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Chapter 7 System life cycle methodologies-外文翻译

Chapter 7 System life cycle methodologies-外文翻译
Chapter 7 System life cycle methodologies-外文翻译

Chapter 7 System life cycle methodologies

After studying this chapter, you should know what a methodology is and be familiar with the more popular examples.

Realize that the development and the use of computer-based system progresses through a system life cycle and that users and information specialists play key roles in each phase. Appreciate the importance of life cycle management and know the roles played by executives, the MIS steering committee, and project leaders.

Know the main steps that are taken for each of the life cycle phase and why they taken.

Be familiar with the process of obtaining both hardware and software to support a new system design.

Understand four approaches for cutting over to a new system.

Appreciate why systems maintenance is important.

Be familiar with prototyping and with how it fits into the development process.

Have an introductory understanding of information engineering and its revolutionary approach, called RAD, for rapid application development.

Know what business process redesign (BPR) is and why it is currently being pursued by computer-using firms.

Introduction

The concept of a life cycle fits anything that originates, matures over time, and eventually dies. This pattern applies to a computer-based system such as a data processing application or a decision support system (DSS).

The system life cycle consists of five phase. The first four-planning, analysis, design, and implementation- are devoted to development. The fifth phase is devoted to use. All phase should involve users and may involve information specialists when end-user computing is not being followed in its fullest form. The system life cycle activities of both users and information specialists are managed from several vantage points within the firm. The executives establish policies and make plans that provide the overall setting for computer use. On a slightly lower level, a special committee called the MIS steering committee can manage all of the life cycle in the firm. As each of the life cycles goes through the developmental phase, the project leaders supervise the team members.

The system life cycle is an application of the systems approach to the task of developing and using a computer-based system. As such, the system life cycle is a methodology, but its pattern is being influenced by the need to develop systems more quickly. More responsive systems development can be achieved by refining the life cycle and using computer-based development tools. Two refinements are prototyping and rapid application development (RAD). As firms seek to take full advantage of computer technology, they update their systems using business process redesign (BPR).

THE SYSTEM LIFE CYCLE

A methodology is a recommended way of doing something. The systems approach is the basic methodology for solving problems. The system life cycle (SLC) is an application of the systems approach to the development of a computer-based information system or subsystem. The SLC consists of a series of tasks that closely follow the steps of the systems approach. Since the tasks follow an orderly pattern and are performed in a top-down fashion, the SLC is often referred to as the waterfall approach to systems development and use.

Life Cycle Phases

We introduced the system life cycle in Chapter 1 and illustrated it with a wheel-like pattern in Figure 1.14. The first four phases are planning, analysis, design, and implementation. These phases are jointly called the system development life cycle (SDLC).The fifth phase is the use phase, which lasts until it is time to scrap or redesign the system. Redesign requires that the cycle be repeated.

Life Cycle Management

The first system life cycle were managed by the manager of the information services unit, who was assisted by the managers of systems analysis, programming, and operations. In many firms, the responsibility still resides at this level. Today, life cycle management can span several organizational levels and involve managers outside of information services. Figure 7.1 shows the hierarchical nature of life cycle management.

E XECUTIVE R ESPONSIBILITY When the system has strategic value or affects the entire

organization, the president or the executive committee may decide to oversee the development project. As the system scope narrows and the focus is more operational, the likelihood increases that such lower-level executives as the executive vice president, the vice president of administration, and the CIO will provide the leadership.

T HE MIS S TEERING C OMMITTEE Many firms establish a special committee below the level of the executive committee that assumes responsibility for overseeing all of the systems projects. When the purpose of a committee is to provide ongoing guidance, direction, and control, it is called a steering committee. When a firm establishes a steering committee for the purpose of directing the use of the firm`s computing resources, the name MIS steering committee is used. Permanent members of the MIS steering committee invariably include top executives. Temporary members include lower-level managers and consultants who participate during the time that their expertise is needed.

The MIS steering committee performs three main functions:

●It establishes policies that ensure computer support for achieving the strategic objectives of

the firm.

●It provides fiscal control by serving as the approval authority for all requests for

computer-related funds.

●It resolves conflicts that arise concerning priorities for computer use.

In effect, the task of the MIS steering committee is to carry out both the overall strategy that is established by the executive committee and the strategic plan for information resources.

By centralizing the management of system life cycle within the steering committee, two main

advantages accrue. The likelihood is increased:

●That the computer will be used to support users throughout the firm.

●That computer projects will be characterized by good planning and control

The MIS steering committee is the most visible evidence that the firm intends to make information resources available to all users who have a genuine need.

Project Leadership

The MIS steering committee seldom gets directly with the details of the work. That responsibility goes to project teams. A project team includes all of the persons who participate in the development of a computer-based system. A team might have as many as a dozen members, consisting of some combination of users, information specialists, and perhaps an internal auditor. The auditor ensures that the system design satisfies certain requirements in terms of accuracy, controls, security and auditability. The team activity is directed by a project leader who provides direction throughout the life of the project. Unlike the MIS steering committee, the project team is not ongoing; it is usually disbanded when implementation is completed.

THE PLANNING PHASE

Development of a CBIS subsystem should receive the same degree of planning as any major project, such as the introduction of a new product or the construction of a new plant.

The MIS steering committee and the project teams anticipate that planning will yield the following benefits. It will:

●Define the scope of the project. Which organizational units, activities, or systems will be

involved? Which will not? This information provides an initial estimate of the scale of resources required.

●Recognize potential problem areas. Planning will point out things that might go wrong so

that they may be prevented.

●Arrange a sequence of tasks. Many separate tasks will be necessary to achieve the system.

These tasks are arranged in a logical sequence based on information priorities and the need for efficiency.

●Provide a basis for control.Certain levels of performance and methods of measurement

should be specified in advance.

Management invests time in planning in the anticipation that it will pay dividends later in the life cycle.

STEPS OF THE PLANNING PHASE

Figure 7.2 is a graphic model of the planning phase. It shows each of the steps to be taken, which are described in more detail below, and identifies the responsibilities of the MIS steering committee, the manager of the user area, and the systems analyst. During the early phase of systems development, the system analyst is the information specialist with the primary responsibility for working with the user. Other team members, such as database administrators and network specialists, can play supporting roles.

1.Recognize the Problem

The firms managers, non managers, and elements in the firm`s environment are typically the ones who recognize the need for a CBIS project. Only rarely will information specialists from the

information services unit provide the trigger, because they are not always on the scene to notice the problem symptoms.

2.Define the Problem

Once the manager realizes that a problem exists, he or she must understand it well enough to pursue a solution. However, the manager does not attempt to gather all the information at this point. Instead, the manager seeks only to identify where the problem exists and its cause.

If the firm has policies that encourage end-user computing and the manager wants to pursue that approach to system development, then she or he has the definition responsibility. Otherwise, the manager solicits the assistance of the systems analyst. We will assume that the manager and the analyst work together.

3.Set System Objectives

The manager and the systems analyst develop a list of objectives that the system must meet to satisfy the users. At this point, the objectives are stated only in general terms. Later the terms get more specific.

4.Identify System Constraints

The new system will not operate free from constraints. Some constraints are imposed by the environment, such as the government`s demand for tax reports and the customers` need for billing information. Others are imposed by the firm`s management, such as the requirement to use existing hardware or to have the system up and running on a certain date.

It is important that these constraints be identified before work on the system actually begins. In this way, both the system design and the project activity will fall within the constraints.

5.Conduct a Feasibility Study

A feasibility study is a brief look at the major factors that will influence the ability of the system to achieve the desired objectives. These are six dimensions of feasibility:

●Technical Is there hardware and software available to perform the necessary processing?

●Economic return Can the proposed system be justified monetarily by comparing its benefits

and its costs?

●Noneconomic return Can the proposed system be justified based on benefits that cannot be

measured in monetary terms?

●Legal and ethical Can the proposed system operate within legal and ethical boundaries?

●Operational Is the system design such that it will receive the support of the people who

must make it work?

●Schedule Will it be possible to implement the system within the imposed time constraints? The systems analyst gathers the information necessary to answer these questions primarily by interviewing key employees in the user area.

6.Prepare a System Study Proposal

If the system and the project appear to be feasible, a full-blown system study will be necessary. The system study will provide the detailed basis for the design of the new system in terms of what it should do and how it should do it. The analyst prepares a s ystem study proposal that provides the manager with a basis for deciding whether to incur the analysis expense. Figure 7.3 is a sample outline of the system study proposal.

The first five sections relate to the system that will be achieved. Section 6 relates to the study project leading to the system, and Section 7 specifies the tasks involved in carrying out the analysis, design, and implementation phases.

The important point to understand about the proposal is that much of the content is based on estimates. More will be learned as the life cycle unfolds. But at this point the estimates are the best information available, and they are much better than no information at all.

The systems analyst gives written copies of the proposal to the manager and the MIS steering committee, and in some cases he or she makes an oral presentation.

7.Approve or Disapprove the Study Project

The manager and the steering committee weigh the pros and cons of the proposed project and system design, and they decide whether to proceed— a go/no decision.

The committee makes its decision based on two key questions:

1.Will the proposed system accomplish its objectives?

2.Is the proposed study project the best way to conduct the system analysis?

If the decision is go, the project continues to the study phase. If the decision is no go, all the parties turn their attention to other matters.

8.Establish a Control Mechanism

Before the system study begins, the MIS steering committee establishes project control by specifying what is to be done, who will do it , and when it will be done. Table 7.1 provides an example of how these questions are answered. The amount of time required for each task is listed in person months. A person-month is the amount of time it would take one person, working for an entire calendar month, to accomplish a task. By assigning several people to a task, it is possible to reduce the number of calendar months it takes to complete the task, although not necessarily in a linear fashion.

M ONITORING P ROJECT P ROGRESS Once the project schedule has been established, it must be documented in a form that facilitates control. Various documentation techniques can be used, including various types of charts, graphs, and diagrams. There are plenty of project management software systems on the market that can produce the needed documentation. A popular example is Microsoft Project.

THE ANALYSIS PHASE

With planning completed and the control mechanism in place, the project team turns to analysis of the existing system. Systems analysis is the study of an existing system for the purpose of designing a new or improved system.

During the analysis phase, the systems analyst continues to work with the manager, and the MIS steering committee is involved at crucial points, as shown in Figure 7.4.

1.Announce the System Study

When a firm implements a new computer application, management takes steps to ensure the cooperation of the employees. An initial concern is the employees` fears of how the computer might affect their jobs. The best way to combat these fears is to communicate to the employees (1) the firm`s reasons for the project and (2) how the new system will benefit both the firm and the employees. Management can meet with employees in individual or group sessions and can use such written media as memos and company newsletters to announce the study. For firms with widespread operations, announcements can also be made in videotape form.

https://www.doczj.com/doc/9f2464614.html,anize the Project Team

The project team that will conduct the system study is assembled. Many firms have a policy that

a user, rather than an information specialist, must serve as the project leader. It is crucial to the success of the project that users play active, rather than passive, roles.

3.Define Information Needs

Analysts learn about the users` information needs by engaging in a variety of information-gathering activities, including personal interviews, observations, record searches, and surveys. Of all these methods, the personal interview is preferred, for the following reasons: ●It provides the opportunity for two-way communication and observation of body language.

●It can stimulate enthusiasm for the project on the part of both the information specialists

and the users.

●It can establish a common bond of trust between the users and information specialists.

●It provides the opportunity for the participants in the project to express different—even

opposing—views.

This is the point in the SLC where the analyst assembles the documentation of the existing system. The analyst reviews documentation that may have been prepared when the current system was originally developed and adds new documentation when necessary. The documentation includes flowcharts, data flow diagrams, and other graphic and narrative descriptions of processes and data. The term project dictionary is often used to describe all of the documentation describing a system. The trend is to maintain the project dictionary in an electronic rather than paper form. 4.Define System Performance Criteria

Once the manager`s information needs are defined, it is possible to specify in exact terms what the system should accomplish—its performance criteria.

For example, a marketing manager who needs a monthly expense report may insist on the following performance criteria:

●The report should be prepared in both a hard copy and displayed form(displayed on the

computer screen).

●The report must be available no later than three days after the end of the month.

●The report is to compare actual and budgeted revenue and expenses for both the recent

month and year to date.

Of course, these specifications are adopted as the performance criteria only when the project team agrees that they are achievable.

5.Prepare the Design Proposal

The systems analyst provides the manager with the opportunity to make a second go/no go decision. Here, the manager must approve the design phase, and the support for that decision is included in the design proposal. A sample format for this document is included in Figure 7.5

6.Approve or Disapprove the Design Project

The manager and the MIS steering committee evaluate the design proposal and determine whether to grant approval. In some cases, the team may be asked to conduct another analysis and resubmit the design proposal, or the project may be abandoned. When approval is granted, the project moves to the design phase.

THE DESIGN PHASE

With an understanding of the existing system and the requirements for the new system, the project team can address the design of the new system. System design is the determination of the processes and data a new system will require. When the system is computer-based, the design can include a specification of the types of equipment to be used. The steps of the design phase are show in Figure 7.6.

1.Prepare the Detailed System Design

The analyst works with the user and documents the new system design using such tools as those described in the appendixes. Table 7.2 lists the more popular tools.

Some of the tools enable the analyst to prepare the documentation in a top-down manner, beginning with the big picture and gradually cranking in more detail. This top-down approach is a characteristic of a structured design, one in which the design proceeds from a system to a subsystem level.

Figure 7.7 and 7.8 illustrate this top-down process. Figure 7.7 is a data flow diagram(DFD), that shows how four data processing systems are linked by data flows. We explain the details of data flow diagramming in Appendix B.

第七章系统周期方法论

在学习本章之后,你应该了解什么是系统周期方法并熟悉几种常见的例子。

了解在系统生命周期方法中基于计算机系统的开发和使用进展并了解用户和信息专家在每阶段中所发挥的关键作用。

明白生命周期管理的重要性,并知道主管、MIS指导委员会和项目领导所扮演的角色。

知道每个生命周期阶段所采取的步骤和为什么采取这些步骤。

熟悉获得硬件和软件,以支持新的系统设计的过程。

了解削减到一个新系统的四种方法。

明白为什么系统的维护是很重要的。

熟悉原型并知道他是怎么适应发展过程的。

初步了解信息工程和其革命性的快速应用开发的方法(RAD)。

了解业务流程再造(BPR)是什么和为什么它被目前使用计算机的企业所推行。

导言

生命周期的概念,适合任何的起源,随着时间的推移成熟,并最终死亡。这种模式适用于基于计算机的系统,如数据处理应用程序或决策支持系统(DSS)。

系统的生命周期包括五个阶段。前四个用于发展的分别是规划、分析、设计和实施。第五阶段是投入使用。所有阶段都包括用户并当其没有遵守最大的形式终端用户计算时还可能涉及信息专家。从公司内部的几个有利位置来管理用户和信息专家的系统生命周期活动。以主管建立的政策和计划确定电脑使用的整体设置。在一个稍低的水平可以由一个叫做MIS 指导委员会的特别委员会来管理其所在公司的所有生命周期活动。项目领导应在每个系统生命周期所需经过的发育过程中督促好小组成员。

系统的生命周期是一个解决基于计算机的系统开发和利用的系统方法的应用程序。因此,系统的生命周期是一种方法论,但是满足更快开发系统的需求影响着它的模式。更加具有适应性的系统开发能够通过精炼的生命周期和基于计算机的开发工具来完成,即两项优化原型和快速应用开发(RAD)。随着企业寻求采取充分利用计算机技术,他们通过业务流程重设计(BPR)来更新他们的系统。

系统生命周期

方法是被推荐的做事方式。系统方法是解决问题的基本方法。系统的生命周期(SLC)是发展基于计算机的信息系统或子系统的系统方法的应用。系统生命周期包含一系列密切跟踪系统的方法步骤的任务。由于任务遵循有序的格局,并在一个自上而下的方式进行,SLC 通常被称为系统的开发和利用的瀑布式方法。

生命周期阶段

第1章中我们介绍了系统的生命周期和轮状图案如图1.14所示。前四个阶段分别是规划、分析、设计和实施。这些阶段共同称为系统开发生命周期(SDLC)。第五阶段是使用阶段,这一阶段持续直到它被取消或重新设计系统的时候。重新设计系统需要生命周期反复循环。

生命周期管理

第一个系统的生命周期由有系统分析、编程和操作管理人员协助的信息服务单位管理者管理。在许多企业中,管理者的责任依然停留在这个水平。现在,生命周期管理可以跨越各级组织并涉及管理人员以外的信息服务。图7.1显示了生命周期管理的分层性质。

行政机关的职责当某个系统具有战略价值或其会影响到整个团体时,企业总裁或执行委员会可以决定是否监督系统开发项目。由于系统的范围缩小将使系统重点更具可操作性,此时可能会增加执行副总裁,行政副总裁和首席信息官等稍低一级的管理人员来领导。

MIS指导委员会许多公司在执行委员会的水平之下建立了一个特别委员会来承担监督所有系统项目的责任。当一个委员会的目的是提供持续的指导,领导和控制,它就被称为指导委员会。而当一个企业建立一个以指导企业计算资源为目的的指导委员会时就被称为MIS指导委员会。MIS指导委员会的固定成员必然包括高层管理人员,临时成员包括稍低一级的管理者和某些阶段所需要的具备专业知识的顾问。

MIS指导委员会有三个主要作用:

●制定确保计算机支持实习企业的战略目标。

●通过对所有与计算机有关的资金需求的审批权来保证企业的财务控制。

●解决关于电脑使用先后次序的冲突。

实际上,MIS指导委员会的任务就是执行由高层管理人员所制定的整体战略和信息资源的战略计划。

通过指导委员会对系统生命周期的集中管理将产生两个主要的优点即如下两项作用的增加:

●计算机将被用于支持整个公司的用户。

●计算机项目的将被良好的规划和控制。

如果企业打算将信息资源提供给所有真正需要的用户,MIS指导委员会就是企业有这一想法的最明显的证据。

项目领导

MIS指导委员会很少直接去了解工作细节,了解工作细节是由项目团队所负责的事。项目团队是由所有参加基于计算机的系统开发的人员组成的。项目团队可能包含一些有合作的用户、信息专家级核数师等多达十几人组成。核数师,确保该系统的设计满足一定的精度,控制,安全和审计方面的要求。团队活动是由项目领导在项目周期内提供方针来指导的。与MIS指导委员会不同,项目团队并不是一直存在,它通常在项目实施完成后就解散。

规划阶段

开发一个CBIS子系统应该得到和引进新产品或建设新厂房等重大项目相同程度的规划。

MIS指导委员会和项目团队预测好的规划将产生如下好处:

●定义项目的范围确定将会涉及哪些组织单位、活动或系统,由此可初步估计所需

资源的多少。

●了解潜在的问题好的规划能够指出哪些事情可能出错以便纠正。

●安排任务的顺序许多独立的任务对于系统是必须的。这些任务应该给予信息的优

先次序和整体效率的需要来安排任务进行的先后顺序。

●提供控制的基础应在事先指定一定水平的性能和测量方法

管理者在规划中花的时间将会在之后的系统生命循环中得到回报。

规划的步骤

图7.2是规划阶段的图形模型。它确定了MIS指导委员会、用户区域经理、系统分析师的职责。在系统开发的早期阶段,系统分析员主要负责做用户的信息专家。其他的团队成员如数据库管理员和网络专家对其起到支持作用。

1. 了解问题

企业管理人员、非管理人员和环境因素通常都会认识到对CBIS项目需要。只有少数来自信息服务单位的信息专家会触发潜在的问题,因为他们没有一直在现场未能注意到问题的征兆。

2. 定义问题

一旦管理者意识到问题的存在,他应该有充分的了解怎么去解决问题。但是,管理者不会试图将信息都放在如何解决上。相反,管理者会去寻找存在的问题及其形成的原因。

如果企业有政策鼓励终端用户计算或者管理者想要了解系统开放的方法,那么管理者有定义问题的责任。否则,管理者只能寻求系统分析师的协助。我们假设管理者和分析师一起工作。

3. 设置系统目标

管理者和系统分析员应列出为满足用户需求的目标清单。此时的目标只是大概的目标,在之后会根据它列出更具体的条款。

4. 明确系统的限制

新的系统在运行时也将不能免于各种限制。一些限制因素来自环境,比如政府对税务报告的需求和客户对计费信息的需求。其他的限制因素来自企业的管理,比如对使用现有硬件的规定和在某一时刻运行系统的需求。

在系统实际开始工作前确定系统的限制条件是很重要的,只有这样才能时系统设计和项目活动都在限制条件内完成。

5. 进行可行性研究

可行性研究就是对影响系统能否达到预期目标的主要因素进行一个简单的了解。主要对六个方面进行可行性研究:

●技术方面是否有可用的硬件或软件来进行必要的处理工作。

●经济收益确定拟设系统所能带来的经济效益和所需成本是否合理。

●非经济收益确定拟设系统是否能带来合适的非经济收益。

●法律和道德拟设系统是否在合法合理的情况下运作。

●可操作性系统的设计是否得到所必须的工作人员的支持。

●进度拟定系统是否能在规定的截至日期内得以实施。

系统分析员主要通过采访客户服务的关键员工来收集必要信息回答上述问题。

6. 准备系统研究的方案

如果拟定的系统和项目是可行的,那么全面的系统分析就是必要的。系统分析能够给系统的设计在其应该做什么以及应该怎么做的方面提供详细的依据。分析师准备系统研究的方案提供给管理者,该方案能给出一个是否收取分析费用的依据供管理者参考。图7.3是系统研究方案的大纲样本。

前五个部分设计将要实习的系统,第六条是关于系统的研究项目领导而第七条规定进行分析、设计和实施阶段的任务。

对有关建议需要明白的很重要的一点是大部分的内容都是基于预估形成。更多的建议将在系统生命周期的进行中得到。但是预估在进行系统方案研究时能获得的最佳信息,和一点信息都没有相比要好的多。一般情况下系统分析师给项目管理者和MIS指导委员会给出书面的建议,但是有时也可能做口头报告。

7. 是否批注研究的项目

管理者和指导委员会在权衡拟议项目和系统设计的优劣后决定是否继续该项目。

委员会给予两个关键问题做出决定,分别是:

(1)拟议的项目能否实现它的目标。

(2)建议的研究项目是否是开展系统分析的最佳方法。

如果决定继续,则项目继续研究下去;如果决定放弃,则各参与方可自行退散。

8. 建立控制机制

在系统研究开始前,MIS指导委员会通过指定要做什么事,谁去做这些事和什么时候完成这些事来建立项目控制机制。表7.1提供了一个如何回答这些问题的模版。每项任务所需时间都按每个人都能整个月工作的时间计算。通过指定几个人到同一任务,虽然可以减少所需的时间,但是工作量没有变。

监测项目进度

一旦项目进度表建立后,它必须以利于控制的形式进行记录。各种文档方式可用于记录项目进度包括各种表格、图形和图表。市场上也有很多项目管理的软件系统能帮助生产进度控制所需的文件。一个很受欢迎的软件就是Microsoft Project。

分析阶段

在规划和控制机制完成后,项目团队就开始分析现有系统。分析现有系统的目的是设计一个新系统或者对其进行改进。

在系统分析阶段,系统分析师将继续和管理者和MIS指导委员会中涉及关键点的人员合作,如图7.4所示。

1. 宣布系统研究

当一个企业建立了新的计算机应用系统,管理者应采取措施确保员工合作。最开始管理者应关心员工对于计算机对他们工作的影响的担忧。打消员工这些担忧的最好办法是和员工沟通告诉他们为什么企业采取计算机应用系统的目的和新的系统将如何对员工和企业都更有利。管理者可以通过个人或小组会议、备忘录、公司简报等方式来进行通知采用新系统的原因,具有更广泛业务的企业也可以以录像带的形式来通报。

2. 组织项目团队

项目团队都将是临时组成的。许多企业都有系统的使用者而非信息专家作为项目领导的政策。系统使用者在项目中发挥积极的作用是项目能否成功的关键。

3. 确定所需信息

分析师通过一系列的信息收集活动来了解用户的信息需求,其中包括个人访谈、观察、调查历史记录和调查等方式。在所有这些方式中个人专访是最好的方式,原因如下:

●它能提供双向沟通的机会和身体语言的观察。

●它可以刺激信息专家和用户对于项目的积极性。

●它可以建立一个在信息专家和用户之间共同的纽带来增加互信。

●它给项目参与者提供了发表不同甚至反对意见的机会。

这是在系统生命周期中分析师组合现有系统文档的关键点。分析师审查那些可能在当前系统最初开发的时候和随和按需求增加的新的文件。文件包括流程图,数据流程图,和其他图形和叙事描述的流程和数据。通常用长期项目字典来形容描述系统的所有文件。目前的趋势是用电子的方式而不是纸质文件来记录描述项目的文件。

4. 定义系统性能标准

一旦管理者的信息需求被定义后,它可能指定系统应该符合的具体条款即绩效标准。例如,需要月开支报告的市场经理可能坚持以下绩效标准:

●该报告应准备拷贝和显示形式(在计算机屏幕上显示)。

●该报告必须在当月结束后三天内提交。

●该报告还需比较最近一个月及今年迄今位置的实际和预算的收入和支出。

当然,这些绩效标准所采取的规范只有在项目组同意的情况下才是可实现的。

5. 准备设计方案

在准备设计方案阶段,系统分析师给经理提供了第二次是否继续项目的决定机会。此时,管理者应该审核设计阶段并且关于决定是否继续项目必须包括在设计方案内。图7.5即包括了文件的格式样本。

6. 是否批准设计项目

经理和MIS指导委员会评估设计方案,并决定是否批准。在某些情况下,项目团队可能被要求再次进行分析并重新提交设计方案也可能放弃项目。当设计项目被批准时,该项目就进行到设计阶段。

设计阶段

在对现有系统理解和对新系统的需求充分了解的情况下,项目团队能够解决新系统的设计。系统设计是一个新的系统将流程和数据的关键。当系统是基于计算机时,设计可以包括设计所使用设备的类型规范。设计阶段的步骤如题7.6所示。

1. 准备系统的详细设计

分析师需要与用户和新系统设计所需用的如附录中描述的工具文件来工作。表7.2列出了比较流行的工具。一些工具使分析师能够以一个自上而下的方式准备的文件,开始整体分析并逐步在更详细的分析。这种自上而下的方法是结构化设计的特点。

图7.7和7.8说明这个自上而下的过程。图7.7是一个数据流图(DFD),四个数据处理系统是由数据流联系在一起。我们解释在附录B中的数据流图表的细节。

3算术运算指令实验

2.3 算术运算指令实验 一、实验目的 ·掌握单字节的加减法指令的使用。 ·掌握单字节的乘除法指令的使用。 ·掌握用Keil调试汇编源程序的方法。 ·掌握用Proteus调试汇编源程序的方法。 二、实验预备知识 算术运算指令对程序状态寄存器PSW中的相关位会产生不同的影响。具体如下:◇执行加法指令时,当和的第3位或第7位有进位时,分别将AC、CY标志位置1;否则为O。如果第6位向第7位有进位而第7位没有向前进位,或者如果第7位向前有进位而第6位没有向第7位进位,OV=1,否则OV-O。该操作也影响标志位P。 ◇执行减法指令时,如果第7位有借位,则CY置1,否则清O。若第3位有借位,则 AC置1;否则清O。两个带符号数相减,还要考查OV标志,若OV为1,表示差数溢出,即破坏了正确结果的符号位。该操作也影响标志位P。 ◇执行乘法指令时,若乘积大子OFFH,则OV置1,否则清o(此时B的内容为0)。 CY总是被清O。该操作也影响标志位p。 ◇执行除法指令时,若除数(B) -OOH.则结果无法确定,OV置l。CY总是被清O。该操作也影响标志位P。 三、实验内容 将算术运算指令分成两类,分别编写两个小程序,以完成数据的加减法、乘除法运算。 1.参考程序i-hn减法运算 (1)将立即数# B5H、#36H、#89H分别传送至内部RAM区40H、R2、A中。 (2)将内部RAM区40H中的内容与A中的内容相加,然后再与R2中的内容相加,结果存放至内部RAM区50H中。 (3)将A中的内容与内部RAM区40H中的内容相减,结果存放至内部RAM区60H中。 2.参考程序2——乘除法运算 (1>将立即数#75H、#31H分别传送至内部RAM区15H、33H中。 (2)将内部RAM区15H单元的内容与33H单元的内容相乘。 (3)将乘积的高8位和低8位分别传送至内部RAM区31H、30H中。 (4)将内部RAM区15H单元的内容除以33H单元的内容。 (5)将商和余数分别传送至内部RAM区41H、40H中。四、实验参考程序

实验二 算术运算实验

实验二算术运算实验 一、实验目的 1、掌握MASM for Windows 环境下的汇编语言编程环境使用; 2、掌握汇编语言程序设计的基本流程及汇编语言中的二进制、十六进制、十进制、BCD 码的表示形式; 3、掌握汇编语言对多精度十六进制和十进制的编程方法及运算类指令对各状态标志 位的影响及测试方法; 4、掌握无符号数和有符号数运算区别及编程方法; 5、掌握BCD 码调整指令的使用方法 二、软硬件实验环境 1、硬件环境:惠普64 位一体化计算机及局域网; 2、软件环境:windows 8,红蜘蛛管理系统,MASM for Windows。 三、实验基本原理 算术运算实验需要对运行结果进行调试及查看状态字,其相关知识如下。 1) 标志位 在debug调试过程中,标志位用特殊符号表示的,其标志名和状态符号的对照表参照表1所示。 表1标志名和状态符号的对照表参照表 2) 加减法指令 ADD表示加法指令,ADC表示带进位加法指令,SUB表示减法指令,SBB表示带进位减法指令。 3) 乘除法指令

MUL表示无符号数乘法指令,IMUL表示带符号数乘法指令,DIV表示无符号数除法指令,IDIV 表示带符号数除法指令。 4) 符号位扩展指令 CBW表示从字节扩展到字的指令,CWD表示从字扩展到双字的指令。 5) BCD码的调整指令 在进行十进制加减运算时,需要将数据用BCD码表示,还要考虑到是组合BCD码还是非组合BCD码,组合BCD码是用一个字节表示两位十进制数,非组合BCD码是用一个字节表示一位十进制数,对于组合的BCD码加减法运算其结果存放在AL中。 组合的BCD码加法调整指令DAA; 组合的BCD码减法调整指令DAS; 非组合的BCD码加法调整指令AAA; 非组合的BCD码减法调整指令AAS; 乘法的非组合BCD码调整指令AAM; 除法的非组合BCD码调整指令AAD。 8088/8086指令系统提供了实现加、减、乘、除运算指令,可参照表2所示内容。 表2数据类型的数据运算表 四、实验步骤与内容 1)对于表格中三组无符号数,试编程求这三组数的指定运算结果,并考虑计算结果对标志寄存器中状态标志位的影响: ①实验分析 本实验要求简单,仅对指定三组数进行基本运算。只需使用ADD、SUB、MUL、DIV四个运算命令,并以MOV命令作为数值转移的手段即可。运算结果和状态标志的情况可以通过debug调试中的T命令进行逐步查看。 需要注意的主要有以下几点: 1.在进行加法和乘法运算时,会出现对高位的进位扩展。因此,在记录结

练习(算术运算及逻辑移位指令3题目)

练习 算术运算与逻辑移位指令 1、若AX=0ABCDH,BX=7F8FH,CF=1。分别执行0886 CPU指令 (1)ADD AX,BX (2)ADC AX,BX (3)SBB AX,BX (3)NEG AX (5)AND AX,BX (6)OR AX,BX (7)XOR AX,BX (8)IMUL BL 后,AX寄存器中的内容,并指出标志寄存器SF、ZF、AF、PF、CF及OF的状态。 2、若CX=6700H,DX=78FFH,CF=1,求分别执行指令 (1)ADD CX,DX (2)ADC CX,DX (3)SUB CX,DX (4)SBB CX,DX (5)AND CX,DX (6)OR CX,DX (7)XOR CX,DX 后,CX和DX中的内容。并指出标志寄存器SF、ZF、AF、PF、CF和OF的状态。 3、X,Y分别为下列各组数,当它们分别进行加、减、AND、OR、XOR运算后,其标志位,SF、OF、CF、PF、ZF的状态如何? (1)X=21H;Y=43H (2)X=9AH;Y=0BCH (3)X=48H;Y=8DH (2)X=54H;Y=54H 4、若AX=98ABH,BX=A8BCH,求执行指令ADD AX,BX后,AX与BX中的内容,并指出SF、ZF、AF、PF、CF和OF的状态。 5、针对下列各条指令执行后的结果,填入目的操作数的值及标志位的状态。 6、若AX=FFF8H,BX=FFFAH,求执行IMUL BX后,DX与AX中的内容,并指出标

志位OF与CF的状态。 7、若AX=FFFEH,BX=FFFDH,求执行指令IMUL BX后,DX与AX中的内容。指出标志位OF与CF的状态。 8、设AL=85H,BL=2AH,均为带符号数,求指令 IMUL BL的执行结果。 9、若AL=78H,BL=87H, (1)求执行指令 ADD AL,BL DAA 之后,AL=?标志位AF=?CF=?并说明BCD码调整情况。 (2)若执行指令SUB AL,BL与DAS后,情况又如何? 10、若AL=75H,BL=48, (1)求执行指令 ADD AL,BL DAA 之后,AL=?标志位AF=?CF=?并说明BCD码调整情况。 (2)若执行指令SUB AL,BL与DAS后,情况又如何? 11、若有一个4字节数,放在寄存器BX间址的内存中(低地址对应低字节),要求这个4字节整数整个左移一位如何实现?右移一位又如何实现? 12、若有一个四字节数,放在寄存器DX与AX中(DX放高16位),要求这个四字节数整个左移一位如何实现?右移一位又如何实现? 13、分别编写一程序使 (1)AX寄存器高3位清0; (2)BX寄存器高3位置1; (3)CX寄存器高4位取反; (4)DX寄存器高3位不变,其余位清0。

第八讲 算术运算类指令

第八讲算术运算类指令 教学方法:讲授法 教学目的: 1、熟悉数据运算类指令的操作方式特点 2、理解二-十进制调整指令的含义 3、熟练掌握加法指令 教学重点、难点: 加法、减法指令、二-十进制调整指令 无条件转移指令的应用 主要教学内容(提纲): 一、数据运算类指令的操作方式特点 二、算术运算类指令 三、逻辑运算类指令 复习: direct、@Ri、@DPTR、Rn、#data、(x)、((x))的含义? 讲授要点 §3-3 算术运算类指令 包括:加、减、乘、除;加一、减一。 一、加法指令 ADD A,Rn ;(A)(A)+ (Rn)以下类同。 ADD A,direct ADD A,@Ri ADD A,#data 无符号数相加时:若C = 1,说明有溢出(其值> 255)。 带符号数相加时:若OV = D7c⊕D6c = 1,说明有溢出。 ADDC A,Rn ;(A)(A)+(Rn)+(C),以下类同。ADDC A,direct ADDC A,@Ri ADDC A,#data 上述四条指令多用于多字节数相加。 INC A ;(A)(A)+1 ,以下类同。 INC Rn INC direct INC @Ri INC DPTR 例1、设(R0)= 7FH;(7EH)= 40H

执行:INC @R0 INC R0 INC @R0 后, (R0)= 7FH; (7EH)= 00H; (7FH)= 41H. DA A ;二——十进制调整指令。 执行过程中,CPU能根据加法运算后,累加器中的值和PSW中的AC及C标志位的状况自动选择一个修正值(00H、06H、60H、66H)与原运算结果相加,进行二——十进制调整。 选择修正值的规则: (A3 ~ 0)> 9时或(AC)= 1时,(A3 ~ 0)(A3 ~ 0)+6 (A7 ~ 4)> 9 或(C) = 1时,(A7 ~ 4)(A7 ~ 4)+ 6 例2、设(A)= 56H 为56的压缩的BCD码数,(R3)= 67H,(CY)=1 执行ADDC A,R3 DA A 结果为:124 注意:1)DA指令只能跟在加法指令后面使用; 2)调整前参与运算的两数是BCD码数; 3)DA指令不能与减法指令配对使用,但可以实现对A中压缩BCD 减一操作。 例3、设(A)=30H(压缩BCD码数),执行: ADD A,#99H DA A 后,便实现了30 -1 = 29的操作。 例4、两个4位BCD码相加,一个存放在(31H)(30H);另一个存放在 (33H)(32H);和数拟回存在(31H)(30H)中,试编程实现之。 解:MOV R0,#30H MOV R1,#32H MOV A,@R0 ADD A,@R1 DA A MOV @R0,A INC R0 INC R1 MOV A,@R0 ADDC A,@R1 DA A MOV @R0,A 二、减法指令 SUBB A,Rn ;(A)(A)-(Rn)-(C),以下类同。 SUBB A,direct SUBB A,@Ri SUBB A,#data

项目生命周期 The Project Life Cycle

The Project Life Cycle The investors’ capital investment aims to meet the market demands or perceived needs by making the facility satisfy certain objectives within the constraints specified by themselves and relevant regulations; thus, most constructed facilities are custom-made except in the housing market. From the viewpoint of project management, the “owner”and “investor” are synonymous for both have the ultimate authority to make all vital decisions. It will be wise for owners to understand the acquisition process basing on agreement clearly, so as to maintain firm control of the quality, timeliness and cost. The project life cycle for a constructed facility from the perspective of an owner embraces several stages. Essentially, a conceived project originates from market demands or needs in a timely fashion. In order to pick the best one in the conceptual planning stage, considered various possibilities’technical and economic feasibility may be assessed. After the scope of the project is clearly defined, there comes detailed engineering design. After the construction is completed, a brief period of start-up or shake-down of the constructed facility is necessary. Finally, the management of facility is turned over to owner until the facility lives out its useful life and is designated for demolition or conversion. The stages may not be strictly sequential. According to actual circumstance, some can iterate and others may be carried out in parallel

Maple 常用计算命令

Maple 常用计算命令 《Maple 指令》7.0版本 第1章章数 1.1 复数 Re,Im - 返回复数型表达式的实部/虚部 abs - 绝对值函数 argument - 复数的幅角函数 conjugate - 返回共轭复数 csgn - 实数和复数表达式的符号函数 signum - 实数和复数表达式的sign 函数5 1.2 MAPLE 常数 已知的变量名称 指数常数(以自然对数为底) I - x^2 = -1 的根 infinity 无穷大 1.3 整数函数 ! - 阶乘函数 irem, iquo - 整数的余数/商 isprime - 素数测试 isqrfree - 无整数平方的因数分解 max, min - 数的最大值/最小值 mod, modp, mods - 计算对 m 的整数模 rand - 随机数生成器 randomize - 重置随机数生成器 1.4 素数 Randpoly, Randprime - 有限域的随机多项式/首一素数多项式ithprime - 确定第i个素数 nextprime, prevprime - 确定下一个最大/最小素数 1.5 数的进制转换 convert/base - 基数之间的转换 convert/binary - 转换为二进制形式 convert/decimal - 转换为 10 进制 convert/double - 将双精度浮点数由一种形式转换为另一种形式convert/float - 转换为浮点数 convert/hex - 转换为十六进制形式 convert/metric - 转换为公制单位 convert/octal - 转换为八进制形式 1.6 数的类型检查 type - 数的类型检查函数 第2章初等数学 2.1 初等函数 product - 确定乘积求和不确定乘积 exp - 指数函数

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Life Cycles ?This software has been created to inform classmates about the life cycle of a butterfly. The program explains how the life cycle of the butterfly develops, and includes games to reinforce this life cycle. Click on the butterfly to begin.

https://www.doczj.com/doc/9f2464614.html, 共板法兰风管螺旋风管排烟风机防火阀https://www.doczj.com/doc/9f2464614.html, 龙门吊单梁起重机大连渤海起重 The Life Cycle Which came first, the egg or the adult? Of the Butterfly

Stage 1 The Egg ?Butterfly egg s differ from one to another. Sometimes the adult lays one egg, other times they lay hundreds of them. The egg can range in color from green and red, to yellow or brown. The eggs can be long and oval like a pickle, or can be flat and round like a pancake.

(整理)产品生命周期.

引言 产品全生命周期管理(Product overall LifecycleManagemen t,PLM)是从产品的概念设计起,至产品的终结止,协同地创造、管理、传播和使用产品的定义信息,以实现人、过程、商业系统和信息集成的解决方案集。PLM是为满足制造业对产品生命周期信息管理的需求而产生的一种新的管理模式。PLM以整个生命周期内产品数据集成为基础,研究产品在其生命周期内从产品规划、设计、制造到销售等过程的管理与协同,目的在于尽量缩短产品上市时间、降低费用,尽量满足用户的个性化需求。PLM的核心是产品数据的有序、设计过程的优化和资源的共享。 在产品生命周期中,随着各阶段和过程的推演,产品在功能、性能、技术经济指标、几何形态、材料、工艺、制造资源及采购、供应、销售等社会资源方面发生着一系列的变化,会产生大量复杂的技术和商务信息。而在PLM的协同环境中,使得各个分系统能够形成有机整体的关键环节之一便是产品物料清单(Bill of Material, BOM)。 作为制造企业主要基础数据之一的物料清单(Bill of Material,BOM)在CAD/CAPP/CAM/PDM/ERP等企业信息系统中通常具有核心地位。而作为企业核心基础数据,具有连接企业产品工程设计和生产经营管理桥梁作用的BOM,在产品生命周期的不同阶段,具有不同的表现形式、用途和意义。这些不同的BOM形态分布在企业信息网络中的不同系统之中,作为制造企业中设计数据、生产数据和采

购数据等数据间的纽带,是实现企业各部门之间信息集成与共享的关键。 1 BOM及其演进过程 传统意义上的BOM是定义产品结构的技术文件。在信息化条件下,为了使得计算机能够识别产品设计、制造、维护等环节中的产品构成和所有涉及的物料,需要将图示表达的产品结构转化成某种数据格式,这种以数据格式来描述产品结构的文件也被称作产品结构表或产品结构树。 BOM是指构成一个物料项的所有子物料项的列表。而物料项是指所有在产品生命过程中出现的物质形态,包括原材料、毛坯、标准件、成件、零组件、装配件、构型件、工装、设备、工具和夹具等,他们是组织产品的需求、设计、工艺、生产、销售、维护、保废、回收等所有与产品相关活动的重要依据。BOM实质上是一种将产品形态结构化表示的信息表,反映产品中零部件的自身信息、零部件的相关信息以及零部件所涉及的外部资源的信息。所有信息载体的总和构成了产品数据的所有内容。包括各个物料项的属性,以及物料项之间的相关关系。例如,零件和数字模型(2D、3D)之间的描述定义关系,零件和原材料、毛坯之间的加工关系,零件和工装夹具之间的夹紧固定

8086指令系统之算术运算类指令

8086 指令系统之算术运算类指令 2007-04-17 07:51 1 加法指令 1.1 加法指令 ADD ADD reg,imm/reg/mem ;reg←reg+imm/reg/mem ADD mem,imm/reg ;mem←mem+imm/reg 2.17a: 例 2.17a:加法运算 mov add mov mov add add al,0fbh ;al=0fbh al,07h ;al=02h word ptr[200h],4652h ;[200h]=4652h bx,1feh ;bx=1feh al,bl ;al=00h word ptr[bx+2],0f0f0h ;[200h]=3742h
ADD 指令按照状态标志的定义相应设置这些标志的 0 或 1 状态。例如 在 07+FBH→02H 运算后:标志为 OF=0、SF=0、ZF=0、AF=1、PF=0、CF=1;用调 试程序单步执行后,上述标志状态依次为 NV、PL、NZ、AC、PO、CY。 同样进行 4652h+f0f0h→3742H 运算后,标志为 OF=0、SF=0、ZF=0、 AF=0、PF=1、CF=1;调试程序依次显示为 NV、PL、NZ、NA、PE、CY。注意,PF 仅反映低 8 位中“1”的个数,AF 只反映 D3 对 D4 位是否有进位。 1.2 带进位加法指令 ADC ADC reg,imm/reg/mem ;reg←reg+imm/reg/mem+CF ADC mem,imm/reg ;mem←mem+imm/reg+CF ;mem←mem+imm/reg+CF 加法运算外, CF, ADC 指令除完成 ADD 加法运算外,还要加进位 CF,其用法及对状态标志的 指令一样。 影响也与 ADD 指令一样。ADC 指令主要用于与 ADD 指令相结合实现多精度 数相加。 数相加。 2.17b: 例 2.17b:无符号双字加法运算 mov ax,4652h ;ax=4652h add ax,0f0f0h ;ax=3742h,CF=1 mov dx,0234h ;dx=0234h adc dx,0f0f0h ;dx=f325h,CF=0 上述程序段完成 DX.AX = 0234 4652H + F0F0 F0F0H = F325 3742H。 1.3 增量指令 INC INC reg/mem ;reg/mem←reg/mem+1 增量)。 INC 指令对操作数加 1(增量)。

全生命周期管理的仪器管理

全生命周期管理(PLM)理念下的仪器设备管理 文/宝晟(广州)生物信息技术有限公司 导读 巨大存量和快速增量的仪器设备,增强了我国高校人才培养与科技创新的条件与能力,同时也对高校仪器设备管理提出了更高的要求。但据有关部门的统计,我国大型科研装备利用率只有25%,与发达国家差距巨大。 将企业管理领域著名的“流程管理”思想和“全生命周期管理”理念引到仪器设备管理,做到系统管理标准化、部门管理流程化、平台导航模块化、流程梳理精致化、账目维护定期化,提高仪器设备利用率和管理水平。 WHAT 亚当·斯密的“劳动分工原理”和泰勒的“制度化管理理论”开创了经典的经营与管理模式,但进人20世纪80年代后期,管理学家和企业家认为其存在分工过细、无人负责整个流程、组织机构臃肿、员工技能单一等问题。美国企业管理大师、MIT教授迈克尔·汉默提出了业务流程管理理论,引发了新的管理革命浪潮。 流程管理,即以规范化地构造端到端的卓越业务流程为中心,以持续地提高组织业务绩效为目的的系统化方法。它是一个操作性的定位描述,指的是流程分析、流程定义与重定义、资源分配、时间安排、流程质量与效率测评、流程优化等,同时还包括流程描述与流程改进等一系列方法、技术与工具,其核心是结构化的流程、本质是构造卓越的业务流程,目的是提高组织绩效。 产品全生命周期管理(Product Lifecycle Management,PLM)的研究起始于美国“计算机辅助后勤支援”(CALS)计划,是美国国防部于1985年9月提出的一项战略性计划。CALS的主要内涵是全寿命管理和全寿命信息支持。该计划实施后效益显著,显示出巨大的生命力,到20世纪80年代末期,CALS不仅扩展了内涵,进一步受到美国国防部的重视,而且引起了美国商务部的注意,1993年美国工业界人士在CALS杂志上撰文说,CALS是制造业全面发展的战略,致使CALS应用由武器装备向民用扩展,并且迅速向英国、法国、德国、瑞典、芬兰、日本、韩国和澳大利亚等国传播。 PLM是对产品从创建到使用,到最终报废等全生命周期的产品数据信息进行管理的理念。PLM是作为一种管理思想被提出来,其核心是产品,即主要针对的是通过对制造业企业信息化,为企业建立一个能支持产品开发、产品生产和维护全过程,同时又持续不断地提升创新能力的产品信息管理平台,使企业拥有竞争力的产品,为企业获得更多用户和更大的市场。 最初流程管理与PLM多应用在企业生产方面。PLM的灵魂是管理,它是一种先进企业信息化思想的产物,是为了辅助人们在激烈的竞争中,以最有效的方式和手段来增加企业的收入

算术和逻辑运算指令

第5章算术和逻辑运算指令 罗文坚 中国科大计算机学院 https://www.doczj.com/doc/9f2464614.html,/~wjluo/mcps/

本章内容 ?加法、减法和比较指令 ?乘法和除法指令 ?BCD码和ASCII码算术运算指令?基本逻辑运算指令 ?移位和循环移位指令 ?串比较指令

加法格式ADD REG/MEM, REG/MEM/IMM 功能源操作数、目的操作数相加,结果存入目的操 作数 标志所有状态标志(ZF、CF、PF、AF、SF 及OF)都受影响 带进位加格式ADC REG/MEM, REG/MEM/IMM 功能源操作数、目的操作数以及进位标志CF相加,结果存入目的操作数 标志所有状态标志(ZF、CF、PF、AF、SF 及OF)都受影响

加1格式INC REG/MEM 功能目的操作数加1 标志除CF标志位,其余状态标志都受影响 交换并相加格式XADD REG/MEM, REG 功能(80486以上)源操作数和目的操作数相交换,并将两者之和存入目的操作数 标志所有状态标志都受影响,根据加法结果设置

?加法指令注意事项: 1.源操作数和目的操作数不能同时为内存单元 (MEM)。 2.不允许与段寄存器(SREG)相关的加法。 3.XADD指令的源操作数在寄存器(REG)中。 4.标志寄存器中状态位随运算结果而变化,但INC 指令不影响CF标志。 5.指令中操作数是带符号数还是无符号数由程序员 解释。 注意:第4章的数据传送指令不改变状态标志。

Example 1 ?例、试用加法指令对两个8位16进制数5EH 和3CH 求和,并分析加法运算指令执行后对标志位的影响。 ?解:MOV AL, 5EH ;AL=5EH (94) MOV BL, 3CH ;BL=3CH (50) ADD AL, BL ;结果AL=9AH 101010011100001111100101 运算后标志:ZF=0, AF=1, CF=0, SF=1, PF=1, OF=1。 ?若程序员认为两个加数是无符号数,则运算结果位9AH ,即154。 ?此时,SF 标志和OF 标志没有意义。 ? 若程序员认为两个加数是有符号数,则运算溢出,结果无效。?此时,CF 标志没有意义。

Process Validation__Lifecycle______ Approach

1 Process Validation A Lifecycle Approach Douglas A. Campbell Senior Policy Advisor U.S. Food and Drug Administration Center for Drug Evaluation and Research Office of Compliance Division of Manufacturing and Product Quality China June 2011

Agenda 1.Goals of the 2011 Final Guidance on Process Validation 2.CGMPs and Process Validation (PV) for drug manufacturing 3.Lifecycle approach: Stage 1 (Process Design), Stage 2 (Process Qualification) and Stage 3 (Continued Process Verification) –Performance criteria –Beginning Commercial Distribution –Concurrent release –Establishing process variability estimates –Statistics, sample size, desired confidence, probability –USP - “It met specifications.”

实验二 算术逻辑运算及移位操作

实验二算术逻辑运算及移位操作 一、实验目的 1.熟悉算术逻辑运算指令和移位指令的功能。 2.了解标志寄存器各标志位的意义和指令执行对它的影响。 二、实验预习要求 1.复习8086指令系统中的算术逻辑类指令和移位指令。 2.按照题目要求在实验前编写好实验中的程序段。 三、实验任务 1.实验程序段及结果表格如表1.2: 表1.2 标志位CF ZF SF OF PF AF 程序段1: MOV AX, 1018H MOV SI, 230AH ADD AX, SI ADD AL, 30H MOV DX, 3FFH ADD AX,BX MOV [20H], 1000H ADD [20H], AX PUSH AX POP BX 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 程序段2: MOV AX, 0A0AH ADD AX, 0FFFFH MOV CX, 0FF00H ADC AX, CX SUB AX, AX INC AX 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

OR CX, 0FFH AND CX, 0F0FH MOV [10H], CX 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 程序段3: MOV BL, 25H MOV BYTE PTR[10H], 4 MOV AL, [10H] MUL BL 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 程序段4: MOV WORD PTR[10H],80H MOV BL, 4 MOV AX, [10H] DIV BL 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 程序段5: MOV AX, 0 DEC AX ADD AX, 3FFFH ADD AX, AX NOT AX SUB AX, 3 OR AX, 0FBFDH AND AX, 0AFCFH SHL AX ,1 RCL AX ,1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 2.用BX 寄存器作为地址指针,从BX 所指的内存单元(0010H)开始连续存入三个无符号数(10H 、04H 、30H),接着计算内存单元中的这三个数之和,和放 在0013H 单元中,再求出这三个数之积,积放0014单元中。写出完成此功能的 程序段并上机验证结果。 3.写出完成下述功能的程序段。上机验证你写出的程序段,程序运行的最后结果(AX)=? (1) 传送15H 到AL 寄存器; 2题答案 MOV BX.10H MOV CX,BX INC BX MOV SI,BX INC BX MOV AX,[CX] ADD AX,[BX] ADD AX,[SI] MOV [13H],AX MOV AX,[CX] MUL WORDPTR[BX] MUL WORDPTR[SI] MOV [14H],AX F 10H 12H 10H 4H 30H

算术表达式求值的运算符优先算法。C语言完整代码

#include #include #include #define STACK_INIT_SIZE 100 #define STACKINCREMENT 10 # define TRUE 1 # define FALSE 0 typedef int Status; typedef char SElemType; typedef struct { SElemType *base; SElemType *top; int stacksize; }StackChar; //sequence序列 typedef struct { float *base; float *top; int stacksize; }StackFloat; //sequence序列 Status InitStack(StackChar **S){ //初始化空桟 *S=(StackChar *)malloc(sizeof(StackChar)); (*S)->base=(SElemType *)malloc(STACK_INIT_SIZE*sizeof(SElemType)); if(!(*S)->base) exit(OVERFLOW); (*S)->top=(*S)->base; (*S)->stacksize=STACK_INIT_SIZE; return OK; }// InitStack(&S); Status initStack(StackFloat **S){ //初始化空桟 *S=(StackFloat *)malloc(sizeof(StackFloat)); (*S)->base=(float *)malloc(STACK_INIT_SIZE*sizeof(float)); if(!(*S)->base) exit(OVERFLOW); (*S)->top=(*S)->base; (*S)->stacksize=STACK_INIT_SIZE; return OK; }// initStack(&S); Status Pop(StackChar **S,SElemType *a){ if((*S)->top==(*S)->base) {printf("ERROR!\n"); return ERROR; } *a=*(--(*S)->top);

51单片机算术运算指令

1.程序状态字PSW MCS-51有一个程序状态字寄存器PSW,用来保存指令执行结果的标志,供程序查讯和判别。PSW是特殊功能寄存器中的一个,其格式如下: PSW7--既是布尔处理机的累加器C,又是进位标志CY,如果操作结果在最高位有进位输出(加法时)或借位输入(减法时),置位CY,否则清“0”CY。 AC--辅助进位(半进位)标志。如果操作结果的低4位有进位(加法时)或向高4位借位时(减法),置AC,否则清“0”AC,AC主要用于二-十进制数加法调整。 OV--溢出标志。如果操作结果有进位进入最高位,但最高位没有产生进位,或者最高位产生进位而低位没有向最高位进位,这时置位溢出标志位,否则OV清“0”。溢出标志位用于补码运算,当有符号的数运算结果不能用8位二进制数表示时,OV将置位。 P--累加器A的奇偶标志位,如果累加器A的8位的模2和为1(奇),则P=1;否则P=0。由于P总是表示A的奇偶性,随着A的内容变化的,所以一个值写入PSW的P位的值不变。RS1、RS0--指示当前使用的工作寄存器区。 F0--用户标志位。可作为软件标志,它的作用和内部RAM位寻址区的各位相似。 PSW1--保留位,对它的操作无效。 2.加法指令 ?1、不带进位加法指令 工作寄存器、内部RAM单元内容或立即数的8位无符号二进制数和累加器A中数相加,所得和存放于累加器A中,当和的第3、7位有进位时,分别将AC,CY标志位置1;否则为0。上述指令的执行将影响标志位AC、CY、OV、P。 对于无符号数,进位标志位CY=1,表示溢出;CY=0表示无溢出。带符号数运算的溢出取决于第6、7位中有一位产生进位,而另一位不产生进位,溢出标志位OV置“1”否则被清“0”。OV=1表示两个正数相加,和变为负数,或两个负数相加,和变为正数的错误结果。 源操作数有四种寻址方式:寄存器、直接、间接和立即数。 ?2、带进位加法指令: 这是四条带进位的加法指令。将累加器A内容加当前CY标志位内容,再加无符号单字节的数,和存于累加器A中。当运算结果第3、7位产生进位溢出时,则分别置位AC、CY和OV 标志位。本指令执行将影响标志位AC、CY、OV、P。 本指令常用于多字节加法。

Product lifecycle

Product lifecycle Product life cycle is a business analysis that attempts to identify a set of common stages in the life of commercial products,in other words the 'Product Life cycle' PLC is used to map the lifespan of the product,i.e. the stages through which a product goes during its lifespan for example, introduction, promotion, growth, maturity and decline. The stages of a product's lifecycle can be classified as follows: Introduction The introduction stage is characterized by low growth rate of sales as the product is newly launched in the market. Monopoly can be created, depending upon the efficiency and need of the product to the customers. Firms usually incur losses rather than profit turning this stage. If the product is in the new product class, the users may not be aware of its true potential. In order to achieve that place in the market, extra information about the product should be transferred to consumers through various media.The stage has the following characteristics: 1. Low competition 2. Firm mostly incurs losses and not profit. Growth Growth comes with the acceptance of the innovation in the market and profit starts to flow. If the monopoly exists, companies can experiment with new ideas and innovation in order to maintain the sales growth. This stage is the best time to introduce new effective products in the market thus creating an image in the product class in the presence of its competitors who try to copy or improve the product and present it as a substitute. Maturity In the maturity stage, the end of stage of the growth rate and sales slowdown as the product has already achieved acceptance in the market. New firms start experimenting in order to compete by innovating new models of the product. With many companies in the market, competition for customers becomes fierce, despite the increase in growth rate of sales at the initial part of this stage. Aggressive competition in the market results in profits decreasing at the end of the growth stage thus beginning the maturity stage. In addition to this, the maturity stage of the development process is the most vital. Decline The decline stage is where most of the product class usually dies due to low growth rate in sales. A number of companies share the same market, making it difficult for all entrants to maintain sustainable sales levels. Not only is the efficiency of the company an important factor in the decline, but also the product category itself becomes a factor, as the market may perceive the product as "old" and may not be in demand. It is not always necessary that a product should go through these stages. it depends on the type of product, its competitors,

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