International business
Table of content
1.0 Introduction (2)
1a Brief introduction of Toyota (2)
1b Toyota’s business in terms of products and markets (2)
2.0 The reasons why Toyota internationalizes its business (2)
3.0 International product lifecycle to explain the internationalization process of Toyota (3)
4.0 Key environmental factors faced by Toyota (4)
4a Environmental factors faced by Toyota in Singapore (4)
4b Foreign currency risk faced by Toyota (5)
5.0 Social-culture factors (5)
5a Hall’s high and low context culture (5)
5b Context culture of Singapore (6)
6.0 Market entry strategy (6)
6a Five market entry strategy (6)
Exporting (6)
Franchising (6)
Licensing (7)
Management contract (7)
Joint ventures (7)
6b The market entry strategy used by Toyota in Singapore (8)
7.0 International staffing strategy of Toyota (8)
8.0 Standardized and customized international marketing (8)
8a The differences between standardized and customized international marketing (8)
8b Reasons why Toyota uses customized strategy in Singapore (9)
9.0 Conclusion (10)
Reference (11)
1.0 Introduction
1a Brief introduction of Toyota
Toyota was created in 1933 and now has developed as i one of the top ten auto companies in the world (Muffatto, 1998). In its development process, Toyota has achieved huge success. On May 8, 2013, the company issued its financial result, which shows that its net revenues was 216 billion U.S. dollars (ref: https://www.doczj.com/doc/969857792.html,/statistics/262752/total-net-revenues-of-toyota/). Until 2014, its net revenues was increased to 249 billion U.S. dollars (ref: Toyota 2014 annual report).
1b Toyota’s business in terms of products and markets
Toyota produces and supplies high quality auto and other relevant products to target customers under five brands, which respectively are Toyota brand, Hino, Lexus, Ranz, and Scion. Currently, the company has produced some excellent automotive products, such as CROWN, REIZ, PRIUS, COROLLA, COROLLA, VIOS and LAND CRUISER and so on. to achieve further success, Toyota continues to expand its business into different countries and regions excluding Japan. In its international expansion process, the size of the company has been expanded. Until now, the company has 52 manufacturing companies in 170 states. To some extent, its success benefits from its effective international expansion strategy.
2.0 The reasons why Toyota internationalizes its business
There are some reasons why Toyota internationalizes its business. The first reason is to seek for more market opportunities and achieve further development and success. To some extent, international markets provides more opportunities for enterprises to sell their products and services (Robles, 1994). For example, to obtain more market opportunities, Toyota is expanding its business into developing countries such China and India etc. The international expansion can help Toyota to achieve a growth potentiality.
The second reason is to maintain higher competitive advantages. As more and more automotive enterprises enter automotive industry, the competition in automotive industry is
becoming more and more intense (Zapata & Nieuwenhuis, 2010). Under this condition, Toyota has to expand its business into different international markets in order to obtain and maintain its competitive advantages in the competitive industry.
The third reason is to occupy more market shares in different international markets. The international expansion of enterprises enables the enterprises to successfully sell its products in different markets, win more loyal customers and then occupy more market shares (Hohenthal et al, 2003). Thus, Toyota internationalizes its business with the purpose of occupying more market shares in different international markets.
3.0 International product lifecycle to explain the internationalization process of Toyota The theory of international product lifecycle was proposed by R. G. Vemon in 1968. The theory of international product lifecycle suggest internationalization process should well consider production lifecycle (Hashimoto, 2003). According to the theory of international product lifecycle is divided into four stages, which respectively are introduction, growth, maturity as well as decline (figure 1). In the stage of introduction, products are innovative and unique because there are not same products provided by other firms. Under this condition, firms will own monopolistic advantage in a certain market. At the stage of growth, products are often sold in domestic market and sometimes are exported into other international markets. For example, Toyota not only sells its products in domestic market, but also expose its products into America and the euro area. When the products come to the stage of maturity, industrial competition in domestic market will be more and more intense as more and more enterprises provide same products in the domestic market (Qin and Nembhard, 2012). Under this condition, enterprises have to develop foreign markets and continue to conduct international expansion in order to occupy more market share and maintain competitive advantage in a very competitive industry. For example, Toyota exposes its products into Singapore in order to occupy more market share in Singapore e market. Since the competition in the automotive industry is becoming more and more intense, thus, Toyota has to internationalize its business in order to occupy more market shares in different international markets and obtain higher competitive advantages in the competitive industry.
Figure 1: Stages of product life cycle
4.0 Key environmental factors faced by Toyota
4a Environmental factors faced by Toyota in Singapore
Currently, the company has operated its business in the Singapore market. When operating its business in Singapore, there are some environmental factors that creates good development opportunity for the company. Political environment is first reason. Over the past decade, the political environment in Singapore is relatively stable (Sim et al, 2003). In this case, Toyota can obtain a good development environment for its business development in Singapore. Besides that, to attract foreign investments, Singapore also has implemented a series of preferential policies for foreign companies (Anwar, 2008). Under this condition, the company can obtain a good development due to good political environment in Singapore. In addition, economic environment in Singapore also creates good condition for the development of Toyota. In recent years, Singapore’s economy has been rapidly development and people’s living standards and income level have been significantly improved. Currently, more and more Singaporeans can afford cars and have strong desire for buying cars. Undoubtedly, good economic environment in Singapore also provides a good opportunity for Toyota to sell its automotive products.
4b Foreign currency risk faced by Toyota
When enterprises operates its business in Singapore, the enterprise have to conduct the translation of funds (Lee & Jang, 2010). However, it should be noticed that the translation of funds will be different at different time due to the fluctuation of exchange rates (Millman, 1990). As a result, enterprise involved in international trade often will face some uncertainties and risks. Currently, Toyota operates its business in Singapore. Under this condition, Toyota often will face translation and transaction risks in Singapore when the company translates its funds. To some extent, the foreign currency risk often will lead a certain international enterprise to experience a huge loss. For this, Toyota should conduct effective management of the foreign currency risk in Singapore. To effective manage foreign currency risk in a Singapore, it is strongly recommended that Toyota must keep an eye on the fluctuation of exchange rates in Singapore. Only then can Toyota effectively prevent huge financial loss caused by the foreign currency risk.
5.0 Social-culture factors
5a Hall’s high and lo w context culture
Culture also is an important environmental factors that will impact on internationalization process of an enterprises. According to Muzychenko (2008), cultural differences have major impacts on business operation. Thus, Toyota should well understand cultural differences in its international expansion. According to Hall (1966), national cultures can be divided into high-context and low-context. According to Hall’s high/low context, people in high-context culture often will prefer to communicate or be communicated with a euphemistic way, while people in low-context culture prefer to communicate straightforward and heavily depend on words and message itself (Hall, 1966). For this, Toyota should communicate relevant messages with customers in different cultural contexts. For example, since Singapore is a country with high-context, thus, Toyota should communicate messages with a euphemistic way. By doing so, the company can effectively communicate some messages with an efficient and effective way.
5b Context culture of Singapore
Since people in different cultural contexts have different languages, attitudes and values, therefore, Toyota should choose different communication ways in different countries. Currently, Toyota operates its business in Singapore, which is a country with a high cultural context. As it mentioned above, people in a low-context culture are more likely to prefer to communicate or be communicated with a euphemistic way rather than a straightforward way. Therefore, Toyota should communicate messages with a euphemistic way
6.0 Market entry strategy
6a Five market entry strategy
When a certain enterprise wants to enter foreign markets, it is vital for select effective market entry strategies. According to Martorell et al (2013), market entry strategy refers to planned approaches that a certain enterprise uses to deliver goods and/or services to a foreign market and then distribute them there. There are some common market entry strategies that are widely used by multinational enterprises to enter into a certain target market. The market entry strategies respectively are exporting, franchising, licensing, management contract, as well as joint ventures.
Exporting
Exporting refers to multinational enterprises enter a target foreign market by exporting their products to the target foreign market (Love & Mansury, 2009). For example, exporting is used by Apple Company as its market entry strategy. To successfully enter a certain target market, Apple Company will enter the target market by exporting their products to the target foreign market. Thus, exporting is a commonly used strategy that is used by modern multinational enterprise to enter a certain foreign market (Fabling & Sanderson, 2013). Franchising
Franchising refers to a brand enterprise grants the rights to franchisor to market some goods and/or services produced by the brand enterprise within a specific country or region (Hoy & Stanworth, 2003). Currently, many famous brand enterprises often will enter a target foreign market by using the method of franchising (Sherman, 2004). Take McDonalds as an example,
the company enter Chinese market by using the method of franchising. Depend on such market entry strategy, McDonalds has successfully entered Chinese market. Thus, franchising also is a market entry strategy.
Licensing
According to Sherman, (2004), licensing is a market entry mode in which a multinational enterprise grants other business entities to use the multinational enterprise’s intellectual property rights such as brand name, trademarks, technology etc. Take Microsoft as an example, the company enter foreign markets such as China and France by using the method of licensing. The company grants computer manufactures around the world a license in order to enter foreign markets. the licensing also is a commonly used market entry strategy that is widely used by modern enterprise to enter a target market successfully.
Management contract
Management contract is the entry into foreign markets by signing contract arrangement and transferring intangible assets or some technologies to other business entities in the target market in return for a fee (McDonald et al, 2002). For example, Qantas enter other foreign markets by using the method of the management contract. In many case, the Qantas often will transfer its technology to other companies in the target markets through contract arrangements in order to enter a foreign market. Thus, management contract also is a market entry strategy used by modern enterprises to enter a target market.
Joint ventures
Joint venture refers to the entry into foreign markets by establishing a contractual agreement joining together two or more business entities in order to develop and sell some products in a target market (Bontempi & Prodi, 2009). For example, Dongfeng Motor Co is China's largest auto joint venture that was created by DongFeng Automobile Company and Nissan Motor Company in 2003. Depending on the joint venture, the Nissan Motor Company successfully enter Chinese automotive market. Thus, the joint venture also is a market entry strategy.
6b The market entry strategy used by Toyota in Singapore
In the international expansion process, Toyota actively enters Singapore market by using some effective market entry strategies. Here below are two market entry strategies that are used by Toyota to enter Singapore market. The first market entry strategy used by the company is exporting. The company actively export its products to Singapore market and then sell there. For example, Toyota often exports different types of cars to Singapore. Depending on the exporting strategy, Toyota has successfully entered Singapore market. Therefore, the exporting is a market entry strategy used by Toyota in Singapore. Another market entry strategy is joint venture. For example, Toyota actively seek for some excellent partners in Singapore to establish joint venture in order to enter Singapore market. By using the method of the joint venture, Toyota has successful entered Singapore market. Toyota and Guangzhou Toyota are joint ventures in Singapore. Thus, the joint venture also is a market entry strategy used by Toyota in Singapore.
7.0 International staffing strategy of Toyota
In the internationalization process, Toyota uses internationalization of talents and use of local talents in the host country as its international staffing strategies. On the one hand, the company recruits and use foreign talents to manage its business in the host country. For example, Toyota has recruited and used a large pool of talent from Singapore to manage its business in Singapore. On the other hand, Toyota also uses localization strategy to recruit its general employees. For example, when Toyota operates its business in Singapore, the company continues to recruit local employees to service it. To some extent, the international staffing strategies of Toyota contribute to its success in Singapore.
8.0 Standardized and customized international marketing
8a The differences between standardized and customized international marketing
In enterprises’ international expansion process, standardized and customized international marketing are two typical marketing strategies that are used multinational enterprises (Bharadwaj et al, 2009). There are some differences between the standardized and customized international marketing.
The first difference between these two strategy is that standardized international marketing an undifferentiated marketing strategy to produce and supply products and/or services, and customer international marketing is to produces and market some differentiated products and/or services. For example, Apple Company markets I-phone4s by using standardized international marketing, Samsung markets different products according to the different demands of different customers in different countries.
The second difference could be embodied in productive way and standard. The productive way/standard of the standardized international marketing is large-scale/ undifferentiated, while the productive way/standard of the customized international marketing is batch/quantitative production. For example, KFC uses standardized international marketing as its strategy, clothing enterprises markets its products by using customized international marketing as the clothing enterprises produce clothing products by using the way of quantitative production.
The final difference between these two international marketing is that the standardized international marketing does not care differentiation of products and/or services, while the customized international marketing highly emphasizes differentiation. For example, rail companies provide same products and services to customers, while consulting companies provides different services to different customers according to their needs.
8b Reasons why Toyota uses customized strategy in Singapore
There are some reasons that can be used to explain the reasons why the company implements customized strategy Singapore. On the one hand, different people have different demands for cars. Under this condition, Toyota has to provide differentiated products to different customers in Singapore. For example, rich men like to purchase Toyota’s luxury models, people from middle class often will purchase the most practical car. Thus, Toyota uses customized strategy in Singapor. On the other hand, customers are pursuing personalized products and/or services. In face of such consumer trend, Toyota uses customized strategy in Singapore. For example, Toyota produces and markets different types of cars in Singapore market in order to meet different customers’ different demands.
9.0 Conclusion
In this report, it introduces the company and the reasons why Toyota internationalizes its business. In addition, this report also uses the theory of international product lifecycle to explain the internationalization process of Toyota and identifies some key environmental factors and foreign currency risk faced by Toyota in Singapore. And then, cultural context of Singapore also is discussed by using Hall’s low and high context cultures. And then, this report also discusses two international staffing strategy used by Toyota in Singapore. Furthermore, this report also explains five market entry strategies, including exporting, franchising, licensing, management contract, and joint ventures and identifies that exporting and joint ventures are two market entry strategies used by Toyota. Finally, this report also discusses the differences between standardized and customized international marketing and explains the reasons why the company implements the customized international marketing in Singapore
Reference
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附录A 3 Image Enhancement in the Spatial Domain The principal objective of enhancement is to process an image so that the result is more suitable than the original image for a specific application. The word specific is important, because it establishes at the outset than the techniques discussed in this chapter are very much problem oriented. Thus, for example, a method that is quite useful for enhancing X-ray images may not necessarily be the best approach for enhancing pictures of Mars transmitted by a space probe. Regardless of the method used .However, image enhancement is one of the most interesting and visually appealing areas of image processing. Image enhancement approaches fall into two broad categories: spatial domain methods and frequency domain methods. The term spatial domain refers to the image plane itself, and approaches in this category are based on direct manipulation of pixels in an image. Fourier transform of an image. Spatial methods are covered in this chapter, and frequency domain enhancement is discussed in Chapter 4.Enhancement techniques based on various combinations of methods from these two categories are not unusual. We note also that many of the fundamental techniques introduced in this chapter in the context of enhancement are used in subsequent chapters for a variety of other image processing applications. There is no general theory of image enhancement. When an image is processed for visual interpretation, the viewer is the ultimate judge of how well a particular method works. Visual evaluation of image quality is a highly is highly subjective process, thus making the definition of a “good image” an elusive standard by which to compare algorithm performance. When the problem is one of processing images for machine perception, the evaluation task is somewhat easier. For example, in dealing with a character recognition application, and leaving aside other issues such as computational requirements, the best image processing method would be the one yielding the best machine recognition results. However, even in situations when a
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江苏科技大学 2010年 03 月 28 日 均布荷载作用下挡土墙上的土压力 G. I. Shvetsov UDC 624.131.531.2 在前一篇文章中，我们确定了在只考虑填土自重的试验条件下，作用在挡土墙上的压力。这篇文章是第一篇文章的延续，致力于探索填土在外界均布荷载作用下，在挡土墙上产生的荷载问题，当在使用到先前得到的岩土平衡微分方程时，我们仅仅只改变边界条件，因为在这种情况下我们使用了与初始解决方案相同的原理。我们只提取那些与附加土压力有关的新成果，以及仅定义那些第一次出现的新符号。 在设计中，我们通常把作用在挡土墙上的土压力看作是呈三角形分布的，应力也被假设为是沿着墙体均匀连续分布的，但是实验结果并没有证实这一理论，试验表明表面
的附加应力随墙的高度变化并不均匀，而是从回填土顶部的最大值开始一直减小到其底部的最小值。因而，在M.C.瓦尔跟实验图的纵坐标的最大值超出理论计算值近两倍，最小值达到理论计算值的0.65倍，因为土压力的增加主要是在墙的上部，由此所得出的作用点比计算所得出的要高很多。 F.M.shikhiev 的理论里包含了关于挡土墙均布荷载作用下的二维应力折减问题，但是， 附加应力的分布对挡土墙受超荷载作用的效果问题的影响，并没有经过合适的理论研究。 虽然，不同研究人员所做的无数次试验已经确定，侧壁的扭曲效应更大，随着表面的粗糙程度而变大，随挡土墙的宽度和高度之比。在这篇文章里，我们将尽可能的填补这方面的空白。 在边界条件0q 0,y x ==的基础上，我们可以确定试验中作用在有侧向限制的填土上没有超荷的垂直应力。如果一个外附加应力作用在楔块表面上的强度为x σ，则在这种情况下，我们可以从已知条件得出，当y=0时，x q = x σ，既可以得出方程 ()()1 1 1/2/k x x w w h y h A q f m h A λσξ+-=+ （1） 其中 ，荷载分配的不均匀系数A 1和土的深度有关： ()() 111/1/k k A y h y h -= --- （2） 方程一是通用的，因为对于任意一种荷载分布x σ它都可以计算出任意土层中某一点的应力，因此便足以表明应力在X 轴方向的分布规律。当0=x σ时，方程便简化成相应的没有附加应力的形式，并且，当0=w f 而且0>x σ时，它反映了在考虑了附加应力条件时的二维问题，即： 11k x x h y q A h γσ?? =+- ??? （3） 满布在滑动楔上的均布荷载对我们已经知道的设计系数k ，n,和ξw 的值并没有影响，所以，计算作用在挡土墙上的正应力，切应力和总应力的表达式如下：
Inventory management Inventory Control On the so-called "inventory control", many people will interpret it as a "storage management", which is actually a big distortion. The traditional narrow view, mainly for warehouse inventory control of materials for inventory, data processing, storage, distribution, etc., through the implementation of anti-corrosion, temperature and humidity control means, to make the custody of the physical inventory to maintain optimum purposes. This is just a form of inventory control, or can be defined as the physical inventory control. How, then, from a broad perspective to understand inventory control? Inventory control should be related to the company's financial and operational objectives, in particular operating cash flow by optimizing the entire demand and supply chain management processes (DSCM), a reasonable set of ERP control strategy, and supported by appropriate information processing tools, tools to achieved in ensuring the timely delivery of the premise, as far as possible to reduce inventory levels, reducing inventory and obsolescence, the risk of devaluation. In this sense, the physical inventory control to achieve financial goals is just a means to control the entire inventory or just a necessary part; from the perspective of organizational functions, physical inventory control, warehouse management is mainly the responsibility of The broad inventory control is the demand and supply chain management, and the whole company's responsibility. Why until now many people's understanding of inventory control, limited physical inventory control? The following two reasons can not be ignored: First, our enterprises do not attach importance to inventory control. Especially those who benefit relatively good business, as long as there is money on the few people to consider the problem of inventory turnover. Inventory control is simply interpreted as warehouse management, unless the time to spend money, it may have been to see the inventory problem, and see the results are often very simple procurement to buy more, or did not do warehouse departments . Second, ERP misleading. Invoicing software is simple audacity to call it ERP, companies on their so-called ERP can reduce the number of inventory, inventory control, seems to rely on their small software can get. Even as SAP, BAAN ERP world, the field of
中国企业并购失败案例显示国际化之路不平坦 中国最新的一次国际化并购发生在非洲。9月初,因为利比亚政府反对,中国石油(601857)不得不放弃以4.6亿美元收购以利比亚业务为主的加拿大Verenex能源公司。 然而,这只是中国海外并购失败的冰山一角。事实上,从2004年4月26日TCL通讯宣布收购阿尔卡特手机后,中国大企业的海外并购案例就如潮水般涌出。 中国企业无论是怀着难以控制的膨胀情绪,还是很多企业家本着一心想在世界证明中国企业实力的内心冲动,但展现在中国企业面前的事实却是国际化道路并不平坦,就如同一个刚成年的孩子,父母允许他走更远的路,但当独自走进森林时,发现森林并不是他之前想像的那么有趣。 在走出去的路途上,无论“中铝与力拓收购交易失败案”、“上汽5亿美元完败双龙”,还是“中海油出资130亿美元收购优尼科被否”,这些经典案例都在向中国企业诉说着外面的世界除了精彩还有为利益的伪善、无原因的毁约及无法逾越又若隐若现的国家利益。同时这些失败的案例也折射出一心想做大做强的中国企业一方面需要摒弃收购前的“金钱万能”的资本自傲论,另一方面需要审慎对待收购后的管理文化融合。国际并购之路上,有时是笔生意,有时体现的是交易,这就要看谁更有控制局面的能力与筹码。 “金钱不是万能的” 能源似乎是中国近年来海外并购的最重要领域,这个领域中国企业的豪举令世界都大吃一惊,而出手阔绰者皆为几大央企。 成功与失败、鲜花与泪水都集中在这个领域。 2009年,中石化成功收购英国Addax公司境外股票;中石油斥巨资购买澳大利亚液化天然气;据悉,中海油也与中国石油拟联合竞购西班牙石油公司旗下阿根廷子公司YPF。一系列事实表明,在这个全球金融危机之年,2009年俨然成了中国石油企业的海外收购年。 而早先的成功案例则更多,2007年12月12日,以中国国家电网为首的财团以约296亿元人民币赢得了菲律宾电网未来25年的经营权。2007年,中国移动成功收购了米雷康姆公司持有的巴基斯坦巴科泰尔公司股权。2007年5月,中投斥资约30亿美元以29.605美元/股的价格购买了黑石近10%的股票。 然而,在近日大连举行的夏季达沃斯论坛上,国务院国资委主任李荣融却泼了盆冷水,他说,国有企业应该对海外并购持谨慎态度,避免在未来的战略收购中出现决策失误。 今年上半年约有150家国有企业已经在国内外寻求并购机会,李荣融却建议这些企业未来保持谨慎,因为任何海外并购的最终目的都是提高公司的竞争力。李荣融还称,如果不能实现这一目的,任何并购都是不妥当的。 中国能源企业近几年的行动已经令人眼花缭乱,然而遇到的阻力也显然越来越大,其中最重要的就是当地政府以国家安全为由的担心。 例如9月初,收购拥有利比亚油田的加拿大Verenex能源公司时,该公司在给中石油的回应中称,他们面临巨大压力,不得不考虑按照利比亚政府的意愿,将公司折价出售给该国一家当地的投资基金。 “中石油、中石化最大的失误可能是目标暴露得太早,而且方式过于直白。当中石油表明要收购利比亚、安哥拉的石油资产时,一下子把收购价拍了出来,别人看到的不是你很有实力,而是感觉到压力,感觉到威胁。”国内某媒体刊载的专家观点如此认为。 该专家同时发布的观点是,中国能源巨头非常有实力,但是,“金钱不是万能的。” 资本诱惑与国家安全压力的对决 尽管中石油、中石化等近期收购海外油田资源的行动不时受阻,但毕竟中国能源巨头们也时常成功地进行了收购行动,而中铝收购力拓部分股权的合作则几乎完全以遗憾告终。 “除了中铝,都是赢家”、“北京再见,必和必拓你好!”今年6月6日,澳大利亚报纸对力拓中
大学毕业论文英文翻译 中文译文 计算机网络 每个一个世纪都有一种主导地位的技术。18世纪伴随着工业革命的到来的是大型机械系统的时代；19世纪是蒸汽机的时代，而20世纪的发展历程中，关键的技术是信息收集、处理和分发。在其他的发展方面，我们还可以看到：遍布全球的电话网络的建立起来了，无线电广播和电视的出现了，计算机工业诞生了，并且以超乎想象的速度在成长；另外通信卫星也发射上天了。 技术的快速发展的一个直接结果是，这些领域正在快速地融合，信息收集、传输、存储和处理之间的差别正在迅速地消失。对于具有数百个办公室的大型组织来说，尽管这些办公室分布在广阔的地理区域中，但未来期望的情景是，工作人员只要单击一下按钮，就可以查看最远处分部的状态。随着信息收集、处理和分发能力的不断提高，我们对于更加复杂的信息处理技术的需求也增长得更快。 与其他的工业(比如汽车和航空运输业)相比，计算机工业还是非常年轻，尽管如此，计算机技术却在很短的时间内有了惊人的进展。在计算机诞生之初的20年间，计算机系统是高度集中化的，通常位于一个很大的房间中。该房间通常配有玻璃墙，参观的人透过玻璃墙可以欣赏到里边伟大的电子奇迹。中等规模的公司或者大学可能会有一台或者两台计算机，而大型的研究机构最多也就几十台计算机。要在20年内生产出大量同样功能但是体积比邮票还小的计算机，在当时的人们看来纯属科学幻想。 计算机和通信的结合对于计算机系统的组织方式产生了深远的影响。把一台大型的计算机放在一个单独的房间中，然后用户带着他们的处理任务去房间里上机，这种"计算机中心"的概念现在已经完全过时了。由一台计算机来处理整个组织中所有的计算需求，这种老式的模型已经被新的模型所取代，在新的模型下，由大量独立的，但相互连接起来的计算机来共同完成计算任务。这些系统称为计算机网络(computer networks)。如何设计这些网络，并且将这些网络组织起来，这就是本书的主题。 在本书中，我们将使用术语"计算机网络"来表示通过同一种技术相互连接起来的一组自主计算机的集合。如果两台计算机能够交换信息，则称
企业一定是在各种环境的锻炼下，才会真正成长起来。九七金融危机，虽然造成了韩国多家企业破产，但也为三星、LG的崛起奠定的环境。从我国企业的来看，总体上应该是正处于走向世界，走向强盛的发展阶段。中国经济能否在全球崛起，取决于中国企业能否在全球崛起。对于中国企业的全球化发展之路，总体上应该乐观的。 虽然的在战略上，我国企业参与全球化的竞争，必然会造就中国企业的崛起，但是，也应该看到一些不利于因素在制约着中国企业在国际上的发展。这些因素包括： 1、国内消费市场 消费与生产是统一的，近些日子的物价上涨，应该说有部分原因归结于中国消费者与生产者的脱节。我国人员薪资占GDP的比例可以看出，我国GDP增长的财富相当大一部分并没有转化为国内市场的消费力。这必须造成中国经济发展中的不平衡。必然加大企业在市场竞争中的激烈程度，反而对企业的健康成长不利。这在我国诸多行业已经反映出来。从这个意义上讲，不是微利、而是暴利才是中国经济发展中的“毒瘤”。 2、资本市场 中国企业的发展，离不开中国资本市场的发育。中国的资本市场虽然对中国企业的发展起到了相当大的作用，做出了巨大的贡献，但与中国市场经济的发展仍显得相对滞后。主要表现在没有形成适应企业发展资金需求的相对自由的资本市场；在股市二级市场上的交易资金难以真正进入企业现金流之中；总体上直接融资比例偏小等问题。中国企业要在国际上建立参与竞争，就必须要有一个较完善的资本市场的支持。 3、软件因素 虽然在硬件我们能够快速跟上国际的步伐，但是在软件环境方面，我们仍然相差很远。在软件方面，至少有几个问题会加大我国企业在国际化竞争中的难度。首先是信用问题，当一个社会把“把说话不算数”当成是智谋时，他必将受到国际上通行规则的惩罚。其次是非市场化竞争方式，当非市场化的竞争方式渗透到市场经济的各个角落时，它的效率也会低得十分惊人。而我国企业生产效率的低下，
中国中小企业国际化之路模式研究 小墨 摘要：改革开放以来，随着我国市场化程度的不断提高, 小企业数量不断增加，这不仅是扩大就业机会, 增加财政收入, 繁荣市场的短期政策选择, 也是建立健全社会主义市场经济体制, 实现国民经济可持续发展的长期需要。面对国际国内的双重挑战，中国中小企业走出去是必然的选择。但由于中小企业本身的局限，小企业在发展过程中也暴露出许多问题。 关键字：中小企业管理问题对策
目录 1我国中小企业在当前管理中存在的问题 (3) 1.1小企业融资中存在的问题 (3) 1.2小企业资金管理中存在的问题 (3) 1.3小企业信用低 (3) 1.4小企业人力资源管理差 (4) 1.5我国小企业信息化建设问题 (4) 2中小企业国际化经营的优势分析 (5) 4中小企业如何加强管理，提高企业竞争力 (7) 4.1加强经济管理 (7) 4.2拓展融资渠道 (7) 4.3加强经济管理 (7) 4.4努力提高企业经济财务管理人员的专业素质 (7) 4.5加强经济成本管理 (7) 4.6进行管理制度创新 (7) 5如何与创新结合，发展中小企业的特有优势 (9) 5.1从企业实际出发 (9) 5.2从基础管理着手 (9) 5.3以人为本，加强企业知识培训 (10) 5.4健全企业规章制度，做到有制可依和有制必依 (10) 6总结 (11) 参考文献 (12)
1我国中小企业在当前管理中存在的问题 1.1小企业融资中存在的问题 1．以内部融资为主,企业内部留存收益的积累是有限的, 随着企业自身生产的不断扩大, 内部融资极大地制约了企业的快速发展。2.外部融资困难,银行贷款是外部融资的重要渠道。虽然中小企业与金融机构之间已普遍建立了较为稳定的合作关系, 但由于企业规模相对较小、经营变数多且风险大、信用能力较低等一系列原因, 使得外部融资约束高于大企业。3.融资成本较高。调查结果显示, 目前我国中小企业融资成本一般包括贷款利息、基本利息和浮动部分, 浮动幅度一般在20%以上 1.2小企业资金管理中存在的问题 筹资管理效率低：1、筹资决策不科学，筹集资金不合理小企业的财务管理人员一般缺乏系统的、专业的财务管理知识，经常会由于错过了最佳的筹资时间而增加了企业的筹资成本，或者是由于没有在预定的时间内筹得足够的资金，而影响企业的正常生产经营活动。2.筹资渠道不畅，融资方式单一。小企业主要就是通过银行贷款和商业信用筹资，另外由于小企业经营风险较高，偿债能力较低，小企业可筹得的银行贷款也非常有限，所以目前我国小企业的筹资主要依靠商业信用方式。3营运资金运转不灵对货币资金管理不严，造成资金闲置或不足.应收账款回收困难，造成资金周转缓慢.存货控制薄弱，造成资金呆滞。 1.3小企业信用低 中小企业信用意识较差中小企业普遍缺乏信用基础, 信用观念薄弱。中小企业一般都没有完善的管理体制, 它们的管理模式比较简单, 它们只是期望能获得更多的利益,期望企业的短期利益, 不在乎企业失信是否有损企业的名誉, 是否妨碍企业的长远发展。中小企业信用缺乏现象普遍存在。中小企业没有可行的长远战略规划企业要想发展, 给自己定位和制定一份长远的战略规划是少不了的。但在我国, 中小企业一般没有战略规划, 这导致中小企业在中不清楚自己的定位, 不能明确自己的使命和目标, 发展盲目对政府信用的缺少大量的中小企业向政府提供虚假的财务报告,以达到其逃税避税、少纳税或者不纳税的目的, 有的企业甚至通过虚假的出口行为向国家骗取出口退税, 造成大量政府资金的流失。生产信用缺失主要表现为企业隐藏事实、欺诈消费者、追求暴利。中小企业一般没有严格的质量管理体系或认证, 有的中小企业在生产过程中使用劣质、有害的原材料, 采用非法生产的方式生产假冒伪劣产品以牟取暴利。
译文 交通拥堵和城市交通系统的可持续发展 摘要：城市化和机动化的快速增长，通常有助于城市交通系统的发展，是经济性，环境性和社会可持续性的体现，但其结果是交通量无情增加，导致交通拥挤。道路拥挤定价已经提出了很多次，作为一个经济措施缓解城市交通拥挤，但还没有见过在实践中广泛使用，因为道路收费的一些潜在的影响仍然不明。本文首先回顾可持续运输系统的概念，它应该满足集体经济发展，环境保护和社会正义的目标。然后，根据可持续交通系统的特点，使拥挤收费能够促进经济增长，环境保护和社会正义。研究结果表明，交通拥堵收费是一个切实有效的方式，可以促进城市交通系统的可持续发展。 一、介绍 城市交通是一个在世界各地的大城市迫切关注的话题。随着中国的城市化和机动化的快速发展，交通拥堵已成为一个越来越严重的问题，造成较大的时间延迟，增加能源消耗和空气污染，减少了道路网络的可靠性。在许多城市，交通挤塞情况被看作是经济发展的障碍。我们可以使用多种方法来解决交通挤塞，包括新的基础设施建设，改善基础设施的维护和操作，并利用现有的基础设施，通过需求管理策略，包括定价机制，更有效地减少运输密度。 交通拥堵收费在很久以前就已提出，作为一种有效的措施，来缓解的交通挤塞情况。交通拥堵收费的原则与目标是通过对选择在高峰拥挤时段的设施的使用实施附加收费，以纾缓拥堵情况。转移非高峰期一些出行路线，远离拥挤的设施或高占用车辆，或完全阻止一些出行，交通拥堵收费计划将在节省时间和降低经营成本的基础上，改善空气中的质量，减少能源消耗和改善过境生产力。此计划在世界很多国家和地方都有成功的应用。继在20世纪70年代初和80年代中期挪威与新加坡实行收费环，在2003年2月伦敦金融城推出了面积收费;直至现在，它都是已经开始实施拥挤收费的大都市圈中一个最知名的例子。 然而，交通拥堵收费由于理论和政治的原因未能在实践中广泛使用。道路收费
本科毕业设计（论文）外文翻译基本规范 一、要求 1、与毕业论文分开单独成文。 2、两篇文献。 二、基本格式 1、文献应以英、美等国家公开发表的文献为主（Journals from English speaking countries）。 2、毕业论文翻译是相对独立的，其中应该包括题目、作者（可以不翻译）、译文的出处（杂志的名称）（5号宋体、写在文稿左上角）、关键词、摘要、前言、正文、总结等几个部分。 3、文献翻译的字体、字号、序号等应与毕业论文格式要求完全一致。 4、文中所有的图表、致谢及参考文献均可以略去，但在文献翻译的末页标注：图表、致谢及参考文献已略去(见原文)。（空一行，字体同正文） 5、原文中出现的专用名词及人名、地名、参考文献可不翻译，并同原文一样在正文中标明出处。 二、毕业论文（设计）外文翻译 （一）毕业论文（设计）外文翻译的内容要求 外文翻译内容必须与所选课题相关，外文原文不少于6000个印刷符号。译文末尾要用外文注明外文原文出处。 原文出处：期刊类文献书写方法：[序号]作者（不超过3人，多者用等或et al表示）.题（篇）名[J].刊名（版本）,出版年，卷次（期次）：起止页次. 原文出处：图书类文献书写方法：[序号]作者.书名[M].版本.出版地：出版者,出版年.起止页次. 原文出处：论文集类文献书写方法：[序号]作者.篇名[A].编著者.论文集名[C]. 出版地：出版者，出版年.起止页次。 要求有外文原文复印件。 （二）毕业论文（设计）外文翻译的撰写与装订的格式规范 第一部分：封面
1.封面格式:见“毕业论文（设计）外文翻译封面”。普通A4纸打印即可。 第二部分：外文翻译主题 1.标题 一级标题，三号字，宋体，顶格，加粗 二级标题，四号字，宋体，顶格，加粗 三级标题，小四号字，宋体，顶格，加粗 2.正文 小四号字，宋体。 第三部分：版面要求 论文开本大小：210mm×297mm（A4纸） 版芯要求：左边距：25mm，右边距：25mm，上边距：30mm，下边距：25mm，页眉边距：23mm，页脚边 距：18mm 字符间距：标准 行距：1.25倍 页眉页角：页眉的奇数页书写—浙江师范大学学士学位论文外文翻译。页眉的偶数页书写—外文翻译 题目。在每页底部居中加页码。（宋体、五号、居中） 装订顺序是：封皮、中文翻译、英文原文复印件。
企业国际化之路：以浙江康奈集团“走出去”为例 一、引言浙江康奈集团成为中国皮鞋行业的龙头企业和走出国门创品牌的企业，产品远销欧美、东南亚及香港等三十几个国家和地区，成为中国皮鞋行业首家走向国际市场的品牌。以康奈集团为例，研究民营企业是如何实现自己的国际化之路。 二、康奈集团发展历程回顾 1.创业之路 1980年，郑秀康创办了鸿盛皮鞋厂，以手工作坊的方式生产皮鞋，到1987 年，完成了原始资本积累。康奈成立国际贸易部，提出打造世界名牌，开始了“走出去”战略。2000 年，依 靠建立专卖店，康奈集团展开了国际名牌之旅，进入到国际化经营阶段。 2.“走出去”之路 2001年1月，康奈在巴黎最繁华的商业街开设的首家专卖店，康奈品牌在法国巴黎叫响。康奈于2001年6月8日登陆美国，建立了其在美国第一家专卖店。2001年9月19日，康奈第三家海外专卖店定在了意大利。2002年12月，康奈有在欧洲5 个国家建立了5 家专卖店。仅2012年一年康奈新增318家专卖连锁店。
3.经营业绩 目前，康奈共计获得各类荣誉奖项400 多项。在国内设立了14个营销分公司、28个营销办事处、2800 多家专卖店。出口美国、德国、日本、印度等30 多个国家和地区。2011年，康奈营业收入27亿元，外贸出口达3000 万美元，同比增长47%。 三、康奈集团“走出去”的羊皮卷 1.定位清晰的品牌战略 在进军国际市场之前，康奈当家人郑秀康指出，在国内要树品牌，去国际市场摸爬滚打，更要讲究品牌战略。在国际化道路上，康奈一直坚守自己的品牌意识和品牌战略。作为致力于将中国品牌打造为国际名牌的企业，康奈一直秉承自己的品牌战略，并切实成为了这一战略实施者。通过专卖店方式销售中国国内生产的产品，康奈集团是第一家。康奈集团的国际化战略目标中，以创国际名牌为主，扩大品牌专卖店的数量为辅，创出了自己的国家化之路。 2.坚持不懈的技术创新康奈能“走出去”的道路上一路远航，得益于其精益求精的制作工艺，成就康奈日益精湛的技术的则是锲而不舍的技术研发。康奈大部分的员工都拥有大学及以上学历，并在不同的地区拥有自己的科研基地，每年投入高达3%的销售收入在科研上，年产新款皮鞋高达3800 多
Based on GSM module and AT89C51 connection design and application ---From 《GSM principle and its network optimization》chapter one ---From 《New single chip microcomputer interface device and technology》chapter six Abstract This article through analyzed the GSM module and the monolithic integrated circuit connection design simply introduced the TC35i module commonly used instruction and the coding rule, introduced emphatically the TC35i module and the AT89C51 principle of work, the periphery connection electric circuit, the software control technology, at the same time has produced some TC35i module and the AT89C51 connection application procedure, proposed AT89C51 when receive data should pay attention question, thus designed has the GSM module the data transmission terminal. Key words: GSM network 1 Summarize: Along with correspondence technique of development, according to the service function of the NTT DoCoMo net, just to industry control and control from a distance the realm have continuously extension of trend.Is orientation this kind of demand, Siemens company released a new generation wireless correspondence GSM mold piece-TC35i, according to should the short news function of the mold piece, can fast safety credibility realization customer information processing etc. function, special be applicable to control centre and terminal equipments distance very far,
六、毕业设计(论文)的撰写 1、内容与要求 毕业设计(论文)的内容一般依次由以下部分组成：封面、任务书、中文摘要、英文摘要、目录、(符号说明)、前言、正文、结论、参考文献、致谢、(附录)、外文资料译文、外文原文。 毕业设计(论文)应采用汉语(外语专业用外语)撰写。要求内容层次分明、文理通顺、数据可靠、文字简练、说明透彻、立论正确、推理严谨。 2、毕业设计(论文)的格式及规范 毕业设计(论文)的格式、图纸绘制、实验数据、各种标准的运用和引用都要符合各学科、各专业国家标准的规定。毕业设计(论文)一律使用计算机编辑，用A4规格纸输出，页面设置上、下页边距2.54厘米，左、右页边距2.5厘米，装订线1厘米，文档网格设为小四号宋体，指定行网格和字符网格，每行33个字符，每页31行，栏数为1。外文资料译文页面设置、格式规范及字体同正文要求一样，装订时外文资料译文在前，外文原文在后。除封面、任务书、外文资料译文、外文原文外，毕业设计(论文)其余部分均设置页眉，页眉为“河南科技大学毕业设计(论文)”五号宋体居中。毕业设计(论文)正文页码用“1、2、3……”小五号宋体居中设置，封面、任务书、外文原文及外文资料译文不设页码，目录及中、英文摘要的页码用“Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ……”小五号宋体居中设置。 各部分的具体要求如下： (1) 封面：由学校统一印制；封面填写课题名称，作者姓名，指导教师姓名，院系专业等内容；题目不得超过36个汉字。学院统一填写全称：材料科学与工程学院；专业填写全称，专业方向统一规范，如材料成型及控制工程（铸造）。 (2) 毕业设计任务书 (3) 中英文摘要 ①毕业设计(论文)中文题目为三号黑体字，可以分成1或2行居中打印。 ②题目下空一行居中打印“摘要”二字(三号黑体)，字间空一格。 ③“摘要”二字下空一行打印摘要内容(小四号宋体)。每段开头空二格。 ④中文摘要内容下空一行打印“关键词”三字(小四号黑体)，其后为关键词(小四号宋体)。关键词数量为4-6个，每一关键词之间用逗号分开，最后一个关键词后不打标点符号。如关键词较多，自然换行顶头打印。 ⑤英文摘要题目采用三号“Times New Roman”字体(实词首写字母大写)，可分成1-3行居中打印。每行左右两边至少留2个字符空格。 ⑥英文题目下空二行居中打印“ABSTRACT”(三号大写“Times New Roman”字体)，其下空二行打印英文摘要内容。 ⑦英文摘要内容采用小四号小写“Times New Roman”字体，每段开头留四个字符空
论中国企业“走出去”形势及高质量发展之路 一、中国企业目前形势 在世界经济一体化的进程中，企业呈现出不可遏制的国际化趋势。跨国企业在国际经济舞台的地位越来越重要，跨国企业的不断发展壮大，日益主导着世界经济的发展方向，跨国企业之间的竞争，将代表着国家经济的国际竞争力，—国拥有的跨国企业数量及其实力，在一定程度上，决定着该国的国际政治经济地位。因此，促进跨国企业的发展已成为各国经济发展的重要战略。 二、中国企业“走出去”是开放的必然选择 首先，走出去是开放的必然选择，中国的开放不只是向外国企业开放国内市场，同时也应该参与国际资源配置。 其次，走出去是中国经济发展的必然选择，当中国经济发展到一定程度，我们要根据产业梯度转移原理，再将它转移到其他国家去。 再次，走出去是经济全球化的必然选择，也是中国企业发展的必然选择。 三、中国企业所面临的的问题 企业“走出去”和国际化的战略目标包括寻求更低的成本、更广阔的市场、更充足的要素资源、更先进的技术等。总的来看，我国企业“走出去”和对外投资发展历程较短，经验较为不足，总体收益并不理想。当前，影响和制约企业进一步提升“走出去”质量，打造高水平跨国公司的主客观因素仍然比较突出，亟待进一步研究解决。 第一，全球投资环境的不明朗为中国企业“走出去”带来诸多不确定性。 第二，竞争失序问题严重影响企业“走出去”的效率与效益。 第三，国际化能力不足制约企业“走出去”的整体实力提升。 第四，政府部门及相关中介服务体系的不足和缺失。无法适应企业“走出去”的步伐和要求，同样形成制约因素。 从战略目标规划能力角度看，中国企业国际化总体起步较晚，一些企业在走出国门前，缺乏对外投资的长期发展战略，目标不清晰，随机性较强，结果往往不尽如人意。 从国际化治理能力角度看，我国企业在大型投资管理、大型投资资本运作等方面都缺乏相关经验。在直接面对国际市场时，往往按本土化的模式进行管理，存在管理上“水土不服”、
外文翻译 班级：xxx 学号：xxx 姓名：xxx
一、外文原文： Structural Systems to resist lateral loads Commonly Used structural Systems With loads measured in tens of thousands kips, there is little room in the design of high-rise buildings for excessively complex thoughts. Indeed, the better high-rise buildings carry the universal traits of simplicity of thought and clarity of expression. It does not follow that there is no room for grand thoughts. Indeed, it is with such grand thoughts that the new family of high-rise buildings has evolved. Perhaps more important, the new concepts of but a few years ago have become commonplace in today’ s technology. Omitting some concepts that are related strictly to the materials of construction, the most commonly used structural systems used in high-rise buildings can be categorized as follows: 1.Moment-resisting frames. 2.Braced frames, including eccentrically braced frames. 3.Shear walls, including steel plate shear walls. 4.Tube-in-tube structures. 5.Core-interactive structures. 6.Cellular or bundled-tube systems. Particularly with the recent trend toward more complex forms, but in response also to the need for increased stiffness to resist the forces from wind and earthquake, most high-rise buildings have structural systems built up of combinations of frames, braced bents, shear walls, and related systems. Further, for the taller buildings, the majorities are composed of interactive elements in three-dimensional arrays. The method of combining these elements is the very essence of the design process for high-rise buildings. These combinations need evolve in response to environmental, functional, and cost considerations so as to provide efficient structures that provoke the architectural development to new heights. This is not to say that imaginative structural design can create great architecture. To the contrary, many examples of fine architecture have been created with only moderate support from the structural engineer, while only fine structure, not great architecture, can be developed