepting more and more students every year. For example,enrolment in government higher education alone increased
from 52,305in the 1998/99academic year to 87,431and 147,957in the 2000/01and 2002/3academic years respectively (MOE 2003).
There was not a single private for-pro?t higher education institution in Ethiopia until 1996.By the year 2005there were 60private colleges and uni-versities that enrolled about one-fourth of the nation’s higher education stu-dents (Teferra 2005).As the concern regarding the quality of education o?ered by these institutions grew,the Ethiopian government enacted Procla-mation 351/2003(Higher Education Proclamation)on 3July,2003(FDRE 2003).
The proclamation clearly stated that one of the concerns that led the gov-ernment to pass this law was the issue of quality education.Section one of part ?ve of the proclamation is fully dedicated to the establishment of the Education Relevance and Quality Agency (FDRE 2003).This agency is a bu?er between higher education institutions and the Ministry of Education.The power and duties of the Agency include gathering and disseminating information about the activities of higher education institutions,ensuring the education o?ered by the institutions are up to standard,and recommending institutions for accreditation (FDRE 2003).Unlike the experience of many higher education systems around the globe,the 2003Higher Education Proc-lamation of Ethiopia provides centralised power to the Ministry of Educa-tion on ?nal accreditation decisions.
What can be done to ensure quality of education while expanding higher education?
Expansion is not a phenomenon contrary to quality.It is possible to expand higher education without compromising the quality of education.In short one should not happen at the expense of the other.Unfortunately,this is not always the case.
The current expansion of higher education in Ethiopia has been facilitated,among other factors,by new economic and educational policies.Even though the involvement of the private sector in the expansion of higher education is necessary,education as a public good needs the checks and balances of government.In addition,meaningful contributions and operations of the private sector are dependent on the quality of the legal framework and the enforcement mechanisms in place.However,this should be done with caution since excessive government involvement,especially in the activities of higher education institutions,discourages their healthy functioning (Mwiria 2003).For instance,in a situation where the day-to-day decision-making activities of institutions are micromanaged by the government or any political interest groups to the extent that institutional autonomy is a?ected and academic free-dom is infringed it is hardly possible to see a healthy functioning higher edu-cation.Bentley et al.(2006:14–15)provide a more practical example when they state that if a government ‘‘withholds or threatens to withhold funding from an institution,or di?erentially funds institutions favouring those that 57
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comply with a preferred agenda,this would undoubtedly curtail academic freedom’’.Thus,government involvement should be limited to overseeing and supervising the institutions in order to check that they are meeting the set standards(World Bank2000).Furthermore,establishing bu?er bodies has proved to limit excessive government interference in the internal a?airs of universities(Mwiria2003).
To ensure quality,setting standards is a must.In addition to the Education Relevance and Quality Agency(ERQA),the new higher education proclama-tion has mandated the establishment of the Higher Education Strategy Centre (FDRE2003),which is an encouraging step from the government’s side.The two bu?er bodies are believed to be instrumental in setting workable quality standards and ensuring that higher education institutions function according to the standards.
Another important factor to ensuring quality is through constructive https://www.doczj.com/doc/9511802348.html,petition can be positive(constructive)or negative(destructive). Constructive competition may be facilitated through?nding niches of excel-lence and embracing responsible college ranking bodies.While?nding the niches of excellence demands farsightedness and agility from the leadership of individual institutions,concerned independent bodies(professional organi-sations,individuals,associations,etc.)may contribute to the emergence of independent ranking institutions.Since ranking is a very sensitive issue, consideration should be given to prevent‘‘irresponsible musings by self-appointed experts and money-making schemes by commercial organizations’’(Altbach2006:1).
Conclusions and implications
The issue of privatisation in general is a new phenomenon for Ethiopia after experiencing communism for17years.The tendency that‘‘whatever is owned by the government is better’’is still alive and well among the public. On the one hand,this holds true since most of the publicly-owned institu-tions have a relatively long history,a wide range of experience,and a better resource base.On the other hand,the tendency that longevity assures quality might not always hold true.
The role played by the private sector in the expansion of higher education in Ethiopia is to be commended.Expansion is as important as quality if the country has to bene?t from its huge human resources.To this e?ect there should be clear commitments and actions from the various stakeholders to support the expansion of up-to-standard higher education.Policy-makers should continue to lay down clear legal frameworks for higher education institutions and strictly enforce and limit them.It is also imperative for pri-vate institutions to gauge their contribution for national development,taking into account such issues as a?ordability and the quality of education they o?er.
Almost all the present private higher education institutions,in Ethiopia,are for-pro?t institutions.Private-for-pro?t higher education institutions are motivated by monetary returns.It is unlikely that such institutions will open sites in rural and destitute areas.Hence,even though private-for-pro?t higher education institutions play a role in the expansion of higher education,the government should intervene in bridging the access gap that can be created due to such an inequitable expansion.Possible interventions may include encouraging the opening of local and international non-pro?t private higher institutions in non-urban and destitute areas by providing such assistances as free land and tax exemptions (or lower tax brackets).
Generally speaking,ensuring quality higher education largely depends on the qualities of educational inputs (resources such as ?scal,physical,human,curricular,material/equipment)and throughputs (institutional governance that entails accountability,setting and implementing clear standards,and e?ectiveness).Standardising the qualities of the inputs and throughputs helps to e?ectively measure the outputs.The newly-established ERQA and Higher Education Strategy Centre (HESC)could play important roles in formulat-ing clear and more detailed standards along with appropriate quality indica-tors by taking lessons from best global practice while considering local realities.This paves the way for the emergence of independent ranking bod-ies.Ranking bodies that have the capacity and professional integrity to serve,without con?icts of interest,can play signi?cant roles in stratifying institutions.Strati?cation motivates higher education institutions to get into constructive competition among each other and eventually in the global market.Constructive competition in turn contributes to quality service provisions.
In addition,to facilitate healthy competition among institutions and to serve the purpose of checking and balancing of the expansion and quality of higher education in Ethiopia,there should be an autonomous accrediting agency.The 2003Ethiopian Higher Education Proclamation states that ERQA is an ‘‘autonomous organ.’’However,ERQA does not appear to have any meaningful authority when it comes to accreditation except helping the Ministry of Education in formulating quality standards and doing the pre-screening work for accreditation.If given full independence,ERQA,not only reduces the chain of command but also provides meaningful services commensurate to its name.
In the end,in order for the country to enjoy a meaningful return from its educated workforce,attention should logically be refocused on quality while expanding higher education.Past studies (Hanushek and Kimko 2000;Hanushek 2005;World Bank 2007)concluded that countries with high-quality graduates (i.e.who had done more than complete their schooling)enjoy a better rate of return in social and economic development than those with low-er-quality graduates.Hence,policies and practices pertinent to education in general and higher education in particular should take into account and stra-tegically prioritise issues of national interest and global competitiveness.59
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Bentley,K.,H.Adam,and S.Morrow.2006.Academic Freedom,Institutional Autonomy and the Corporatised University in Contemporary South Africa.Pretoria, South Africa:The Council on Higher Education.
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia(FDRE).2003.Higher Education Proclamation No.351/2003.Addis Ababa,Ethiopia:Berhanena Selam Printing Press.
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Hanushek,E.A.,and D.D.Kimko.2000.Schooling,Labor Force Quality,and the Growth of Nations.American Economic Review90(5):1184–1208.
Hedges,L.V.,and R.Greenwald.1996.Have Times Changed?The Relation between School Resources and Student Performance.In:Does Money Matter?,ed.by G.Burtless.Washington DC:Brookings Institution.
Hedges,L.V.,https://www.doczj.com/doc/9511802348.html,ine,and R.Greenwald.1994.Does Money Matter?A Meta-Analysis of Studies of the E?ects of Di?erential School Inputs on Student Outcomes. Educational Researcher23(3):5–14.
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The author
Daniel S.Alemu is an Assistant Professor of education at The Sage Colleges in Troy,New York.He received his Ph.D.in Educational Administration from Illinois State University.He has worked as a school principal and taught in elementary schools in his home country,Ethiopia.His publications and presentations address issues such as school safety and faculty departure in the United States,and instructional language policy and private higher education issues in Ethiopia.
Contact address :The Sage Colleges,45Ferry Street,Troy,NY 12180,USA.E-mail:alemud@https://www.doczj.com/doc/9511802348.html,.61
Expansion vs.Quality
大学英语作文万能模板（各类型） 对比观点题型(1) 要求论述两个对立的观点并给出自己的看法。1( 有一些人认为... 2( 另一些人认为... 3( 我的看法... The topic of -----------------(主题)is becoming more and more popular recently. There are two sides of opinions about it. Some people say A is their favorite. They hold their view for the reason of -----------------(支持A的理由一)What is more, -------------理由二). Moreover, ---------------(理由三). While others think that B is a better choice in the following three reasons. Firstly,-----------------(支持B的理由一). Secondly (besides),------------------(理由二). Thirdly (finally),------------------(理由三). From my point of view, I think ----------------(我的观点). The reason is that --------------------(原因). As a matter of fact, there are some other reasons to explain my choice. For me, the former is surely a wise choice . (2) 给出一个观点，要求考生反对这一观点Some people believe that ----------------(观点一). For example, they think -----------------(举例说明)(And it will bring them -----------------(为他们带来的好处). In my opinion, I never think this reason can be the point. For one thing,-------------(我不同意该看法的理由一). For another thing, -----------------(反
世界经典哲学类书籍 哲学，是理论化、系统化的世界观，是自然知识、社会知识、思维知识的概括和总结,是世界观和方法论的统一。是社会意识的具体存在和表现形式，是以追求世界的本源、本质、共性或绝对、终极的形而上者为形式，以确立哲学世界观和方法论为内容的社会科学。 《性心理学》 《作为意志和表象的世界》 《理想国》 《西方哲学史》 《自然哲学的数学原理》 《权力意志》 《新工具》 《纯粹理性批判》《文明论概略》 《劝学篇》 《伦理学》 《耶稣传》 《时间简史》 《逻辑哲学论》 《精神现象学》 《物性论》 《感觉的分析》 《精神分析引论》《基督何许人也——基督抹煞论》 《科学的社会功能》《人有人的用处》《科学史》 《人类理智新论》《逻辑学》 《哲学研究》 《新系统及其说明》《道德情操论》 《实践理性批判》《美学》 《判断力批判》 《基督教的本质》《薄伽梵歌》 《伦理学中的形式主义与质料的价值伦理学》《物种起源》 《物理学》《人类的由来》 《人性论》 《人是机器》 《法哲学原理》 《狄德罗哲学选集》 《野性的思维》 《哲学史教程》 《科学与近代世界》 《人类的知识》 《精神分析引论新编》 《自然宗教对话录》 《基督教并不神秘》 《科学中华而不实的 作风》 《一年有半，续一年有 半》 《时间与自由意志》 《哲学辞典》 《历史理性批判文集》 《苏鲁支语录》 《文化科学和自然科 学》 《十六、十七世纪科 学、技术和哲学史》 《科学哲学的兴起》 《灵魂论及其他》 《斯宾诺莎书信集》 《实验心理学史》 《最后的沉思》 《纯粹现象学通论》 《近代心理学历史导 引》 《佛教逻辑》 《神圣人生论》 《逻辑与知识》 《论原因、本原与太 一》 《形而上学导论》 《诗学》 《路标》 《心的概念》 《计算机与人脑》 《十七世纪英格兰的 科学、技术与社会》 《卡布斯教诲录》 《薄伽梵歌论》 《尼各马可伦理学》 《论老年论友谊论责 任》 《实用主义》 《我的哲学的发展》 《拓扑心理学原理》 《在通向语言的途中》 《科学社会学》 《埃克哈特大师文集》 《逻辑大全》 《简论上帝、人及其心 灵健康》 《宗教的本质》 《论灵魂》 《科学的价值》 《内时间意识现象学》 《艺术即经验》 《宗教与科学》 《感觉与可感物》 《行为的结构》 《真理与方法》 《阿维斯塔》 《善的研究》 《人类知识原理》 《伦理学体系》 《科学与方法》 《第一哲学（上下卷）》 《物理学理论的目的 与结构》 《思维方式》 《发生认识论原理》 《爱因斯坦文集》 《伦理学的两个基本问题》 《数理哲学导论 《耶稣传（第一、二卷）》 《美学史》 《原始思维》 《面向思的事情》 《普通认识论》 《莱布尼茨与克拉克论战 书信集》 《对莱布尼茨哲学的批评 性解释》 《物理学和哲学》 《尼采（上下卷）》 《思想录》 《道德原则研究》 《自我的超越性》 《实验医学研究导论》 《巴曼尼得斯篇》 《人类理解论》 《笛卡尔哲学原理》 《人生的亲证》 《认识与谬误》 《哲学史讲演录》 《圣教论》 《哲学作为严格的科学》 《人类知识起源论》 《回忆苏格拉底》 《心的分析》 《任何一种能够作为科学 出现的未来形而上学导论》 《科学与假设》 《宗教经验之种种》 《声音与现象》 《苏格拉底的申辩》 《论个人在历史上的作用 问题》 《论有学识的无知》 《保卫马克思》 《艺术的起源》
工作总结前言范文 标准格式范例 年终总结报告，是组织或个人对过去一年发生的情况或问题进行概括和分析后撰写的文书。常见年终总结报告格式一般包括标题、引言、正文、结尾四部分： 1、标题 年终总结的标题有单行标题和双行标题两种。典型的标题由对象名称、时限、主题、文种四部分组成。 2、引言 引言，也叫前言或开头。引言一般都很简单，主要目的是引出正文。有时甚至可以不要引言。 3、正文 总结正文占全文三分之二以上的篇幅。典型的年终总结正文有以下几个部分： （1）一年中主要工作基本情况 这部分要求全面、简要的说明过去一年中所做的各项工作，可以分项逐条表述。但不能“记流水账”，应该着眼于大事，并要清楚反映出工作的开展过程。 （2）取得的成绩 这部分要对应基本情况，有重点的概括介绍工作中取得的主要成绩或经验。这部分充分体现总结的评价性，主观评价与客观真实的材料结合起来。
（3）存在的问题 总结工作中的问题与总结成绩一样，也应有重点、有主次。一般而言，成绩总是主流，但提到成绩与问题时，仍应本着实事求是的原则，具体问题具体分析，一是一，二是二。 （4）今后的打算 总结和回顾过去的工作，是为了把下一段的工作做的更好。总结中谈到今后的打算时，既要与常规工作、中心工作和长远计划相结合，又要与本阶段存在的问题相对应。但总结毕竟不是计划，在谈今后打算时宜粗不宜细，宜简不宜繁，宜大不宜小。 一,工作总结的意义及作用 工作总结是对一定时期内的工作加以总结,分析和研究,肯定成绩,找出问题,得出经验教训,摸索事物的发展规律,用于指导下一阶段工作的一种书面文体.它所要解决和回答的中心问题,不是某一时期要做什么,如何去做,做到什么程度的问题,而是对某种工作实施结果的总鉴定和总结论,是对以往工作实践的一种理性认识. 工作总结是做好各项工作的重要环节.通过它,可以全面地,系统地了解以往的工作情况,可以正确认识以往工作中的优缺点;可以明确下一步工作的方向,少走弯路,少犯错误,提高工作效益. 工作总结还是认识世界的重要手段,是由感性认识上升到理性认识的必经之路.通过工作总结,使零星的,肤浅的,表面的感性认识上升到全面的,系统的,本质的理性认识上来,寻找出工作和事物发展的规律,从而掌握并运用这些规律.XXX同志曾指出:领导者的责任,就
英语四级作文万能模板及范文（多种版） Argumentation型 1）some, others, I 型 （1）模版一 There is no consensus among the people as to the view of _________ (主题). Some people hold the idea that __________ _____________ (观点A). A case in point is that _____________ ________________ (支持观点A的例子). On the other hand, others may have a quite different view. According to them, ______________ (观点B). The most typical example is that __________ (支持观点B的例子). Weighing the pros and cons of these arguments, I am inclin ed to agree with the latter. Admittedly, the former point of view seems reasonable in saying to some extent, but the latter is m ore convincing. （2）模版二 ___________ (主题) is a common occurrence in our lives. T he attitudes toward this issue vary from person to person. Som e people tend to ______________ when they are asked ______ ___________ (观点A) because _______________________ (支持观点A的原因). The most typical example is that ______________
( 工作总结 ) 单位：_________________________ 姓名：_________________________ 日期：_________________________ 精品文档 / Word文档 / 文字可改 2020年个人工作总结结尾范例End example of personal work summary in 2020
2020年个人工作总结结尾范例 大家都知道，做事要有头有尾，写工作总结也是一个道理，知道了工作总结开头怎么写，还要知道工作总结结尾怎么写。以下从几篇优秀的工作总结范文中提练出个人工作总结结尾模板，希望大家能从中领略到如何写好工作总结结尾。 范例一： 充分发挥政协的独特优势，切实做好各项联谊工作。加强联谊交往，增强人民政协的凝聚力，要充分发挥人民政协作为最广泛的爱国统一战线组织的作用，求同存异，把不同党派、不同阶层、不同民族、不同信仰的人在爱国主义和社会主义的旗帜下团结起来，团结一切可以团结的力量，在实现祖国统一和振兴中华的大目标下凝聚起来，努力增进全县人民的大团结、大联合。进一步加强海内
外联谊，多渠道、多形式地做好对外联系工作。广交新朋友，不忘老朋友，为不断扩大我县最广泛的爱国统一战线作贡献。充分发挥政协的特点和优势，不断开辟、拓宽对外开放的新渠道、新领域，为我县经济发展和社会进步做出新成绩。 范例二： 我们三位老师也经过了从生疏到磨合再到心领神会的转变过程，大家鼎力配合、和谐相处，从孩子们身上，我们也学到了很多，他们稚嫩的心灵，他们活跃的思维，他们调皮的表情，曾经有过多少次的感动、惊喜与微笑，就像“猜猜我有多爱你”那样，我们竭尽全力爱孩子们，孩子们同样用的进步来回报，为你们开心、为你们骄傲、为你们喝彩，为我们美好的幼儿园生活加油!在接下来的工作中，我们会做好09年上半年工作总结及计划，争取将工作做到更好。 范例三： 近半年的工作中，我通过实践学到了许多房地产的相关知识，通过不断的学习逐步提高了自己的业务水平。但是作为新人，我深
G R E i s s u e写作之自己 总结的万能例子 集团文件版本号：（M928-T898-M248-WU2669-I2896-DQ586-M1988）
Renaissance For example, the helpless fate can be felt from the tragedy works, written by Shakespeare. Mona Lisa, created by Beethoven, revealed the mysterious and implicit smile. Although works completed by different artists and writers revealed slight variations in the access, performing form, and social aspect focusing on, as far as common theme and hidden ideas were concerned, the obvious similries to each other seemed much more than any of the minute differences, namely, resisting the feudalization and corrupt institution and enlightening freedom of human being. This is called “Renaissance” in the history. Genetic engineering 迄今为止，基因工程还没有用于人体，但已在从细菌到家畜的几乎所 有非人生命物体上做了实验，并取得了成功。事实上，所有用于治疗 糖尿病的胰岛素都来自一种细菌，其ＤＮＡ中被插入人类可产生胰岛 素的基因，细菌便可自行复制胰岛素。基因工程技术使得许多植物具 有了抗病虫害和抗除草剂的能力；在美国，大约有一半的大豆和四分 之一的玉米都是转基因的。目前，是否该在农业中采用转基因动植物 已成为人们争论的焦点：支持者认为，转基因的农产品更容易生长， 也含有更多的营养（甚至药物），有助于减缓世界范围内的饥荒和疾
篇一：销售工作总结开头结尾范文 销售工作总结开头、结尾范文 销售工作总结开头 在繁忙的工作中不知不觉又迎来了新的一年，回顾这一年的工作历程，作为******企业的每一名员工，我们深深感到*****企业之蓬勃发展的热气，*****人之拼搏的精神。 ****是******销售部门的一名普通员工，刚到房产时，该同志对房地产方面的知识不是很精通，对于新环境、新事物比较陌生。在公司领导的帮助下，****很快了解到公司的性质及其房地产市场。作为销售部中的一员，该同志深深觉到自己身肩重任。作为企业的门面，企业的窗口，自己的一言一行也同时代表了一个企业的形象。所以更要提高自身的素质，高标准的要求自己。在高素质的基础上更要加强自己的专业知识和专业技能。此外，还要广泛了解整个房地产市场的动态，走在市场的前沿。经过这段时间的磨练，****同志已成为一名合格的销售人员，并且努力做好自己的本职工作。 房地产市场的起伏动荡，公司于****年与****公司进行合资，共同完成销售工作。在这段时间，****同志积极配合****公司的员工，以销售为目的，在公司领导的指导下，完成经营价格的制定，在春节前策划完成了广告宣传，为**月份的销售高潮奠定了基础。最后以****个月完成合同额****万元的好成绩而告终。经过这次企业的洗礼，****同志从中得到了不少专业知识，使自己各方面都所有提高。 200*年下旬公司与******公司合作，这又是公司的一次重大变革和质的飞跃。在此期间主要是针对房屋的销售。经过之前销售部对房屋执行内部认购等手段的铺垫制造出**火爆场面。在销售部，**同志担任销售内业及会计两种职务。面对工作量的增加以及销售工作的系统化和正规化，工作显得繁重和其中。在开盘之际，该同志基本上每天都要加班加点完成工作。经过一个多月时间的熟悉和了解，****同志立刻进入角色并且娴熟的完成了自己的本职工作。由于房款数额巨大，在收款的过程中该同志做到谨慎认真，现已收取了上千万的房款，每一笔帐目都相得益彰，无一差错。此外在此销售过程中每月的工作总结和每周例会，该同志不断总结自己的工作经验，及时找出弊端并及早改善。销售部在短短的三个月的时间将二期房屋全部清盘，而且一期余房也一并售罄，这其中与****同志和其他销售部成员的努力是分不开的。 200*年这一年是有意义的、有价值的、有收获的。公司在每一名员工的努力下，在新的一年中将会有新的突破，新的气象，能够在日益激烈的市场竞争中，占有一席之地。主要写一下工作内容，取得的成绩，以及不足，最后提出合理化的建议或者新的努力方向。。。。。。 转载：总结，就是把一个时间段的情况进行一次全面系统的总检查、总评价、总分析、总研究，分析成绩、不足、经验等。总结是应用写作的一种，是对已经做过的工作进行理性的思考。总结与计划是相辅相成的，要以计划为依据，制定计划总是在个人总结经验的基础上进行的。 总结的基本要求 1．总结必须有情况的概述和叙述，有的比较简单，有的比较详细。这部分内容主要是对工作的主客观条件、有利和不利条件以及工作的环境和基础等进行分析。 2．成绩和缺点。这是总结的中心。总结的目的就是要肯定成绩，找出缺点。成绩有哪些，有多大，表现在哪些方面，是怎样取得的；缺点有多少，表现在哪些方面，是什么性质的，怎样产生的，都应讲清楚。 3．经验和教训。做过一件事，总会有经验和教训。为便于今后的工作，须对以往工作的经验和教训进行分析、研究、概括、集中，并上升到理论的高度来认识。 今后的打算。根据今后的工作任务和要求，吸取前一时期工作的经验和教训，明确努力方向，提出改进措施等
Renaissance For example, the helpless fate can be felt from the tragedy works, written by Shakespeare. Mona Lisa, created by Beethoven, revealed the mysterious and implicit smile. Although works completed by different artists and writers revealed slight variations in the access, performing form, and social aspect focusing on, as far as common theme and hidden ideas were concerned, the obvious similries to each other seemed much more than any of the minute differences, namely, resisting the feudalization and corrupt institution and enlightening freedom of human being. This is called “Renaissance” in the history. Genetic engineering 迄今为止，基因工程还没有用于人体，但已在从细菌到家畜的几乎所有非人生命物体上做了实验，并取得了成功。事实上，所有用于治疗糖尿病的胰岛素都来自一种细菌，其ＤＮＡ中被插入人类可产生胰岛素的基因，细菌便可自行复制胰岛素。基因工程技术使得许多植物具有了抗病虫害和抗除草剂的能力；在美国，大约有一半的大豆和四分之一的玉米都是转基因的。目前，是否该在农业中采用转基因动植物已成为人们争论的焦点：支持者认为，转基因的农产品更容易生长，也含有更多的营养（甚至药物），有助于减缓世界范围内的饥荒和疾病；而反对者则认为，在农产品中引入新的基因会产生副作用，尤其是会破坏环境。 诚然，仍有许多基因的功能及其协同工作的方式不为人类所知，但想到利用基因工程可使番茄具有抗癌作用、使鲑鱼长得比自然界中的大几倍、使宠物不再会引起过敏，许多人便希望也可以对人类基因做类似的修改。毕竟，胚胎遗传病筛查、基因修复和基因工程等技术不仅可用于治疗疾病，也为改变诸如眼睛的颜色、智力等其他人类特性提供了可能。比如，运用此技术，可使患儿的父母生一个和患儿骨髓匹配的孩子，然后再通过骨髓移植来治愈患儿。 So far, genetic engineering has not been used in human, but it has achieved successful experiment in almost all the objects on non-human life--from bacteria to livestock already. In fact, all the insulin treatment for diabetes come from a kind of bacteria which can be inserted into a human genes to make copies of insulin by bacteria oneself. Genetic engineering technology makes many plants have the disease-resistant ability and herbicide, In the USA, about half of soybean and a quarter of corn is genetically modified. At present, whether the transgenic plants used in agriculture has become the focus of debate, transgenic supporters think: the agricultural is faster to growth, and easier to contain more nutrition (even medicine), to help slow down worldwide famine and disease, But opponents argued, introducing new genes into agricultural will occur side effects, especially destroy the environment. Advantage: Admittedly, ethicist rejected the innovative development of genetic engineering because,
第五章老年社会工作 第一节老年社会工作概述 第二节老年社会工作的主要内容 第三节老年社会工作的主要方法 第一节老年社会工作概述 一、老年人与老年期 （一）年龄界定 生理年龄：生理指标与功能确定 心理年龄：心理活动程度确定 社会年龄：与他人交往的角色确定 （二）老年期的划分 低龄老年人：60-69岁 中龄老年人：70-79 高龄老年人：80岁以上 （三）划分的意义 1.三种年龄：不能仅凭日历年龄判断服务需求，而要关注不同个体在生理、心理与社会方面的差异。 2.三个时期：关注老年同期群的共性需要。 二、老年期的特点 （一）生理变化 1.生理变化的特点：九大生理系统老化 2.对开展老年社会工作的影响 （1）要特别关注老年人的身体健康状况； （2）处理好隐私的健康问题，如大小便； （3）帮助机构和家庭策划环境的调整。 （二）心理变化 1.智力、人格、记忆力的变化 智力：结晶智力强，但处理问题速度下降 人格：总结自己生命的意义 记忆力：记忆速度下降，动机决定是否学习 2.对开展老年社工的影响 （1）提供机会但尊重选择 （2）所有事放慢节奏 （3）关注身体健康对心理功能的重要性 （三）社会生活方面的变化 1.对老年社会生活变化的理论解释 （1）角色理论：丧失象征中年的社会角色 （2）活动理论：生活满足感与活动有积极联系 （3）撤离理论：接受减少与社会的交往 （4）延续理论：不能割裂看待老年阶段 （5）社会建构理论：老年是一个独特的个人过程 （6）现代化理论：现代化使老年人地位下降
2.理论在社会工作中的应用 （1）注意角色转变的重大生活事件 （2）注意老年个体的差异性，尊重其对生活意义的不同理解 （3）注意社会隔离可能对老年人造成的伤害 （4）改变总有可能 （5）关注社会变迁对老年人的影响，推动社会政策的调整 三、老年人的需要及问题 （一）老年人的需要 1.健康维护 2.经济保障 3.就业休闲 4.社会参与 5.婚姻家庭 6.居家安全 7.后事安排 8.一条龙照顾 （二）老年人的问题 1.慢性病问题与医疗问题 2.家庭照顾问题 3.宜居环境问题 4.代际隔阂问题 5.社会隔离问题 四、老年社会工作 （一）老年社会工作的对象 1.老年人自身：空巢、残疾、高龄老人，也包括健康老人 2.老年人周围的人：家庭成员、亲属、朋友、邻居等 3.宏观系统：单位与服务组织 （二）老年社会工作的目的 根本目标：老有所养、老有所医、老有所教、老有所学、老有所为、老有所乐 （三）老年社会工作的作用 1.个体层面：维持日常生活、获得社会支持 2.宏观层面：参与制定有关老年人的服务方案与政策 五、老年社会工作的特点 （一）老年歧视等社会价值观会影响社会工作者的态度与行为 （二）反移情是社会工作者的重要课题 （三）社会工作者要善于运用督导机制 （四）需要多学科合作 第二节老年社会工作的主要内容 一、身体健康方面的服务 二、认知与情绪问题的处理 三、精神问题的解决 四、社会支持网络的建立 五、老年人特殊问题的处理 一、身体健康方面的服务
工作总结结尾 工作总结结尾 结尾一般是总结的最后一部分,对全文进行归纳,总结.或突出成绩;或写今后的打算和努力的方向;或指出工作中的缺点和存在的咨询题. 【范例一】 近半年的工作中，我通过实践学到了许多房地产的相关知识，通过不断的学习逐步提高了自己的业务水平。然而作为新人，我深深明白，自己经验依旧相对欠缺的，需要不断的学习和磨练。因此，在新的一年里，我希望通过到销售第一线的不断学习和实践，做好个人工作打算，在现场不断增加自己的经验和见识，争取使自己的业务水平提到一个更高的高度，为公司多做贡献。 【范例二】 总之，这一年以来，我们有得也有失，有苦也有甜，然而不论欢笑或泪水，都将会是我们每个人在爱心社弥足宝贵的珍藏。相信爱心社的改日会更好 【范例三】 20xx年是不平凡的一年，通过全体职员的共同努力，公司各项工作取得了全面胜利，各项经营指标均创历史新高。在面对成绩欢欣鼓舞的同时，我们也清醒地看到我们在营销工作及售后服务工作中的诸多不足，尤其在市场开拓的创新上，精品服务的理念上，还大有潜力可挖。同时还要提高我们对市场变化的快速反应能力。为此，面对20xx年，公司领导团体，一定会充分发挥团队合作精神，群策群力，紧紧围绕服务治理那个主旨，将品牌营销、服务营销和文化营销三者紧密结合，确保公司20xx年公司各项工作的顺利完成。 【范例四】 一年的工作差不多结束了，在马上迎来的一年中，我们会不断的努力的，这是一直无法拒绝的咨询题，这是一直以来我们在年终时候的总结。每一年都有自己的进步，每一年都会有自己的成长相信大伙儿在来年中一定会取得最圆满的成功的 【范例五】 在20xx年的工作中，我会尽我的全力来参加工作的，如何讲现在还年轻，需要更好的奋斗，在年轻的时候多拼一拼，这才是一生中最好的奋斗时刻，过了那个年龄就是想拼也没有精力和能力了，我会趁着我年轻的时候努力拼搏的，打拼出属于自己的一片蔚蓝的天空 【范例六】 大夫的天职就是治病，这些差不多工作我这么多年来一直在进步，尽管质变依旧没有发生，只是相信量变积存到一定程度，我就会迎来自己的质变和升华。我在不断的提升我的思
个人月度工作总结结尾怎么写 范例一 总结上个月的工作，按照联社会计委派工作的具体要求，较好地履行了岗位职责，强化了内部管理规范工作，使全社的会计出纳工作得到了进一步加强，会计出纳工作质量得到了有效提高。但也存在不少问题。主要表现在：一是岗位职责发挥的不够好，以身作则，率先垂范的意识还不够强，存有办事效率不高、工作措施不到位等现象。二是在贯彻落实制度执行上不够认真，监督管理跟不上，存在抓制度落实的力度不够。三是会计出纳人员的整体业务素质未能从根本得到提高，学业务、练技术积极性未能真正充分发挥起来。针对以上问题，本人在下步工作中将认真加以改进和完善，按照联社领导和社领导的要求及委派会计主管的职权范围，严格履行岗位职责，扎实工作，努力完成联社及社领导交办的各项工作任务。
以上个人工作述职，如有不妥当之处，恳请领导给予批评，并加以监督。 范例二 总之，教育工作，是一份常做常新、永无止境的工作。一份春华，一份秋实，在教书育人的道路上我付出的是辛勤的汗水和真挚的泪水，但同时我也收获了充实与快乐。在以后的工作中我将一如既往用心去教诲我的学生，相信今日含苞欲放的花蕾，明日一定能盛开绚丽的花朵。希望在以后的工作中能发扬优点，克服不足，总结经验教训，使教学工作更上一层楼。 范例三 在新的一个月里除原本的工作职责内的事情之外，将完成以下工作： 。。。。。。
随着公司不断扩大，规范，完善，可以预料们的工作将更加繁重，要求也将更高，需掌握的知识需更广，为此，将更加勤奋学习，提高自身各项素质和技能，适应公司发展要求。 以上是上个月度的个人工作总结，请监督! 作总结的内容总结主要包括以下四个方面的主要内容： 1.基本情况 这是对自身情况和形势背景的简略介绍。自身情况包括单位名称、工作性质、基本建制、人员数量、主要工作任务等;形势背景包括国内外形势、有关政策、指导思想等。
高考英语作文万能模板（通用范文） 一、图表作文框架 As is shown/indicated/illustrated by the figure/percentage in the table(graph/picture/pie/cha rt,作文题目的议题has been on rise/decrease(goesup/increases/drops/decreases,significantly/dram atically/steadily rising/decreasing from______in_______to______in_____.From the sharp/marked decline/rise in the chart,it goes without saying that________. There are at least two good reasons accounting for_____.On the one hand,______.On th e other hand,______is due to the fact that________.In addition,_______is responsible for____ ___.Maybe there are some other reasons to show________.But it is generally believed that th e above mentioned reasons are commonly convincing. As far as I am concerned,I hold the point of view that_______.I am sure my opinion is both sound and well-grounded. 二、书信作文模板 Your address Month,Date,year Receiver's address Dear…, I am extremely pleased to hear from you.And I would like to write a letter to tell you that_____. …… I will greatly appreciate a response from you at your earliest convenience/I am looking f0rward to your replies at your earliest convenience. Best regards for your health and success. Sincerely yours, X X X 三、话题作文
个人工作总结结尾 1、新的一年意味着新的起点新的机遇新的挑战。我们办公室全体成员决心再接再厉，使工作更上一层楼。 2、xx年的工作还是会更加的困难，越来越大的竞争压力有时候会给我们带来极大的压力，但是化压力为动力，这才是我们一直以来不断的进步的最根本。在不断的进步中，我们得到了很大的发展，在进步中我们也有阵痛，但是这些都是暂时的，长远的发展才是我们一直想要的结果！相信在xx年我们会做的更好！ 3、新的一年已经来临，我们将在总结过去得失的基础上，与时俱进，开创教导工作的新局面，争取取得更好的成绩。 4、年终工作总结结尾。每一年都有自己的进步，每一年都会有自己的成长！相信大家在来年中一定会取得最圆满的成功的！ 5、在将来迎来的一年中，我会继续努力，将我的工作能力提高到一个新的档次，不辜负大家对我的期望，我会尽我所能的工作，帮助公司实现发展，相信公司的明天会更好！ 6、在以后的岁月月里，我的工作一定会越来越努力的，尽量不会出现任何的差错，这对我是必须要要求的，我对自
己的要求是最严格的，一定要做到为公司的事业尽出自己最大的 7、回顾一年来的工作，我在思想上、学习上、工作上取得了新的进步，但我也认识到自己的不足之处，理论知识水平还比较低，现代办公技能还不强，今后，我一定认真克服缺点，发扬成绩，自觉把自己置于群众的监督之下，刻苦学习、勤奋工作，做一名合格的人民公仆，为全面建设社会主义新农村作出自己的贡献！ 8、医生的天职就是治病，这些基本工作我这么多年来一直在进步，虽然质变还是没有发生，不过相信量变积累到一定程度，我就会迎来自己的质变和升华。我在不断的提升我的思想素质和工作能力，我相信只要我做到了这一切，我就会迎来一个美好的未来！ 9、总之，这一年以来，我们有得也有失，有苦也有甜，但是不论欢笑或泪水，都将会是我们每个人在爱心社弥足珍贵的珍藏。相信爱心社的明天会更好！ 10、一年的工作已经结束了，在即将迎来的一年中，我们会继续不断的努力的，这是一直无法拒绝的问题，这是一直以来我们在年终时候的总结。每一年都有自己的进步，每一年都会有自己的成长！相信大家在来年中一定会取得最圆满的成功的！ 11、xx年是不平凡的一年，通过全体员工的共同努力，
12月英语四级作文模板【十大万能段落模板】 一、图画/图表描述段 【示例一】 ①From the picture (graph, chart, table, pie, bar), we know that_____(图表内容总概括). ②On the one hand, the left/first picture tells us that_____情况一，图一/表一的内容). ③On the other hand, (the right/second)picture informs us that_____( 情况二，图二/表二的内容). ④It can easily be seen that_____(揭示图画/表寓意). 【示例二】 ①As is vividly shown/described/depicted in the cartoon/picture, _____(图表内容总概括). ②In the first picture, _____(描述图/表一内容，如果是一个表，则可左或上半部分). ③As is shown in the second drawing/picture, _____(描述图/表二内容，如果是一个表，则右或下半
部分). ④It is safe to draw the conclusion that_____ (提示寓意，或主题句，回应主题但不是主题句的重复). 二、意义阐述段 【示例一】 ①Judging from the pictures, we can clearly infer that the drawer’s intention is (主题句). ②(扩展句).③For one thing/First of all/Firstly, (第一个层面). ④For another/Besides/Moreover/In addition/Secondly, (第二个层面). ⑤Thus/As a result/Therefore/Finally, _____(总结句). 【示例二】 ①To begin with, the purpose of the drawings is to show us that _____ (主题句), yet the symbolic meanings subtly conveyed should be taken more seriously. ②(扩展句)is naturally associated with, to be
康德在人类文明史及哲学史取得崇高地位的原因：不是来自于其异乎寻常的思维能力，而是来自其身后拨打的人性；康德把至善看做是纯粹理性的最终目的。康德哲学的分类：世界哲学和学院哲学。人类普遍问题和专业问题。哲学的问题：我能够知道什么？我应当做什么？我可以希望什么（对自己人生的承诺和定位）？即“人是什么？”关心人的问题，而不是哲学的技术智力问题。康德一生：亚里士多德：他出生，他工作，他死了。康德《自然通史和天体理论》。本科毕业凭《自然通史与天体理论》直接进大学教书，德国哲学史上两个：康德，尼采。死于老年痴呆症。知识来源：知性和感性。感性给我们的是直观的杂多，一个不确定的经验的领域，除了具有一定的时间和空间形式外，实际上缺乏进一步的规定，本身不能构成知识，而只能成为知识的材料，人类只有通过理性的范畴把感性杂多的材料按照一定的规则综合在一起形成判断，那才叫知识。连接直观杂多的规则，就是范畴，不是来自于经验，而是来自于知性。主体或者我思把知性的先验范畴应用于感性的材料，按规则综合成为知识。旧的知识论：知识是我们主观与客观的事物符合。康德认识论：真理不是主观符合客观，而是我们的知识和判断必须符合我们的认识条件，而认识条件必须符合感性的先天形式，时间和空间以及知性的先验范畴及其运用规则。知识的两面：感性杂多与先验知性范畴。问题：不同质的先验范畴如何运用于感性直观。想象力：感性与知性之间的一种中介性的能力，沟通感性与知性，同时具有感性与知性的特性。想象力是如何使先验范畴运用于感性杂多的？用它所产生的图式。想象力是图式的承载者。图式：产生图像的规则或者程序，图像把一个范畴图示化，使其可运用于现象之上。“想象力为一个概念取得它的形象的某种普遍的处理方式的表象，我把它叫做这个概念的图式。”一方面具有普遍性，类似概念，另一方面，又是特殊的，类似图形。想象力根据图式自动产生图像，而中世纪的亚里士多德主义者认为图像是感官层面各种过程的结果，又是人理智抽象的基础。客体必须符合心灵，而不是相反，亚里士多德主义则相反。用图式的方法，根据某个概念，把各个表象综合在一个图像当中，图式使我们把现象的杂多带到了一起，散殊的杂多结合成一个图像，可以把概念用于现象。想象力，把日常生活中不可能的事物连接在一起。知性，感性，想象力——人的先天能力。黑格尔：我们对一个人的质疑和反驳，必须从接受它的前提开始，提出的质疑和反驳才是有效的。十二范畴：量（单一性，多数性，全体性），质（实在性，否定性，限制性），关系（（依存性与自存性（实体与偶然），原因性与从属性（原因和结果），协同性（主动与受动之间的交互作用）），模态类（可能性-不可能性，存在-非有，必然性-偶然性）。时间是范畴运用于现象的必要条件，我们所有的外感官和内感官的现象都在时间之中，时间是一切现象的共同特征。“图式无非是按照规则的先天时间规定而已”。时间是一切表象联结的形式条件。表象只有联结在一起才能形成判断，而时间就是联结表象的形式条件。时间的先验规定是想象力的产物，在感性和执行两边都有根基，与范畴是同质的，因为是普遍的先天的；与表象同质，因为时间包含在一切经验杂多的形式中。范畴在现象上的应用，借助于现象的时间规定而成为可能，后
个人年度工作总结格式示例 对你的工作做一个好的总结可以完美的结束你的工作。以下是收集的个人年度工作总结格式，欢迎阅读。 个人年度工作总结格式示例1 随着紧张忙碌的工作，2019年悄然过去了。在公司和办公室领导的正确领导下，在办公室全体员工的共同努力下，我们顺利完成了全年的各项任务。2019年对公司来说是特殊的一年。随着公司的生产逐渐步入正轨，公司的管理也逐渐正规化，这就要求我们的上班族做得更好、更细心，把办公室变成公司生产生活的坚强后盾。回顾过去一年的工作，既有成功的经验，也有不足的教训。为了在新的一年里更顺利地开展工作，取得更好的成绩，现将一年来工作的得失总结如下：一、工作内容总结： 在2019年的工作中，我主要完成了主任安排的会议、文件、宣传、合同、制度、印章、档案、接待、文件、报纸的收发工作，具体包括： 1.协助办公室主任建立本部门各项工作制度，及时向上级传达指示和报告，及时反馈和落实领导指示。 2.负责办公室的文秘、信息、机要、保密工作，做好办公室档案的收集整理工作。 3.负责公司红头文件的登记、发放和归档。 4.签收、整理、保管和发送外国公文、信件、邮件、报纸和邮件。 5.负责公司印章的登记和签字。 6.负责登记食堂饭卡的冲抵值、费用和流水账。 7.做会议记录，接待访客。 8.做好办公室人员、保卫人员、管理人员的月考勤，支付财务工资。 9.配合采购部打印、会签、归档材料采购合同。 10.负责检查和监督办公楼及部门办公室的卫生工作。 11.做好领导和办公室主任临时顶替工作。为了使公司的文件管理有序，提高文件处理效率和文件质量，促进和提高公司管理效率，在过去一年的文件管理工作中，根据文件的类别、日期和重要性进行分类归档，并对各种分类文件进行标记，建立详细的登记台帐和归档工作，大大提高了各种文件的查阅效率。宣传工作在2019年的宣传工作中，在总监的指导下，围绕更好的接待工作，营造良好的接待环境，针对安全月、消防月和今年流感的实际情况，以文字的形式进行宣传，为公司形象增光添彩。生产协调会是主任安排的，我代表办公室参加了每天早上的生产协调会。会议期间，我认真记录了各班组员工对办公室工作提出的要求，并及时向主任汇报，力争当天解决问题，让办公室为生产提供强大的后盾.员工食堂的管理在主任的领导和安排下，我从今年3月开始成为食堂日常和月度费用核算的主要人员。为了在不赔钱的情况下提高员工食堂的食品质量，在主任的指导下，我详细核算了员工打卡费用的现金收支，并努力做到每月结算清晰，合理向食堂支付现金，使办公室成为员工生活的坚强后盾。印章登记是为了规范印章的管理和使用，保证印章管理的安全性、严肃性和有效性。在领导的分配下，我对2019年的印章登记工作做了详细的记录，并监督印章用户认真签字，及时上报公司领导确认签字。现在2019年的印章登记工作已经全部完成并备案。考勤情况为了规范公司员工的考勤，在总监的安排下，我承担了2019年办公室人员的考勤工作，每天上午下午准时挂考勤签到表，督促大家认真及时签到。出勤率对公司来说不是什么大事，但是我觉得很重要，因为这是每个人的最低标准，所