学年论文
学生姓名常玉杰学号020701039
院(系) 外国语学院
专业英语（师范）
题目英汉文化中禁忌语差异的研究
On Cultural Difference of the Taboo Words Title
Between English and Chinese
陈维平副教授
指导教师
（姓名）（专业技术职称/学位）
2010 年11 月
On Cultural Difference of the Taboo Words between English and
Chinese
By
Chang Yujie
A Thesis Submitted to
School of Foreign Languages
as a Gaduation Tesis
At Huaiyin Normal University
Under the Supervision of Ms. Chen Weiping
September 2010
Acknowledgements
This thesis involves much generous assistance from my teachers, friends and parents. I would like to offer my heartfelt thanks to my instructor Chen Weiping, my supervisor, who has been giving me the considerable academic help and constant support during my thesis writing.
I also extend my heartfelt appreciations to all of my friends and especially, my classmate Qi Jianhui, who has spent time discussing questions with me and offered me kind advice about the thesis. And I would like to thank the librarians of Huaiyin Teachers College, who have provided me with useful references needed in my thesis.
Finally, I would like to present sincere thanks to my parents, who have supported and assisted me all the way in my college life.
摘要：语言是文化的载体，不同的社会背景和历史文化会产生出不同的禁忌语言。在原始社会，自然灾害频发，又由于当时人们的封闭的思想，因而变得很迷信，他们认为语言本身会带来不同的运气，因而就有禁忌语这一说法。禁忌语在中国和其他许多说英语的国家的应用有着许多相似之处，本文首先对禁忌语的起源进行了概述，再从其发展过程进行分析。在人们日常生活的方方面面，都会涉及到禁忌语，所以它在中国和英语的国家是一个普遍存在的社会现象。他们在某些方面存在着相同点，也在不同的社会习俗和文化背景的影响下，呈现出不同的形式。最后，在日常生活中，人们逐渐运用委婉语来替代禁忌语，以避免因误用所造成的麻烦，通过这种方式，我们可以更加有效的与别人进行交流。
关键词：禁忌语，对比分析，文化差异，委婉语
Abstract：Culture can be manifested in certain language. Different social background and historical culture make a contribution to produce different linguistic taboos. As the old saying goes, “Troubles come out of the tongue”. Superstitious people think that the language itself can bring about fortune and
misfortune so that taboos are created. Taboos are in common use in China and many English speaking countries, and we can find its expression in English and Chinese. This paper gives a brief introduction of the origin of taboos. And then analyzes its evolution process. People can be aware of the fact that linguistic taboos exist in almost every aspect of their daily life, and it is an universal social phenomenon in China and Britain. They share some similarities in certain aspects. Nevertheless, under the influence of different social customs and culture backgrounds, they take on different forms. To avoid the unnecessary troubles caused by misusing taboos, we replace it with euphemisms. Then we can communicate with each other effectively.
Key words：taboo words, comparison ,similarities, cultural difference, euphemism
CONTENTS
1. Introduction ....................................................................... 错误！未定义书签。
2. Analysis of Gender Differences in College English Education in China错误！未定义书签。
3.1 The phenomena of gender differences .......................... 错误！未定义书签。
3.1.1 Female students are more than male students in English department .. 错
误！未定义书签。
3.1.2 Female students get higher achievement than male students in English
learning ................................................................. 错误！未定义书签。
3.2 Analysis of the factors in gender differences ................ 错误！未定义书签。
3.2.1 Physiological gender differences in language learners .错误！未定义书
签。
3.2.2 Emotional and psychological gender differences in language learners 错
误！未定义书签。
3.2.3 The influence of family education ........................ 错误！未定义书签。
3.2 4 The influence of school education ........................ 错误！未定义书签。
3.2.5 The influence of traditional society ...................... 错误！未定义书签。
4. Enlightenment of Gender Differences in College English Education错误！未定义书签。
4.1 Influence caused by gender differences in college English education错误！未
定义书签。
4.2 Revealing gender inequality in education in China ...... 错误！未定义书签。
5. Synthetic Ways to Achieve Gender Equality in Education错误！未定义书签。
5.1 Enact education policies ............................................... 错误！未定义书签。
5.1.1 Incorporate gender equality into school education错误！未定义书签。
5.1.2 Incorporate gender equality into college and university admission
policies ................................................................. 错误！未定义书签。
5.2 Incorporate gender equality into textbooks .................. 错误！未定义书签。
5.3 Teaching by gender ....................................................... 错误！未定义书签。
5.3.1 Changing gender stereotypes by teachers ............. 错误！未定义书签。
5.3.2 Classroom teaching by teachers ............................ 错误！未定义书签。
6. Conclusion.......................................................................... 错误！未定义书签。Works Cited ........................................................................... 错误！未定义书签。
1. Introduction (2)
2. The origin and definition of linguistic taboo (5)
3. The evolution of linguistic taboo (5)
4. The similarities between English and Chinese taboos (7)
4.1 Taboos on religion (7)
4.2 Taboos on human excretion parts (8)
4.3 Taboos on sex (8)
4.4 Taboos on diseases or death (8)
4.5 Taboos on social positions (8)
4.6 Taboos on age and weight (8)
5. The differences between English and Chinese taboos (10)
5.1 Taboos on names and appellation (10)
5.2 Taboos on ages (10)
5.3 Taboos on privacy affairs (11)
5.4 Taboos on numbers (11)
6. The analysis on linguistic taboos between English and Chinese (11)
7. Conclusion (14)
1. Introduction
In the communication between Chinese and western cultures, many people feel strongly the difference between the two cultures on many aspects, such as social life, politics, culture, religion, etc. In addition, the particular historical process and social backgrounds have a great impact on the formation and evolution of their languages. A successful cross-cultural communication requires us to break through the cultural barriers. A good command of taboo culture guides people to speak and behave at a proper time, place and to a proper degree. Taboo is a common
social and cultural phenomenon in both Chinese and Britain. So the words created by it also take on a new form. However, influenced by different cultural backgrounds, ideologies and concepts of value, the content and forms of taboos are different. Therefore, the discussion of the relation between the taboo and language is conducive to English teaching and communication. What’s more, it can also help us to have a better understanding of attitudes and thinking models between China and Britain.
2. The origin and definition of linguistic taboo.
The term “taboo”was borrowed from Tonga, an island group in Polynesia, and its original meaning is “sacred”“untouchable”. When it came into English vocabulary, it became the synonym of taboo, which stands for prohibition or repression. It is specifically used to describe some special languages and behaviors.
3. The evolution of linguistic taboo
As it is mentioned above, linguistic taboo is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but also a kind of social phenomenon. It is influenced by the development of society.
As we all know, in the primitive society, people didn’t get to know about nature. They were confused about the natural phenomenon, such as lightning, thunder, storm, earthquakes, etc. So they believed in the natural powers and became superstitious. They thought only in this way could they survive the hard environments, therefore, they must respect nature and mighty god when they use language. Here is an example: from the seventh commandment of the Ten Commandment in Bible “You should not make wrongful use of the name of the Lord your god, for the Lord will not acquit anyone who misuses his name”〔[1]〕
In the Medieval period, many countries were divided into many groups of different social status according to innumerable religious rules. People couldn’t
do and get they want to. It is the darken age, people in that time should show respect to the decadent rules and religions. So there are many taboos during the period. For instance, the religion listed the buttock, jaw, and forehead as the linguistic taboos. In China, during the feudal period, it is the feudal code of ethics that dominate the country for more than 2000 years. Men are the major role in the society, and women should be obedient to their father, husband, and son. Besides, as an old saying goes: Ignorance is a woman’s virtue. So women are not allowed to attend class. We can see it from the Chinese expression: Three from the four virtues. Three cardinal guides and the five permanent members, etc. Many taboos are preserved as the form of the feudal code of ethics, for example, in order to show the royal’s authority and majesty, the name of the emperor and his ancestors should not be mentioned. At the same time, people always avoid speaking out their parents’ names or even the characters in their parents’ names.
Taboos have turned into pure commandment without a shade of superstition. In modern society, with the rapid development of science and technology, the scope of the concept of taboo has been widened. Most people are becoming more and more rational, and they never believe in or rely on the superstitions. Therefore the superstitious elements in linguistic taboos decrease and those reflecting spiritual civilization increase. With the frequent interaction between China and the western countries, the tradition of taboos influences each other. In recent years, there are many taboo words that reflect a demeaning attitude towards certain social or ethic groups. Racist language and sexist language, for example, are offensive to the social or ethic groups discriminated against. 〔[2]〕For example, the term “Nigger” was used in the 1960s, which was widely used to call the blacks. But now, it is considered as a taboo word in the usual social interactions. For such form of addressing is against the American Human Rights. What’s more, because of the Women Liberation, many women step into all walks of life to work with men. The traditional ideas restrict their activities and spirits during the feudal time. However, everything has changed, we can not ignore the forces of women, and they also do a very good job. Therefore, the number of taboo words on sexist language increases.
As is mentioned above, in modern society, people are becoming more and more conscious of other people’s feelings. So they create many taboo words to avoid hurting others. Most of the words can also be called euphemisms. In a word, those words which can make people unpleasant in the interactions and public places are taboos.
4. The similarities between English and Chinese taboos
Every culture has its taboo towards something or some behavior, and also be reflected in its language. With time goes by, the linguistic taboo emerges. As we all know that pregnancy is a normal physiological phenomenon, but in daily life, people will not say it directly, for it is related to sex. If someone is pregnant, English people will say, “She is expecting a baby”or “She is in a family way.”Similar euphemisms can be found in Chinese “pregnant.”
According to the “International English Usage(1986)”, taboos in English fall into the following six aspects:
4.1 Taboos on religion
As has discussed above, some special words related with God and religion should be only used in some specific religious ceremonies.
Like in English, there are many similar taboo words in Chinese. In religion, people often use some eulogy to address the gods they hold in deep respect, such as “Dadi(大帝)”“Dashen(大神)” instead of words with evil meanings
4.2 Taboos on human’s excretion parts.
It is impolite to mention these things on the most occasions.
4.3 Taboos on sex.
It is impolite to mention anything about sex in some the social or formal interactions. Those words related with sex or genitals can be only used on a very informal occasion or in the field of medical. Due to the Sex Liberation in the
western countries during the 1960s, the English speaking countries took a more freedom, open attitude towards sex. therefore, the phrases “to make love”, “to have sex with”could be often found in written form, however, when they talk about something on it, people tend to replace them with the euphemisms. In addition, influenced by the feudal code of ethics, Chinese people also treat terms on sex seriously. Besides, they always use the expression of “styles” or “improper relationship” to show the immoral relationship between man and woman..
In China, influenced by the asceticism of the Buddhism, combined with the Confucian on the moral, almost everyone hold the opinion that “Prurient is the worst, filial piety is the best”. Therefore, any words related with sex are taboos in Chinese minds.
4.4 Taboo on disease and death.
We often use many other euphemisms to express death or disease. Such as “kick the bucket”, “pop off”, “die”, “pass away”, “decease”, “be with the god”, etc. These words or phrases reflect people’s attitudes toward death and their wishes for the after death. Mental illness is thought not to be mentioned directly. For example, when referring to a mental illness, we just say “a little eccentric”or “a little confused”. Either in Chinese or in western countries, people have sympathy for one’s physical disability.
Chinese are also refrained from saying the word “death”, they often say “mount and ride away to Elysium”or “Pass away peacefully.”Besides, the word “maimed” is a distressing one, so it is very impolite to describe someone; we often use “physical disability” or “deformity” to replace it. In Chinese, if one is a deaf, we will say “ears back”“ears a little bit bad”, “talk was near point”, etc. In English it is called “hard of hearing.”
4.5 Taboos on social positions
We often address people of different origins or positions with different euphemisms rather than calling their names directly. Because it is crude to do
so on a social or formal occasion.
4.6 Taboos on age and weight.
When you meet a young lady on the street, you should not ask such questions as “How old are you?”“What about your salary?”, for it is very crude to greet others. Therefore, words like “old”“childish”, “fat”, “skinny”, etc. They have become the taboo words.
In terms of “age” and “appearance”, people in modern society are very sensitive to these words. So it is seldom to speak of “old”and “fat”to describe a person on a formal occasion.
Both in English and Chinese, the vulgar words are usually rude and offensive and bring about unpleasant, anger or conflicts. Swear words in English are often called four letter words, because most of them are short and many are made up of four letters. Such as: piss, shit, crap, fuck.”. “These so called four-letter words are considered vulgar”. 〔[3]〕
Swear words formed by employing some of the animals’ names are vulgar too. They are very improper expressions in most conversations, such as: “bitch”“cow”“swine”“pig”, etc. Generally speaking, even in daily communications, these vulgar words are considered taboo words. In Chinese, there are also many similar words, such as “son of a bitch,”“little bastard”, etc. These words are used to insult others. People always try to avoid using them in a normal and polite communication.
In conclusion, the taboos in English and China have some similar tendency, which is not only demonstrates the fact that human culture, but also reflect different cultures can influence and penetrate each other.
5.The difference between English and Chinese taboos
Although the linguistic taboos in Chinese and English share some similarities in some aspects, there exists some different opinion on what should be regarded as taboos between the two cultures. Therefore, a taboo in one culture may not be so in another; and vice versa. The difference between English and Chinese taboos
falls into the following four aspects.
5.1 Taboos on name and appellation
Influenced by the traditional feudal code of ethics, respecting one’s parents and ancestors is one of China’s most important virtues, so the concept of taboos on name and appellation is rooted in the social life. Therefore, people always avoided speaking out their parents’names or even the characters in their parents’names. When a younger generation addresses the elder, he often addresses him with such words as “Grandpa”“Papa”“Mama”rather than his or her names. On the contrary, people in the English speaking countries don’t have any taboo in this aspect. You can often notice the phenomenon in TV or films: A child may call his elder’s name directly, which is also applied to the people of different social positions.
5.2 Taboos on ages
With the time goes by, “becoming old”is an inexorable natural law, however, people in China and Britain hold different opinion towards it, and produce different cultural connotations. Generally speaking, Chinese give “the old age”
a more positive meaning, for “old” is the symbol of wisdom and experience. You can find it in the expression in some proverbs, such as “There’s many a good tune played on an old fiddle,”“Old people still cherish high aspirations.”As a result, the elder is widely respected and took care of in China. However, people in the English speaking countries hold an opposite view. They treat “old”as a taboo, which means “outdated”“useless”. The elder signifies “decline”“fall into decay”“dying”. Therefore, this term is not a positive word. People admire the youth. Besides, in those English speaking countries, the aged is addressed as a senior citizen rather than “the old” or “old people”.
5.3. Taboos on privacy affairs.
People take their privacy affairs seriously in those English speaking countries. It is impolite to ask questions upon age, salary, family, politic, religions, etc. you should not ask questions on age when you talk with a stranger. However, in China, people always talk about age; when you greet a friend, you may
say “How old are you?” It is very crude to ask some questions on age to a lady on a public occasion. What’s more, issues on money is another taboo in the western countries, people should not ask about other people’s salary and income, even members of the family, while Chinese like to ask and answer these questions. In our daily conversations, you can hear such questions as “Are you married?”“How much is your cloth?” “What does your wife do?”, etc. These questions are concerned with privacy affairs in English, so it is forbidden to talk about it. The British often greet other people with the question “How nice the weather!”
5.4. Taboos on numbers
As we all know, in the western countries, there are many political parties and various religions, and people often take them as taboos. Both China and English speaking countries have taboos on certain numbers, for example, when talking about age, Chinese often avoid using “73”“84”and “100”in many regions of China, for the great sage Confucius died at 73; Mencius died at 84; “100” stands for the end of life. While in English speaking countries, number “13”and “Friday”are taboos, for Jesus Christ died at 13, Friday. Speaking of odd and even numbers, different countries hold different opinions. Chinese take even numbers as a good omen, while people in the western countries in favor of the odd numbers except number 13.
6.The analysis on linguistic taboos between English and Chinese
As a cultural phenomenon, linguistic taboos are based on its profound natural culture. When contrast the taboos of different cultures, we may find that there exists many similar parts on taboos between English and Chinese, however, they have different “resources”. From this point, we can have a better understanding of cultural difference between the two nations.
In America, it is a rude behavior to inquire about someone’s political and religious tendencies. This is because the United States of America is a country that consists of different immigrants. People from different countries bring with different religions and customs. They use the taboo words in order to avoid the unnecessary trouble. Besides, Americans think that other people have no right to
ask about it for it is their freedom to choose different religions and political parties. So an American citizen may never ask a Chinese such questions as “Are you a party member?”which is very common in China, for “Party member”is always closely related with one’s morals and ethics. In the past western history, the religion is associated with politics, but after the Middle Age, the religion began to separate itself from it. On one hand, the association of politics and the country became government’s affairs; on the other hand, the integration of religion and people’s daily life became a standard to restrain their morals and ethics. However, people’s life belongs to private affairs, and others should not mention those ask these taboos. While in China, due to its special traditional culture, it is very hard to separate religion from politics. So we can see that in western countries, politics is separated from moral principles, and ethics integrated with religion; in China, politics, religion and ethics exist side by side, for ethics penetrates politic, and politic is closely related with people’s daily life.
Taboos on sex between the two countries have different expressions and origins. Due to the “Sex Liberation” in western countries, the expressions on sex have become more casual. The aim of this liberation is to against the traditional restrictions and taboos; while in China, because of the traditional deep-rooted conception, people tend to be cautious of the taboos on speech and writing.
In China, it is the traditional feudal code of ethics that preserve the spoke of rank and the relation of ethics. The core of the feudal code of ethics on taboo is well manifested in the aspect of spoke of rank. For example, the taboos on death and disease according to the different social positions. Furthermore, filial piety is one of the most important virtues in China. As an old saying goes “Among all the good deeds, filial piety comes first”. Showing respect to one’s teachers and superiors is considered as a good virtue in our daily conservation. But in the western countries, people put more emphasis on the statement that men are equal and enjoy the same privilege, which can be best evidenced by the Declaration of Independence of USA. So there exists no spoke of rank in these countries, everyone struggles to fight for their own rights.
Conclusion
From the above discussion, we know that some hash, blunt, unpleasant offensive and taboo things or acts should not be exposed directly in our daily life. So it is very important for us to know how to avoid these linguistic taboos. Most linguistic taboos can be avoided by the employment of euphemisms.
In short, by comparison and analysis, we know that it is the profound cultural difference that determines the linguistic taboos, and it is impossible to illustrate every aspect of the culture that is included in the taboos. The existence of linguistic taboos best illustrates the fact that people tend to pursue nice things. The Chinese and English people restrict their words and deeds through taboos trying to keep a good relationship between human and nature, or between people and society. And this kind of mind is motivated by different moral principles, values. Finding out the difference between the two barriers of cross-cultural communication and enhance the interaction between the two cultures.
Works Cited
〔[1]〕Holy bible. Chinese Christian Society, 2000. p114.
〔[2]〕Zhen ya. Language and Culture [M]. Beijing: Higher Education Press, 2004. p278 〔[3]〕Zhen ya. Language and Culture [M]. Beijing: Higher Education Press, 2004. p273
本科生毕业设计（论文）封面 （ 2017 届） 论文（设计）题目 作者 学院、专业 班级 指导教师（职称） 论文字数 论文完成时间 大学教务处制
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英语问候语大全 How are you?你好吗? Nice to meet you(适用于第一次见面)很高兴见到你。 Nice to see you again(适用于曾经见过，但不太熟的人)很高兴再见到你。 How have you been?(适用于有一阵子没见面的朋友) 你过得怎么样? Long time no see(适用于很久没见的朋友)好久不见 How is it going?近况如何。 How’s everything with you?你的一切如何? Hi! Are you having fun?嗨，你过得愉快吗? How have you been (feeling)?你近来如何? So far so good到目前还好。 Greetings with People Met Often问候常见面的人 Hi, there!嗨，哈罗! How are you doing? I can’t complain too much你好吗?我不能太抱怨。(还不错)。How is your businegoing?你生意做得怎样? How are things going?事情进行得怎样? How is your day going?过得如何? How are you doing these days? Well, about the same最近好吗?嗯，差不多一样。What’s new?近况如何。 How do you feel today?你今天觉得怎样? I feel like a new man我觉得好像脱胎换骨了。 Are you ma-ki-ng progress?你有进展吗?
英语问候语大全 Company Document number：WUUT-WUUY-WBBGB-BWYTT-1982GT
英语问候语大全 How are you你好吗 Nice to meet you(适用于第一次见面)很高兴见到你。 Nice to see you again(适用于曾经见过，但不太熟的人)很高兴再见到你。How have you been(适用于有一阵子没见面的朋友) 你过得怎么样 Long time no see(适用于很久没见的朋友)好久不见 How is it going近况如何。 How’s everything with you你的一切如何 Hi! Are you having fun嗨，你过得愉快吗 How have you been (feeling)你近来如何 So far so good到目前还好。 Greetings with People Met Often问候常见面的人 Hi, there!嗨，哈罗! How are you doing I can’t comp lain too much你好吗我不能太抱怨。(还不错)。How is your businegoing你生意做得 How are things going事情进行得怎样 How is your day going过得如何 How are you doing these days Well, about the same最近好吗嗯，差不多一样。What’s new近况如何。 How do you feel today你今天觉得怎样 I feel like a new man我觉得好像脱胎换骨了。 Are you ma-ki-ng progress你有进展吗 Have gotten over your cold你感冒好了吗
英语禁忌语大全A 第一个词是cock。这个词是一开始学英语就学到的基本词汇之一，大家都知道它是“公鸡”的意思，可是在美语里，最好就不要用它了，因为它的意思早就不是“公鸡”了。 在俚语里面，它指的是男性生殖器。比如你要说：“他有两只公鸡。”，千万不要说：He has two cocks。这样一定会让人误解的。那么用哪个词表达“公鸡”的意思呢？这时候，Rooster就是最好的选择了。例如你要说：“我是鸡年生的。”，就可以说： I was born in the year of rooster. 说到这里，我就想起在美国的一些中国餐馆里，经常看到垫餐盘的纸上印着中国十 二生肖的介绍。而有很多在“鸡年”的介绍里，用的就是cock这个词，大概有不止一次看到老美读这一段的时候讪笑了。 还有一个需要注意的词是rubber。学英语的时候我们知道它是“橡皮”的意思，但 在美语里面，说“橡皮”用的是eraser，而不是rubber。Rubber在美式口语里有三个意思，第一个意思指的是“轮胎”，也就是automobile tire或者tire。例如一个人说： The rubber on my car is ruined. 她的意思就是：我车子的轮胎已经被毁了。 Rubber的第二个用法是rubber check，指的就是“假支票”，或者那种支票上的金 额大于银行存款的支票。 Rubber的最后一个意思指的就是“避孕套”。如果一个人说： He always carries a rubber“just in case”. 千万不要把这句话理解为：“他总是随身携带橡皮，以防万一”。这句话的实际意 思是：“他总是随身携带避孕套以防万一”。 可见，好多不能乱用的词语是和“性”有关的。这些词语一旦用错了，不仅会引起 不必要的误会，还很有可能影响个人形象。所以最好的办法就是先看看老美是怎么用 的，并在学习过程中不断积累。
英文贺卡常用祝福语 Best wishes for the year to come! 恭贺新禧！ Good luck in the year ahead! 祝吉星高照！ May you come into a good fortune! 恭喜发财！ Live long and proper! 多福多寿！ May many fortunes find their way to you! 祝财运亨通！ I want to wish you longevity and health! 愿你健康长寿！ Take good care of yourself in the year ahead. 请多保重！ Wishing you many future successes. 祝你今后获得更大成就。 On this special day I send you New Year's greetings and hope that some day soon we shall be together. 在这特殊的日子，向你致以新年的祝福，希望不久我们能相聚在一起。 I would like to wish you a joyous new year and express my hope for your happiness and good future. 祝新年快乐，并愿你幸福吉祥，前程似锦。 May the New Year bring many good things and rich blessings to you and all those you love! 愿新年带给你和你所爱的人许多美好的事物和无尽的祝福！ Rich blessings for health and longevity is my special wish for you in the coming year.
英文信开头的问候语 【篇一：英文书信的开头问候语】 请问英文书信的开头问候语有哪些 私人书信的开头常用如下句子： how is everything?一切都好吗？ i hope everything is all right.我希望(你)一切都好。 how are you?你好吗？ how are you getting along these days? i miss you very much.你近来过得如何？我十分想念你。 i was very happy to receive your letter of october 10th.我很高兴收到你10月10日的来信。 thank you for writing to me.谢谢你给我写信。 your letter came into my hand yesterday.我是昨天收到你的来信的。 its a long time since i got your last letter.我收到你的信已经很长一段时间了。 im sorry i took so long to reply.很报歉给你回信晚了。 i have been so busy recently that i could hardly find any time to write.我最近挺忙，未能抽出时间给你写信。 many thanks for the wonderful present you sent me.谢谢你寄给我那么好的礼物。 im so sorry for not having written to you for such a long time.十分报歉，很久没有给你写信了。 英语书信结尾常常写一些祝愿、问候他人、盼回信等等话语。常用的语句有： with best wishes.致以良好的祝愿。 please write to me as soon how are you? how have you been? i hope everything is fine with you. hope you enjoy your day. (或者）here i am again. its me again. 邮件比较频繁的话，直接说good morning/afternoon就ok了。 【篇二：商务信函英语问候语开头和结尾】
中英禁忌语比较 禁忌语是语言的一部分，而语言又是社会现象的的重要组成部分，所以禁忌语也是学习社会文化的一种工具。禁忌语就是指在日常交际中所不能涉及到的特有话题，可以说凡是在交往和公共场合中那些引起对方或公众反感或不快的一些词或表达方式都属于禁忌语的范畴。通过对比分析英汉两种语言中禁忌语的异同之处，能深刻地理解东西方不同的文化内涵和价值观念，能帮助我们更准确地理解和使用英语，有助于跨文化交流的成功，对对外汉语教学的展开有很大帮助。 在中国，“禁忌”一词历史悠久，早在汉朝《汉书·艺文志》等一些史料典籍中就有出现。对于“禁忌”的含义《说文解字》中的记载可谓简明扼要：“忌，憎恶也。在西方，禁忌语的英文说法是“taboo”，最早是南太平洋波里西亚汤加岛人的土语，意思“需要极端注意的事情”。禁忌语的产生是与一个民族的社会文化发展息息相关的。中国古代由于生产力低下和文明落后，受封建迷信思想的影响，人们对上天、鬼、神都有所避讳。西方国家，特别是信奉基督教的国家，出于对上帝的信仰，对于“God、Christ”这些词都是不能随便说的。下面我们具体来看看中英禁忌语的异同。 中英禁忌语相同点：1）神灵圣人名的禁忌。在中国，自古就有皇族名避讳，凡是涉及到与皇公贵族名字谐音或是相近的音时，就要换一个说法。例如秦代为避秦始皇的名“赢政”而将“正月”改为“端月；西方则用委婉动听或迂回曲折的表达方式来指代与鬼神有关的词，如：上帝魔鬼撒旦一般要用：God of this world, the big D和the good man等委婉说法。2）令人难以启齿或难过之事。如“怀孕”英语中的表达方式有She is expecting.(她在待产中。)She is well-along(她心满意足)等；而汉语中人们通常说“她有了”或者说“她有喜了”等。在汉语中，我们一般说患了癌症的人得了“不治之症”。英文中人们用C.C或Big C或是long disease代替癌症（cancer），艾滋病AIDS (可传染的社会疾病)；汉语中“上厕所”有“方便”、“去一号”等委婉的说法。英语中有pass water, answer nature’s call, wash one’s hands, do one’s business等等；3）死亡。“死”是各民族最忌讳的字眼因此在语言交际中人们总是回避它。汉语有“去世了”、“老了”、“走了”、“没了”等。但是，汉语对不同阶层、身份和年龄的人的死有着不同的委婉语，例如古代皇帝的死称“驾崩”，诸侯死称“薨”，战争中死称“牺牲”，坏人的死用“一命呜呼”。英语中表示“死亡”的委婉语非常丰富，如“pass away, go to the heaven, go to sleep, go to see the God, depart, be in heaven with God”等等。 中英禁忌语的不同之处：1）年老。在中国，“老”字常带敬意，是资历和地位的象征,因此汉语中有“老师”、“老同志”、“老大爷”“老师傅”等。而在西方，“老”即“old”一词一般是令人难以接受的。西方人费尽心机地借用其他词项来委婉地表示“old”这一概念，如the advanced in age（年长者）retirement home（敬老院）golden age club（老年俱乐部）等。2）谐音禁忌。在中国，四与死谐音，成为不少中国人的禁忌。送钟（终）、送伞（散）、送梨（离）也成为一种交际禁忌。因为五与恶同音，所以五月被认为是恶月不吉利。这种谐音禁忌只有汉语中存在，而西方国家不存在。3）个人隐私与话题禁忌语。英国人的“隐私权”主要体现在以下几个方面:一是不喜欢别人询问年龄。二是不喜欢别人询问其婚姻状况。三是最忌讳的是个人收入与开支。四是一般不随便询问别人的详细地址。而在中国传统文化中,似乎没有“隐私权”这一概念。许多涉及个人情况的话题,如年龄、收入、家庭状况等都是人们正常交际中乐于彼此交换的信息。人们习惯于问“你高寿?”“你贵庚?”“你结婚了吗?“你有几个孩子”等。 近年来，随着中西方交流的日益频繁，中西方禁忌语出现一定的趋同性。如英汉语中对“富”都有所保留：He is well off. “他经济条件不错。”对“贫”也不说得那么严重：They are
英语中“大便、小便、放屁”真正说法 一名中国留学生初到美国，在机场找厕所，问老外：「Where is W.C.？」老外听不懂。一名中国太太到医院生产，洋护士问她：「Did you have a bowel movement？」她却听不懂。还有人学了几十年的英语，还不晓得英语里的「大便」、「小便」、「放屁」真正应该怎么说…… 至于性毛病，更是老中难于启齿、欲语还羞的尴尬。见到洋医生，窘迫万分，不知如何开口才是，真有「犹抱琵琶半遮面」的感受。 以下为一些「禁忌」（taboo）的美语之整理。毕竟这些都是咱们日常生活的一部分，说不定有一天这些「禁忌」之语还能「派上用场」呢！ 厕所 在美国一般都叫rest room或bath room（男女厕均可）或分别叫做men‘s room 或ladies‘ room（=powder room），不过在飞机上，则叫lavatory，在军中又叫latrine。至于W.C.（water closet）仍是过去英国人用的，在美国，几乎没有人使用。 解小便 最普通的说法是to urinate（名词是urination），如果去看病，护士为了化验小便，就会给你一个杯子说：「Will （could）you urinate in this cup？」医生或许也会问：「Do you have trouble urinating？」=Do you have difficulty voiding？（小便有困难吗？） 此外，还有其他的说法：to piss = to take a piss = to take a leak = to void = to empty。例如： I need to piss = I have to take a leak. How often do you get up at night to void？（晚上起床小便几次？） 此外，john（j 小写时，不是男人名字）是bath room 或toilet 的意思（也叫outhouse），这通常是指在户外工作场地所使用的临时或流动性厕所（有时前面也加portable 一字）。不过也有老外把家里的厕所叫做john。例如： There are several （portable）johns in the construction site.（在建筑场地有几个临时厕所。）He went to the john a few minutes ago.（他在几分钟前上了厕所。） The manual labours have to use (portable) johns during their working hours.（劳动者在工作时间内需要使用流动性厕所。） 不过，小孩多半用to pee 。例如： The boy needs to pee. 然而，「小便检查」又叫做urine test，因为这里的urine 是化验的样品（specimen）。例如：Do I need a urine test? 注意：to piss off 是片语，又是指对人生气或对事物的不满。不过这是不礼貌的片语，少用为妙。例如： He pissed me off. = He made me angry. He always pisses off （at）the society.（对社会不满）如果「小便」有毛病，也可以告诉医生说：My urine is cloudy and it smells strong.（有浊尿，味道很重） I have pus （或air）in urine.（尿有泡沫）（pus = cloudy; air = bubble） I dribble a little urine after I have finished urinating.（小便后还会滴滴答答。）（即失禁毛病） I am passing less urine than usual.（小便的量比平时少） 解大便 一般是用to make（或have）a bowel movement 或to take a shit。如果看病，医生常问：「Do you have regular bowel movement？」（大便正常吗？）（说得斯文些，就是「大肠在转动」） 此外，还有其他的说法：to defecate =to discharge excrement（或feces）=to take feces （或faeces）。例
【篇一】 世上难寻真知己，人非草木逢情义，草木有情人无义，命该如此难言也。长久交朋友！ It is hard to find true friends in the world. People do not have grass and trees. Making friends for a long time! 一路上有你，陪我欢喜陪我忧，这份真挚的友谊，我会终身珍惜。 With you all the way, with me and with joy, I will cherish this sincere friendship. 工作上要一丝不苟，容不得半点含糊。做人方面要大事不糊涂，小事糊涂，不必斤斤计较。 We must be meticulous in our work and tolerate no ambiguity. To be a man, we must be big and muddle headed, small and muddle headed, and do not have to worry about everything. 兄弟，感谢你一直以来对我的关心，对我的帮助，我会记得你对我的好的。 Brother, thank you for your concern and help to me. I will remember your kindness to me. 红叶纷飞的枫林里，我们曾拥有多少回忆。那飘舞着的枫叶，将我们带进一个无比美妙的境界。 How many memories do we have in the maple forest with red leaves flying? The dancing maple leaves brought us into a wonderful state. 虽然远隔千山万水，但我仍然看得见你那明镜般的心灵，感觉到你那柔丝般的温情。 Though thousands of mountains and rivers are far away, I can still see your mirror-like heart and feel your tenderness. 今日同窗分手，道一句：珍重！明天校友重逢，贺一声：成功！ Today's classmate broke up, a sentence: cherish! Tomorrow's alumni meet again, he Yisheng: success! 闻君升职，甚是欢喜；送上祝福，道句恭喜；再接再厉，大展宏图；继续努力，步步高升！ Wen Jun's promotion was a great joy. I send you my best wishes and congratulations. Keep up your efforts and make great progress. 在你抑郁的时候，我就是你的开心果。在你忧伤的时候，我愿作你的忘忧树！ When you are depressed, I will be your pistachio. When you are sad, I will be your worry tree. 临别一眼，分离的时刻我说，时间不长，不会是一辈子之久，心若在，情就在。 Farewell one eye, the moment of separation I said, time is not long, will not be a lifetime, if the heart is in, the situation is in. 焚膏油以继晷，恒兀兀以穷年。所有天才都是壮的牛，他们每天工作十八小时，孜孜不倦。 The oil of burning incense is used for sundial. All geniuses are the strongest cattle. They work eighteen hours a day. 珍惜这爱情，如珍惜着宝藏，轻轻地走进这情感的圣殿，去感受每一刻美妙
科技信息 SCIENCE &TECHNOLOGY INFORMATION 2012年第33期禁忌语（taboo ）：taboo 一词起源于波利尼西亚汤加语,其汤加语的 拼写为tabu ，毛利语的拼写是tapu 。这个单词最早是在1771年英国探 险家James Cook 在汤加探险时从当地人那里学到的，并把这个单词 引入了英语。James Cook 在描述汤加人的文化习俗时写道：“Not one of them would sit down,or eat a bit of any thing....On expressing my surprise at this,they were all taboo,as they said;which word has a very comprehensive meaning;but,in general,signifies that a thing is forbidden.1”他还写道“When any thing is forbidden to be eaten,or made use of,they say,that it is taboo.2”根据《大英百科全书在线》，Taboo 一 词意义为“A taboo is a vehement prohibition of an action based on the belief that such behavior is either too sacred or too accursed for ordinary individuals to undertake,under threat of supernatural punishment.3” 禁忌语包含如下三个部分：称谓禁忌、词汇禁忌、话题禁忌。作为 禁忌语的一部分，词汇禁忌分如下几个类别：辱骂性词语（obscene ）， 亵渎性词语（blasphemy ），贬损性词语（slur ），政治性错误的词汇 （politically incorrect words ）。 禁忌语是一种语言现象，更是一种社会现象。与语言的其他部分 一样，禁忌语一方面是社会文化、价值观的反映，另一方面又受其限 制。具有普遍性，也有文化特定性和语境独立性。因此，对其研究必须 考虑具体的语境，文化背景，场合和活动，特别是参与者等语境因素的 影响。 辱骂性词语包括与人体性器官、性行为、排泄物有关的粗俗性词 语（vulgar words ）如cock,shit,fuck 等。下面以“粪便，排泄物”为例，简 单解释。英语国家的医学课本在谈到人类的消化功能时，对于人类的 粪便一般使用“waste material ”这一中性词汇表示，避免了在课堂上讨 论这个话题引起的尴尬。而粪便的正式词汇是stool ，这个词一般在医 生和病人之间使用或者出现在医学报告中如：“The patient ’s stool was watery.”或“Take your stool sample to the laboratory for testing.”feces 也 是正式词汇，可以指人类的也可以指动物的粪便，受过良好教育的人 之间尤其常用这个词。Fecal matter 也是正式词汇，一般用于卫生检查 报告中，有暗示少量粪便的意思，如：“Fecal matter was found in the canned spaghetti sauce.”或“A certain amount of insect parts and rodent fecal matter is allowed in the food-canning process.”excrement 是通用 词汇，指人类或者动物的粪便。bowel movement 也是一般词汇，在家庭 成员之间和与医生的交谈中使用是可接受的，但如果与邻居等使用则 显得过于直白，不礼貌。B.M 或b.m 是bowel movement 的委婉说法，在 与邻居等交谈的时候可以使用，但是，因为属于隐私，这个话题还应尽 量避免。caca 是幼儿使用的词汇，因为他们的语言能力还不完善，所以 在和父母家人交流时，使用这种发音容易的单词，类似的还有cackee, a a,eh eh,poop,poopie,poozie,doodoo 和doody 。Number two 是在学龄 儿童中常用的委婉语，如：“I have to go to bathroom.”“Do you have to do number one or number two?”“Number two.”Turd 被认为是粗俗的 （vulgar ）,是可数名词，可以指人，猫，狗，鸟类的排泄物。如：“He flushed the turds down the toilet.”“The park was filled with dog turds.” dropping 是动物粪便的委婉语。如马粪(horse droppings),牛粪（cow droppings ）。马粪还被幽默地称作road apples 。牛粪也被称作cow flop, cow pancakes,pasture patties ，而干牛粪是cow chips 。当马粪和牛粪被 用作肥料时，又被分别叫做dung 和manure 。Dirt 是猫、狗粪便的委婉 语。如：“People must clean up their dog ’s dirt.”dog doo 是狗粪的另一 种委婉说法。shit 是个粗俗的（vulgar ）词，在礼貌地对话中没有人会用 到，但是这个词有很多的含义，在很多非正式的场合广泛使用，可以说 是英语口语里面最常见的词汇。 亵渎性词语是指根据宗教教义亵渎神灵的词语。根据基督教的教 义，滥用上帝的名字是不敬的，《圣经》申命记5:11写道“You shall not take the name of the LORD your God in vain,for the LORD will not hold him guiltless who takes His name in vain.”(Deuteronomy 5:11)（“不可妄称耶和华你神的名。因为妄称耶和华名的，耶和华必不以他为无罪。”）这类词语包括“God damn it!”,“Go to hell!”,“Jesus Christ!”,“Christ!”,“For Christ Sake!”,“Jesus!”,“God!”,“What the hell!”等。尽管是禁忌语，但是，在表示惊讶和愤怒的时候，仍然是最常用到的。也正因为是禁忌语的关系，有些人会用一些与这些单词发音类似的词语来代替他们，如：“Cripes!”,“Christmas!”,“For crying out loud!”,“Gee Whiz!”,“Jiminy Cricket!”,“Jeepers !”,“Cheese and crackers!”,“Golly!”,“Gosh!”,“Goldarnit!”,“Doggone it!”,“Heck!Go to heck!”,“What the heck!”等等。贬损性词语（slur ）是指贬损他人的国籍或种族的侮辱性词汇或者是对某类人群如：女性、同性恋者、残疾人、儿童、老年人、胖人、矮个子的人、穷人等的贬损词汇。比如：kike ，wop ，nigger 等。这类词汇中某些带有强烈的歧视和攻击性，是要绝对避免使用的。但是，由于使用语境不同，即使对英语是本族语的人来说，对这类词汇的使用也不确定。例如有的词汇在某些地区是可接受的，而在某些地区却是侮辱性的。如：Yankee 这个词被大多数美国人接受的，认为是美国人的昵称，而在美国南方，Yankee 的意思是北方佬，因而，这个词被认为带有侮辱性。Canuck 意思是加拿大人或法裔加拿大人的意思，这个词在加拿大西部是被接受可以使用的，而在美国的东北部却认为是冒犯性、不礼貌的。对某个群体的称呼也会随着时间的改变，从正确变成不正确。如：alien ，外国人，这个词原来是可以接受的，但是，如今，在某些语境下被认为是冒犯性的，类似的还有foreigner 。Foreign student 这个称呼在上世纪80年代之前是可以接受的，后来，大学管理者们认为这个说法有冒犯性“It made students from other countries seem not to belong here.”基于这个原因，现在用international student 取而代之。然而，政府官方仍然使用foreign student ，同样，foreign service,foreign currency 和foreign diplomat 也仍在使用。不少词汇，也会随着时间的推移，社会文化的变迁，从一般性词汇变成侮辱性的粗俗词汇，而变得少有人使用或者被其他其他词汇代替。cock 是公鸡的意思，在俚语里（slang ）是男性生殖器的意思，而这个意思被越来越多的人所知，最后，大多数人都不用这个单词来称呼公鸡了，现在公鸡被叫做rooster.从1300年到1900年左右，ass 都是驴的意思，尽管把某人称作驴是很不礼貌的，但在当时，ass 并不被认为是粗俗的词汇。arse-屁股，是一个粗俗的词汇，这个单词在英国某些地方经过了一段时间的发音变化以后，其拼写和发音变得和ass 一模一样了。换句话说，ass 当时有了两个意思，一个是礼貌的，一个是粗俗的。而如今，粗俗含义已经取代了礼貌的含义，现在ass 变成了一个彻彻底底的粗俗词汇。这个变化甚至在《圣经》不同时期的版本中都体现了出来，早期的英文版《圣经》Matthew21:5中写道“Behold,your king is coming to you,humble,and mounted on an ass.”而新版本的《圣经》则是“See,your king comes to you,gentle and riding on a donkey …”一个族群的人可以用贬损性的词汇称呼自己的族群，但是如果别人用这个词汇称呼自己的族群却被认为是侮辱。比如：nigger,当这个词由黑人族群之外的人使用时，带有强烈侮辱性，这个词是从negro 的发音演变来的，和奴隶制，谋杀，偏见等对美国黑人的歧视有联系，在美国英语中，黑人族群之外的人是要绝对避免使用的。而从另一方面来说，非裔美国人却可以和亲近的人自由使用这个词，通常发音也变成“niggah ”如：“Yo niggah,what ’s up?”其他族群的人如果受到黑人群体的欢迎并完全融入这个群体，也可以使用这个词汇。Nigger 在黑人口中，有时候也指“person ”，如：“Who ’s that nigger over there?”政治性错误的词汇（politically incorrect words ）,这种词汇是指给那些性别、肤色、残疾、年龄等群体带来不公平感觉的词汇。这些词汇或许本身不带有任何贬损或侮辱意味，但是可能会给这些群体带来遭浅谈英语禁忌词汇 刘亚飞李灵芝石霞 （中国人民解放军第二炮兵工程大学士官职业技术教育学院山东青州262500） 【摘要】本文主要介绍了词汇禁忌语的类别、特点、形式，并通过具体的实例说明了词汇禁忌语在具体语境中的使用限制和特点，加强禁忌词汇的学习，对学习者在减少跨文化交际失误，增强跨文化意识，提高跨文化交际能力方面有着重要意义。 【关键词】禁忌语；禁忌词汇；文化 ○外语论坛○298
1. 友情 its joy to know you, wishing the nicest things always for you, not only today, but all the year through because you are really a joy to know. 认识你是一种快慰，愿你永远拥有最美好的东西，不仅今天拥有，而且天天拥有，因为认识你真是一种慰藉。 when i think of you the miles between us disappear. 朋友是永久的知心伴侣。当我想起你，相隔千里，如在咫尺。 youre wonderful friend, and i treasure you more with every year. 你是一位难得的挚友，我对你的珍重与岁俱增。 2. 表示爱情 precious things are very few—— that must be why theres just one for you. 可贵的东西世间稀少——这正是为什么属于你的只有我一个。 i love you more than i can say. 我真不知该如何表达我对你的爱。 thinking of you still makes my heart beat fastest! 想到你依然叫我心跳骤然加快！you are in my thoughts every minute of the day, in my dream every hour of the night. 白天，每分每秒我都在想念你，夜晚，每时每刻我都在梦见你。 think of me sometimes while alps and ocean divide us, but they ever will, unless you wish it. (byron) 长相思，天涯海角；情不断，山水难隔。（——拜伦） youre everything to me.你是我的一切。 3. 慰问 with warmth and understanding at this time of sorrow… and friendship that is yours for all the tomorrows. 在这悲伤的时刻，请接受我的慰问和心意……还有永远属于你的永恒的友谊。 we would do anything to ease your sorrow if we only could. 如果有可能，我们愿做任何事以稍释你的悲痛。 at this time of sorrow, deep sympathy goes to you and yours. 在这悲戚的时刻，谨向你和你的亲人致以深切的慰问。 treasured memories live and grow more precious with time. may those beautiful yesterdays help to ease todays sorrow. 珍爱的记忆与时光同在且日益珍贵，愿那些美好的昨天帮助你减轻今天的悲哀。 may friends give you strength at this time of sorrow. may faith give you hope for every tomorrow. 愿朋友们在你悲痛的时刻给你力量，愿信念给你的每一个明天带来希望。 though words cannot express the thoughts the heart would like to say, still may you know that others care and sympathize today. 虽然言语不能表达内心欲诉的哀愁，仍愿你知道朋友们今天都为你分忧。 wishing you ——愿你一年到头都有—— glad days filled with friendliness, 充满友谊的欢欣日子， bright days filled with cheer,warm days filled with happinessto last throughout the year! 充满愉快的明朗日子，充满幸福的温馨日子！ have a wonderful brithday1祝你度过一个美妙的生日！ the kindest friend there could ever be is the kind of friend you are to me.happy birthday!
英文早安问候语大全 英文早安问候语大全 1、You’ve got to put the past behind you before you can move on. 在重新开始之前，还是先把过去放下吧。 2、In fact sometimes want, is really the deep love, or because the unwilling. 其实有时候想想，是真的爱的深，还是因为不甘心。 3、Sometimes it takes the worst pain to bring about the best change. 有时候，经历过最大的挫折后，才会有最彻底的改变。 4、Youth means limitless possilities. Good morning! 年轻就有无限的可能。早安! 5、I don’t want to be the first one. I want to be the only one. 我不想做第一个，我只想做唯一。 6、When I was young, happiness was simple; now that I’ve grown up, simplicity is happiness. 小时候，幸福是件很简单的事;长大后，简单是件很幸福, 7、Each fall you take, makes you stronger when you get back up on your feet again.
每一次的跌倒后重新站起来，会让人变得愈发坚强。 8、In order to be irreplaceable one must always be different. 想要不可替代，就必须与众不同。 9、Lying is done with words and also with silence. 不只是说出口的才是谎言，沉默也可以是欺骗。 10、Say not all that you know, believe not all that you hear. 你所知道的不要全说,你所听到的不要全信。 英文早安问候语大全 1、There is no luck, There is only work, morning! 世上没什么运气，只有努力去挑战，早安! 2、I will start fresh, be someone new. Good morning! 我要重新开始，做不一样的自己。早安! 3、Life is too short for us to wake up in the morning with regrets. 人生苦短，所以每天不要带着遗憾醒来。 4、Don’t regret anything that ever made you smile. 那些曾经让你快乐过的事，没有什么好后悔的。 5、The sensible man is not influenced by what other people think. 明智的人不为别人的想法所影响。