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2023高考英语新高考ii卷七选五深度解析Analysis of 2023 High School English New College Entrance Examination II Paper Seven-Passage SelectionThe 2023 high school English new college entrance examination II paper seven-passage selection is designed to test students’ ability to understand and analyze complex texts. This paper consists of seven passages, each accompanied by a set of questions that require students to demonstrate their comprehension skills and critical thinking abilities.Passage 1:This passage focuses on the importance of environmental conservation and the impact of human activities on the natural world. Students are asked to identify key ideas and arguments presented in the text, as well as analyze the author’s tone and point of view. Questions may also require students to make inferences and draw connections between different parts of the passage.Passage 2:Passage 2 explores the theme of social justice and inequality. Students are challenged to consider the implications of systemic discrimination and privilege, as well as the role of individuals inpromoting equality and fairness. They may be asked to evaluate the impact of specific policies or initiatives on marginalized communities and reflect on potential solutions to address these issues.Passage 3:In this passage, students encounter a fictional narrative that invites them to engage with themes of identity, belonging, and personal growth. They may be required to analyze character development, plot structure, and symbolism to deepen their understanding of the text. Questions may also prompt students to consider the relevance of the story’s themes to their own lives and experiences.Passage 4:Passage 4 introduces students to a scientific or technical topic, such as climate change, artificial intelligence, or bioethics. Students are expected to demonstrate their ability to interpret data, evaluate arguments, and draw evidence-based conclusions. They may be asked to analyze experimental procedures, research findings, or ethical dilemmas presented in the passage.Passage 5:Passage 5 presents an argumentative essay on a controversial issue, such as gun control, globalization, or healthcare reform. Students are required to identify the author’s claims, supporting evidence, and rhetorical strategies, as well as consider opposing viewpoints. They may be asked to construct a counterargument or evaluate the effectiveness of the author’s persuasive techniques.Passage 6:This passage challenges students to engage with a historical or cultural text, such as a speech, poem, or work of art. Students are expected to analyze the context, themes, and stylistic features of the text, as well as consider its significance in a broader social or political context. Questions may also prompt students to reflect on the enduring impact of the text on contemporary society.Passage 7:The final passage of the paper presents students with a set of real-world problems or ethical dilemmas, such as poverty, corruption, or human rights abuses. Students are asked to consider possible solutions, evaluate the implications of different courses of action, and reflect on their own values and beliefs. They may be required to make ethical judgments or proposepractical strategies for addressing the issues presented in the passage.In conclusion, the 2023 high school English new college entrance examination II paper seven-passage selection challenges students to engage with a diverse range of texts and topics, from environmental conservation and social justice to scientific research and ethical decision-making. By developing their critical reading and analytical skills, students can deepen their understanding of complex issues and cultivate the intellectual agility needed to thrive in an increasingly interconnected world.。
关于人工智能重要性的高级英语作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1The importance of artificial intelligence cannot be overstated in our modern world. As technology continues to advance at a rapid pace, AI has become an integral part of our daily lives, transforming industries, revolutionizing how we live and work, and offering solutions to complex problems that were once thought impossible to solve.One of the key reasons why AI is so important is its ability to enhance efficiency and productivity across various sectors. From manufacturing and healthcare to finance and transportation,AI-powered systems and algorithms have enabled organizations to streamline their operations, automate routine tasks, and make data-driven decisions with greater accuracy and speed. This not only helps businesses to save time and resources but also allows them to deliver better products and services to their customers.Furthermore, AI plays a crucial role in driving innovation and fostering economic growth. By enabling machines to learn from data, adapt to new information, and perform tasks thattraditionally required human intelligence, AI has paved the way for groundbreaking technologies such as autonomous vehicles, facial recognition, and natural language processing. These innovations have not only created new opportunities for businesses but also opened up new possibilities for improving people's lives and addressing global challenges.In addition, AI has the potential to revolutionize the healthcare industry by offering personalized treatment options, early disease detection, and predictive analytics. Powered by machine learning algorithms, AI-powered systems can analyze vast amounts of medical data, identify patterns and trends, and provide healthcare professionals with valuable insights for making more informed decisions. This has the potential to improve patient outcomes, reduce healthcare costs, and ultimately save lives.Moreover, AI is also crucial for addressing pressing global issues, such as climate change, cybersecurity, and inequality. By leveraging AI technologies to optimize energy consumption, enhance cybersecurity measures, and bridge the digital divide, we can work towards creating a more sustainable, secure, and inclusive future for all. With AI's capabilities to process large datasets, uncover hidden patterns, and make accuratepredictions, we can better understand complex problems and develop effective solutions to address them.In conclusion, the importance of artificial intelligence cannot be overstated in today's world. From driving innovation and economic growth to improving efficiency and addressing global challenges, AI has the potential to transform the way we live, work, and interact with the world around us. By harnessing the power of AI responsibly and ethically, we can unlock new possibilities, improve people's lives, and create a better future for generations to come.篇2The Importance of Artificial IntelligenceIntroductionArtificial Intelligence (AI) has become one of the most talked-about topics in recent years. As technology continues to advance at a rapid pace, AI is playing an increasingly important role in various aspects of our lives. In this essay, we will explore the significance of AI and its impact on different industries and society as a whole.The Role of Artificial IntelligenceAI refers to the simulation of human intelligence in machines that are programmed to think and learn like humans. This technology has the ability to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence, such as speech recognition, decision-making, problem-solving, and visual perception. AI has the potential to revolutionize numerous industries, including healthcare, finance, transportation, and education, by enhancing efficiency, accuracy, and productivity.The Importance of AI in HealthcareIn the healthcare industry, AI can assist doctors in diagnosing diseases, developing treatment plans, and predicting patient outcomes. AI-powered tools, such as medical imaging software and predictive analytics, can help healthcare professionals make more accurate and timely decisions, leading to improved patient care and outcomes. AI can also streamline administrative processes, reduce costs, and enhance the overall efficiency of healthcare delivery.The Impact of AI on FinanceAI is also transforming the finance sector by enabling automated trading, fraud detection, risk management, and customer service. With the help of AI algorithms and machine learning models, financial institutions can analyze vast amountsof data to identify patterns, trends, and insights that can inform investment decisions and improve financial services for customers. AI-powered chatbots and virtual assistants are also being used to provide personalized and real-time support to clients.The Transformation of Transportation with AIIn the transportation industry, AI is driving innovations in autonomous vehicles, traffic management, route optimization, and predictive maintenance. Self-driving cars powered by AI technologies are reshaping the way people travel and commute, offering a safer, more efficient, and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional vehicles. AI is also being used to optimize logistics and supply chain operations, minimize transportation costs, and reduce carbon emissions.The Role of AI in EducationAI has the potential to revolutionize education by personalizing learning experiences, improving student engagement, and enhancing academic performance. Adaptive learning platforms powered by AI algorithms can tailor educational content to meet the individual needs and preferences of students, helping them learn at their own pace and style. AI tutors, virtual classrooms, and interactive learningtools are also being developed to supplement traditional teaching methods and foster critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving skills.The Ethical and Social Implications of AIWhile AI offers numerous benefits and opportunities, it also raises ethical and social concerns that must be addressed. Issues such as data privacy, algorithmic bias, job displacement, and the misuse of AI technologies require careful consideration and regulation to ensure that AI is deployed responsibly and ethically. It is essential to establish clear guidelines, standards, and safeguards to protect individuals' rights, prevent discrimination, and promote fairness and transparency in the development and use of AI systems.ConclusionIn conclusion, the importance of artificial intelligence cannot be overstated, given its potential to transform industries, enhance productivity, and improve the quality of life for people around the world. As AI continues to evolve and integrate into various aspects of society, it is crucial for policymakers, researchers, and industry stakeholders to collaborate and address the ethical, legal, and societal implications of AI to ensure that it benefits humanity as a whole. By harnessing thepower of AI responsibly and ethically, we can create a more inclusive, sustainable, and prosperous future for all.篇3The Importance of Artificial IntelligenceIn recent years, the rapid development of artificial intelligence (AI) has sparked intense debates about its potential impact on society. While some people view AI with apprehension, fearing job loss and ethical dilemmas, others see it as a vital tool for solving the world's most pressing problems. In my opinion, the importance of AI cannot be overstated, as it has the potential to revolutionize industries, improve decision-making processes, and enhance human well-being in countless ways.One of the key benefits of AI is its ability to automate tasks that were previously time-consuming and labor-intensive. For example, AI-powered systems can analyze large datasets in a fraction of the time it would take a human to do so, enabling businesses to make more informed decisions and streamline their operations. This increased efficiency can lead to cost savings, improved productivity, and ultimately, higher profits.Furthermore, AI has the potential to revolutionize industries such as healthcare, transportation, and education. In healthcare,AI-powered diagnosis systems can help doctors identify diseases earlier and more accurately, leading to better outcomes for patients. In transportation, AI can enhance the safety of autonomous vehicles and optimize traffic flow, reducing accidents and congestion. In education, AI-powered tutoring systems can provide personalized learning experiences for students, helping them reach their full potential.In addition to revolutionizing industries, AI can also improve decision-making processes by providing valuable insights and recommendations. For example, AI-powered algorithms can analyze market trends and consumer behavior to help businesses develop more effective marketing strategies. In government, AI can help policymakers analyze complex data and make evidence-based decisions that benefit society as a whole.Finally, AI has the potential to enhance human well-being by improving healthcare, reducing poverty, and addressing environmental challenges. For example, AI-powered medical devices can monitor patients' health in real-time and alert healthcare providers to potential issues, enabling earlier intervention and better outcomes. In developing countries,AI-powered agricultural systems can increase crop yields and improve food security, helping to lift people out of poverty. Inthe fight against climate change, AI can help identify renewable energy sources, optimize energy consumption, and reduce waste, leading to a more sustainable future for all.In conclusion, the importance of artificial intelligence cannot be overstated. From revolutionizing industries to enhancing decision-making processes and improving human well-being, AI has the potential to create a brighter future for all. While there are challenges and ethical considerations to be addressed, the benefits of AI far outweigh the risks. As we move forward into an increasingly AI-driven world, it is essential that we harness the power of this technology to create a more inclusive, sustainable, and prosperous society for generations to come.。
有关移民的作文英文Title: The Global Impact of Immigration。
Introduction:Immigration is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that has shaped societies throughout history. In recent decades, globalization and advancements in transportation and communication have facilitated unprecedented levels of migration across borders. This essay explores the various dimensions of immigration, its impact on sending and receiving countries, and the challenges and opportunities it presents.Economic Impact:One of the most significant aspects of immigration is its economic impact. Immigrants often fill labor shortages in receiving countries, contributing to economic growth and productivity. They bring diverse skill sets andentrepreneurial spirit, establishing businesses and creating jobs. Moreover, immigrants tend to be highly motivated and willing to undertake jobs that native-born workers may shun, such as agricultural labor or low-skilled service jobs.However, immigration also raises concerns about wage depression and job competition, particularly among low-skilled native workers. Some argue that immigrants drive down wages in certain sectors or strain public resources, such as healthcare and education. These economic tensions can fuel anti-immigrant sentiments and policies in receiving countries.Cultural Diversity:Immigration enriches the cultural fabric of receiving societies by bringing in diverse perspectives, traditions, and customs. It fosters cross-cultural exchange and mutual understanding, challenging stereotypes and promoting tolerance. In multicultural societies, individuals have the opportunity to learn from each other and celebrate theirdifferences, leading to vibrant and dynamic communities.Nevertheless, cultural diversity can also give rise to social tensions and conflicts, especially in contexts where immigrants are perceived as threatening the dominantculture or national identity. Assimilation versus multiculturalism becomes a contentious debate, with some advocating for integration policies that promote the adoption of the host country's values and norms, while others champion pluralism and the preservation of immigrant cultures.Social Integration:Successful integration is crucial for the social cohesion and stability of immigrant-receiving societies. It involves not only economic and cultural integration but also social inclusion and access to rights and opportunities. Policies that facilitate language acquisition, education, and labor market integration are essential for immigrants to fully participate in their host societies.However, social integration is often impeded by structural barriers, discrimination, and xenophobia. Immigrants may face difficulties accessing housing, healthcare, and education, exacerbating social inequalities. Moreover, the rise of populist and nationalist movements in some countries has led to the scapegoating of immigrantsand the erosion of social cohesion.Global Migration Governance:Addressing the challenges of immigration requires international cooperation and governance mechanisms. While states have the sovereign right to control their bordersand regulate immigration flows, unilateral approaches are insufficient in an interconnected world. Comprehensive and coordinated policies are needed to manage migration effectively, protect the rights of migrants, and addressroot causes such as poverty, conflict, and climate change.Multilateral initiatives, such as the United Nations Global Compact for Safe, Orderly, and Regular Migration,provide a framework for cooperation among states and other stakeholders. By promoting principles of human rights, labor mobility, and shared responsibility, these agreements seek to harness the benefits of migration while mitigating its risks and challenges.Conclusion:In conclusion, immigration is a multifaceted phenomenon with profound implications for sending and receiving countries alike. While it contributes to economic growth, cultural diversity, and social dynamism, immigration also poses challenges related to economic inequality, cultural tensions, and social exclusion. Addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive and inclusive approach that respects the rights and dignity of migrants while fostering social cohesion and global cooperation. Only by embracing the opportunities and complexities of immigration can societies build a more inclusive and prosperous future for all.。
2008年考研英语(一)阅读 text 3 精读精讲In 2008, the Graduate Entrance Examination for English (I) was a significant event for many students in China. Among the reading materials, Text 3 stood out as a thought-provoking piece that sparked discussions and debates among test-takers. In this article, we will delve into the content of Text 3, analyze its key points, and explore its implications.Text 3, titled "The Power of Language," begins by emphasizing the importance of language as a tool for communication and understanding. It highlights the role of language in shaping our thoughts and perceptions, as well as its influence on our interactions with others. The author argues that language is not merely a means of expression, but a force that shapes our worldview and relationships.The text goes on to discuss the power dynamics inherent in language, pointing out how certain words and phrases can be used to assert dominance or control over others. It raises the issue of linguistic discrimination and the way language can be weaponized to marginalize certain groups. The author urges readers to be mindful of the language they use, emphasizing the need for empathy and respect in our communication with others.Furthermore, Text 3 touches upon the idea of linguistic relativity, suggesting that the language we speak can influence our cognitive processes and perception of the world. It introduces the concept of "linguistic determinism," which proposes that language not only reflects our thoughts, but also shapes them. The text encourages readers to consider the implications of this theory and reflect on how language may influence our understanding of reality.In addition, Text 3 explores the idea of language as a reflection of culture and identity. It discusses how different languages encapsulate unique cultural perspectives and values, and how language can be a source of pride and belonging for individuals. The text emphasizes the importance of preserving linguistic diversity and recognizing the richness of various language traditions.Overall, Text 3 provides a thought-provoking exploration of the power and significance of language in our lives. It challenges readers to consider the ethical and social implications of language use, and encourages a deeper understanding of the role language plays in shaping our thoughts, perceptions, and interactions with others.In conclusion, Text 3 serves as a compelling reminder of the profound impact language has on our lives. It prompts us to reflect on the power dynamics, cultural significance, and cognitive influence of language, urging us to use language responsibly and with empathy. As we navigate the complexities of language and communication, Text 3 encourages us to approach language as a force that shapes our world, and to wield this power with awareness and sensitivity.。
ai的发展是一把双刃剑英语作文英文回答：Artificial intelligence (AI) has emerged as a transformative force in modern society, offering both unprecedented opportunities and potential risks. Its development has been met with a mixture of excitement and apprehension, recognizing its potential as a double-edged sword.On the one hand, AI holds immense promise for progress and societal advancement. Its analytical and problem-solving capabilities have revolutionized fields such as healthcare, finance, and transportation. AI algorithms can process massive amounts of data, identifying patterns and insights that would be impossible for humans to uncover. This has led to breakthroughs in medical diagnosis, personalized treatment plans, and more efficient supply chains.Moreover, AI has the potential to enhance our dailylives in numerous ways. From self-driving cars to virtual assistants, AI-powered technologies can automate tasks, provide real-time information, and connect us in new and innovative ways. The potential for AI to improve productivity, convenience, and access to knowledge is undeniable.However, the development of AI also raises concerns. One of the primary risks is the potential for job displacement as AI systems become increasinglysophisticated and capable of performing tasks that wereonce limited to humans. This could lead to widespread unemployment and economic inequality.Additionally, there are ethical and societalimplications to consider. As AI systems become more autonomous, questions arise about accountability, liability, and the potential for bias or discrimination. It isessential to establish clear guidelines and regulations to ensure that AI is developed and deployed in a responsible and ethical manner.Another potential risk of AI is its potential to exacerbate existing inequalities. Those with access to the latest AI technologies may benefit disproportionately, while marginalized communities could fall further behind. It is crucial to address these potential disparities and ensure that the benefits of AI are equitably distributed.中文回答：人工智能（AI）已经成为现代社会的一种变革力量，既提供了前所未有的机遇，也带来了潜在的风险。
Urbanization The Evolution of CitiesUrbanization, the process by which cities grow and become more prominent in society, has been a defining feature of human civilization for centuries. The evolution of cities has had a profound impact on various aspects of human life, including social, economic, and environmental dimensions. In this essay, we will explore the multifaceted nature of urbanization, examining its historical roots, contemporary challenges, and potential future trajectories. From a historical perspective, the origins of urbanization can be traced back to the emergence of early civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus Valley. The developmentof agriculture and the concentration of surplus resources enabled the formation of urban centers, where specialized labor, trade, and governance flourished. Over time, cities became hubs of innovation, culture, and political power, driving the advancement of human society. The ancient cities of Rome, Athens, and Constantinople, among others, exemplify the grandeur and complexity of urban lifein antiquity. As societies transitioned from agrarian to industrial economies,the pace and scale of urbanization accelerated dramatically. The Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries brought about unprecedented urban growth, as rural populations flocked to cities in search of employment in factories and mills. This mass migration led to the rapid expansion of urban areas, accompanied by overcrowding, poor sanitation, and social inequality. The emergence of slumsand tenements became emblematic of the darker side of urbanization, highlighting the need for urban planning and social reform. In the 20th century, the phenomenon of urbanization took on a global dimension, as cities in both developed and developing countries experienced rapid demographic shifts. The forces of globalization, technological innovation, and mass communication further fueled the urban exodus, drawing people towards urban centers in pursuit of economic opportunities and a better quality of life. Megacities such as Tokyo, New York,and Mumbai emerged as vibrant metropolises, grappling with the complexities of modern urban living, from traffic congestion and pollution to housingaffordability and social fragmentation. While urbanization has undoubtedlybrought about numerous benefits, it has also engendered a host of challenges that demand attention and action. One of the most pressing issues associated withurbanization is environmental sustainability. The concentration of human activityin cities has placed immense strain on natural resources, leading to pollution, habitat destruction, and climate change. Urban sprawl and the relentless expansion of infrastructure have encroached upon ecosystems, jeopardizing biodiversity and ecological balance. Moreover, the consumption patterns of urban dwellers have contributed to excessive waste generation and energy consumption, exacerbating environmental degradation on a global scale. Another critical concern related to urbanization is social inequality and exclusion. While cities offer opportunities for social mobility and cultural exchange, they also harbor pockets of poverty, marginalization, and discrimination. The phenomenon of gentrification, for instance, has led to the displacement of low-income residents from their neighborhoods, as affluent newcomers reshape the urban landscape to suit their preferences. Access to affordable housing, healthcare, education, and employment remains unequal across different segments of urban populations, perpetuatingcycles of poverty and social unrest. In addition to environmental and social challenges, urbanization has implications for public health and well-being. The density of urban populations, combined with inadequate infrastructure and healthcare services, has heightened the vulnerability of city residents to infectious diseases and public health crises. The COVID-19 pandemic, in particular, has underscored the need for resilient and responsive urban health systems,capable of mitigating the impact of communicable diseases in densely populated areas. Mental health issues, stemming from the stress and isolation of urban living, also represent a growing concern that necessitates holistic support and intervention. Looking ahead, the future of urbanization is likely to be shaped by a confluence of factors, including technological advancements, demographic shifts, and policy decisions. The rise of smart cities, empowered by digital connectivity and data-driven governance, holds promise for enhancing urban efficiency, sustainability, and inclusivity. Innovations in transportation, energy, and infrastructure offer opportunities to mitigate the environmental footprint ofcities and improve the quality of life for their inhabitants. Furthermore, the imperative of building resilient cities, capable of withstanding the impacts of climate change and natural disasters, has gained prominence in global discourseand planning. In conclusion, the evolution of cities through urbanization has been a transformative force in human history, giving rise to unprecedented opportunities and challenges. From its ancient origins to its contemporary complexities, urbanization has reshaped landscapes, societies, and mindsets. As we navigate the complexities of urban living in the 21st century, it is imperative to approach urbanization with a holistic and forward-thinking perspective, one that prioritizes environmental sustainability, social equity, and public health. By embracing innovation, collaboration, and empathy, we can strive to create cities that are not only vibrant and dynamic but also inclusive and resilient, ensuring a prosperous future for generations to come.。
《产业组织理论》参考教材及经典文献选读一、参考教材：1.廖进球主编：产业组织理论，上海财经大学出版社，2012年。
2.施马兰西、威利格：产业组织经济学手册（第1卷），经济科学出版社，2009年。
3.斯蒂芬•马丁：高级产业经济学，上海财经大学出版社，2003年。
4.泰勒尔：产业组织理论，中国人民大学出版社，1997年。
5.夏伊：产业组织理论与应用，清华大学出版社，2005年。
6.卡尔顿、佩洛夫：现代产业组织，中国人民大学出版社，2009年。
7.乔治·J·施蒂格勒：产业组织和政府管制，潘振民译，上海三联书店，1989年。
二、经典外文文献选读（References for Industrial Organization）I. The Theory of the FirmA. Theory1. Tirole, Introduction and The Theory of the Firm.2. Chandler, ''Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise,''Journal of Economic Perspectives, 6 (Summer 1992), 79-100.3. R. Coase, ''The Nature of the Firm,'' reprinted in G. Stigler and K. Boulding, eds., Readings in Price Theory, Irwin, 1952, 33 l-351.4. S. Grossman and O. Hart, ''The Costs and Benefits of Ownership: A Theory of Vertical and Lateral Integration," Journal of Political Economy, 94 (August 1986), 691 -796.5. B. Holmstrom and J. Tirole, ''The Theory of the Firm," in HIO.6. B. Klein, R. Crawford, and A. Alchian, ''Vertical Integration, Appropriable Rents, and the Competitive Contracting Process,''Journal of Law and Economics, 21 (October l978), 297-326.7. O. Williamson,The Economic institutions of Capitalism, Free Press, 1985, Chapters 3-6 (especially 1 and 3).B. Empirical Evidence on Asset Specificity1. E. Anderson and D. Schmittlein, ''Integration of the Sales Force: An EmpiricalExamination,"Rand Journal of Economics,15(Autumn 1984), 327-343.2. P. Joskow, ''Vertical Integration and Long Term Contracts: The Case of Coal-Burning Electric-Generating Plants,"Journal of Law, Economics and Organization, I (Spring 1985), 33-80.3. P. Joskow, ''Contract Duration and Relationship-Specific Investments: Empirical Evidence from Coal Markets,"American Economic Review, 77 (March 1987), 168-l85.4. P. Joskow, ''Asset Specificity and the Structure of Vertical Relationships: Empirical Evidence," Chapter 8 in O. Williamson and S. Winter,The Nature of the Firm:Origins, Evolution, and Development,Oxford 1993, 117-137.5. K. Monteverde and D. Teece, ''Supplier Switching Costs and Vertical Integration in the Automobile Industry,''BellJournal of Economics, 13 (Spring 1982), 206-213.6. A. Shepard, "Contractual Form, Retail Pricing and Asset Characteristics in Gasoline Retailing,"Rand Journal of Economics, 24(Spring 1993), 58-77.II. Monopoly PricingA. Basic Monopoly Pricing and Durable Goods1. Tirole, Chapter 1 (including supplementary section).2. M. Pesendorfer, ``Retail Sales. A Study of Pricing Behavior in Supermarkets,'' mimeo.B. First and Third Degree Price Discrimination1. Tirole, Sections 3.0 - 3.22. Katz, M., "The Welfare Effects of Third-Degree Price Discrimination in Intermediate Goods Markets,"American Economic Review, 77, (March 1 987), pp. 154-67.3. Schmalensee, R., ''Output and Welfare Implications of Monopolistic Third-Degree Price-Discrimination,''American Economic Review,71 (March 1981), pp. 242-47.4. Varian, H., ''Price Discrimination and Social Welfare,''American Economic Review, 75 (September 1985), pp. 870-5.5. Perry, Martin, ''Forward Integration by ALCOA: 1888-1930,"Journal of Industrial Economics,29 (l), September 1980, pp. 37-53.C. Second Degree Price Discrimination1. Tirole, Sections 3.3 - 3.5.2. Maskin, E. And J. Riley, "Monopoly with Incomplete Information,"Rand Journal of Economics15 (Summer 1984), pp. 171-96,3. Oi, W., ''A Disneyland Dilemma: Two-Part Tariffs for a Mickey-Mouse Monopoly,''Quarterly Journal of Economics,85 (February 197l), pp. 77-96.4. McAfee, P., J. McMillan, and M. Whinston, ''Multiproduct Monopoly, Commodity Bundling, and Correlation of Values,''Quarterly Journal of Economics, 104 (May 1989), pp. 37l-83.5. Blackstone, E., ''Restrictive Practices in the Marketing of Electrofax Copying Machines. The SCM Corporation Case,''Journal of Industrial Economics, 23 (March 1975), pp. 189-202.6. Shepard, A., ''Price Discrimination and Retail Configuration,''Journal of Political Economy, 99 (February 1991), pp. 30-53.7. I. Ayers, and P. Siegelman, "Race and Gender Discrimination in Bargaining for a New Car,''American Economic Review, 85 (June 1995), 304-321.8. Borenstein, S. and N. Rose, "Competition and Price Dispersion in the U.S. Airline Industry,"Journal of Political Economy, 102 (August 1994), 653-683.III. Estimating Demand (and Supply)1. Deaton and J. Muellbauer,Economics and Consumer Behavior, Parts 1 and2.2. S. Anderson, A. De Palma and J. Thisse,Discrete Choice Theory of Product Differentiation, Chapters 2-5.3. D. Epple, "Hedonic Prices and Implicit Markets: Estimating Demand and Supply Functions for Differentiated Products,Journal of Political Economy, 95 (February 1987), 59-80.4. Berry, S., J. Levinsohn, and A. Pakes, ''Automobile Prices in Market Equilibrium,"Econometrica, Vol. 63, No. 4, July 1995, pp. 841-890.5. A. Petrin, "Quantifying the Benefits of New Products: The Case of the Minivan'', mimeo.6. Goldberg, P.K., ''Product Differentiation and Oligopoly in international Markets: The Case of the U.S. Automobile Industry,''Econometrica, Vol. 63, No. 4, July 1995, pp. 891-952.7. S. Ellison, I. Cockburn, Z. Griliches and J. Hansman, "Characteristics of Demand for Pharmaceutical Products: An Examination of Four Cephalosporins,''Rand Journal of Economics, 28, Autumn 1997, 426-446.8. J. Hausman, "Valuation of New Goods under Perfect and Imperfect Competition,'' inTheEconomics of New Goods, T. Bresnahan and R. Gordon (eds.) and comment by T. Bresnahan.9. J. Hansman, "Reply to Prof. Bresnahan," mimeo.10. T. Bresnahan, "The Apple-Cinnamon Cheerios War: Valuing New Goods, Identifying Market Power, and Economic Measurement," mimeo.IV. Introduction to Strategic Behavior and Static CompetitionA. Introduction to Strategic Behavior1. D. Fudenberg and J. Tirole, ''Noncooperative Game Theory for Industrial Organization: An Introduction and Overview,'' inHIO.2. Tirole, pp. 205-208 and Chapter 11.B. Prices and Output1. C. Shapiro, ''Theories of Oligopoly Behavior," inHIO.2. Tirole, Chapters 2.1 and 5.3. D. Kreps and J. Scheinkman, ''Quantity Precommitment and Bertrand Competition Yield Cournt Outcomes,"BellJournal of Economics,14 (Autumn 1983), 326-337.4. Klemperer, P., "The Competitiveness of Markets with Switching Costs,"Rand Journal of Economics, 18 (Spring 1987), pp. 138-50.5. Sutton, J., and A. Shaked, ''Relaxing Price Competition through Product Differentiation,''Review of Economic Studies,49 (January 1982), pp. 3- 14.6. D. Stalil, "Oligopolistic Pricing with Heterogeneous Consumer Search,''International Journal of Industrial Organization, 14 (April 1996), 243-268.V. Dynamic CompetitionA. Theory1. Tirole, Chapter 6.2. Rotemberg, J. J. and G. Saloner, "A Supergame-Theoretic Model of Price Wars During Booms,''American Economic Review, 76 (June 1986), 390-407.3. K. Bagwell and R. W. Staiger, "Collusion over the Business Cycle,''Rand Journal of Economics, (Spring 1997), 82-106.4. Brock, W. and J. Scheinkman, "Price-Setting Supergames with Capacity Constraints,''Review of Economic Studies, 52 (1985), pp. 37 l-82.5. Green, E. and R. Porter, ''Non-cooperative Collusion Under Imperfect PriceInformation,''Econometrica, 52 (January 1984), pp. 87-100.6. Maskin, E. and J. Tirole, "A Theory of Dynamic Oligopoly II: Price Competition, Kinked Demand Curves, and Edgeworth Cycles,"Econometrica, 56 (May 1988), pp.571 -99.7. Bernheim and M. Whinston, "Multimarket Contact and Collusive Behavior,"Rand Journal of Economics, 21 (Spring 1990), l-26.8. Stigler, G.J., "A Theory of Oligopoly,"Journal of Political Economy, 72 (February l964), pp. 44-61.B. Empirical Evidence1. R. Porter, ''A Study of Cartel Stability: The Joint Economic Committee, 1880-l886,"Bell Journal of Economics, 14 (Autumn 1983), 301-314.2. G. Ellison, ''Theories of Cartel Stability and the Joint Executive Committee,''Rand Journal of Economics, 25 (Spring 1994), 37-57.3. D. Genesove and W. Mullin, "Narrative Evidence on the Dynamics of Collusion: The Sugar Institute Case, " mimeo.4. R. Grether and C. Plott, ''The Effects of Market Practices in Oligopolistic Markets: An Experimental Examination of the Ethyl Case,''Economic inquiry, 22 (October l984), 479-507.5. M. Levenstein, "Price Wars and the Stability of Collusion: A Study of the PreWorld War I Bromine industry,''The Journal of Industrial Economics, June 1997, 117-138.6. S. Borenstein and A. Shepard, ''Dynamic Pricing in Retail Gasoline Markets,''The Rand Journal of Economics, Autumn 1996, Vol. 27, No. 3, pp. 429-451.VI. Empirical Studies of Firm ConductA. Inter-Industry Studies1. F. M. Scherer and D. Ross, Industrial Market Structure and Economic Performance, Chapter 11.2. R. Schmalensee, ''Interindustry Studies of Structure and Performance,'' inHIO.3. Demsetz, H., "Industry Structure, Market Rivalry and Public Policy,''Journal of Law and Economics, 16, (1973), l-10.4. I. Domowitz, R. Hubbard and B. Petersen, "Business Cycles and the Relationship Between Concentration and Price-Cost Margins,"Rand Journal of Economics, 17(Spring 1986), 1-17.5. R. Schmalensee, ''Do Markets Differ Much?"American Economic Review, 75 (June 1985), 341-351.6. M. Salinger, "The Concentration-Margin Relationship Reconsidered,''Brookings Papers on Economic Activity: Microeconomics,1990, 287-335.B. Theory of Conduct Parameters1. T. Bresnahan, "The Oligopoly Solution Concept is Identified,"Economics Letters, 10, 1982, 87-92.2. L. Lau, "On Identifying the Degree of Competitiveness from Industry Price and Output Data,''Economics Letters, 10, 1982, 93-99.3. J. Panzar and J. Rosse, "Testing for 'Monopoly' Equilibrium,"Journal of Industrial Economics, 35 (June 1987), 443-456.4. K. Corts, "Conduct Parameters and the Measurement of Market Power,''Journal of Econometrics???C. Industry-Specific Studies of Firm Conduct1. T. Bresnahan, "Empirical Studies of Industries with Market Power,'' inHIO.2. R. Coterill, "Market Power in the Retail Food Industry: Evidence from Vermont,"Review ofEconomics and Statistics, 68 (August 1986), 379-386.3. A. Nevo, "Measuring Market Power in the Ready-to-Eat Cereal Industry,'' mimeo.4. T. Bresnahan, "Competition and Collusion in the American Automobile Industry: The 1955 Price War,''Journal of Industrial Economics, 35 (June 1987), 457-482.5. D. Genesove and W. Mullin, "Testing Oligopoly Models: Conduct and Cost in the Sugar Industry, 1898-1914,''Rand Journal of Economics,29 (Summer 1 998), 355-377.6. C. Wolfram, "Measuring Duopoly Power in the British Electricity Spot Market,'' mimeo.7. Baker, J. and T. Bresnahan, ''Empirical Methods of Identifying and Measuring Market Power,"Antitrust Law Journal,Vol.61, 1992,pp.3-16.VII. EntryA. Basic Theory1. Tirole, Sections 7.l-7.22. Mankiw, N.G. and M.D. Whinston, "Free Entry and Social Inefficiency,''Rand Journal of Economics,17 (Spring 1986), pp. 48-58.3. Anderson, S., A. de Palma, and Y. Nesterov, "Oligopolistic Competition and the Optimal Provision of Products,"Econometrica, Vol. 63, No. 6, November 1995, pp.l281-1302.4. Sutton, J.,Sunk Costs and Market Structure, MIT Press, 1991, Chapters l-2.5. B. Jovanovic, ''Selection and the Evolution of Industry,"Econometrica, (May 1982), 649-670.6. Banmol, W.K., J.C. Panzar, and R.D. Willig, ''On the Theory of Perfectly Contestable Markets," in J.E. Stiglitz and G.F. Mathewson, eds.,New Developments in the Analysis of Market Structure, MIT Press, 1986.B . Empirical Evidence1. T. Bresnahan and P. Reiss, ''Entry and Competition in Concentrated Markets,'' Journal of Political Economy, 99 (October 1991), 977- 009.2. Comments on Bresnahan and Reiss,Brookings Papers on Economic Activity: Special Issue on Microeconomics, 3 (1987), 872-882.3. T. Dunne, M. Roberts, and L. Samuelson, ''Patterns of Firm Entry and Exit in U.S. Manufacturing,''Rand Journal of Economics, 19 (Winter 1988), 495-515.4. Berry, S. and J. Waldfogel, ''Free Entry and Social Inefficiency in Radio Broadcasting," June 1996.5. S. Berry, ''Estimation of a Model of Entry in the Airline industry, "Econometrica, 60 (July 1992), 889-918.VIII. Strategic InvestmentA. General Considerations1. Tirole, pp. 207-8, Chapter 8.2. J. Bulow, J. Geanakoplos and P. Klemperer, '`Multimarket Oligopoly: Strategic Substitutes and Complements,"Journal of Political Economy,93 (June 1985), 488-511.3. D. Fudenberg and J. Tirole, "The Fat Cat Effect, the Puppy Dog Ploy and the Lean and Hungry Look,''American Economic Review, 74 (May 1 984), 36 1 -366.4. R. Gilbert, ''Mobility Barriers and the Value of Incumbency," inHIO.B. Capacity, Product Differentiation, beaming Curves, Contracts1. A. Dixit, ''The Role of Investment in Entry Deterrence,''Economic Journal, 90 (March l980), 95-106.2. R. Schmalensee, ''Economies of Scale and Barriers to Entry,''Journal of Political Economy, 89(December 1981), pp. 1228-38.3. J.R. Gelman and S.C. Salop, ''Judo Economics. Capacity Limitation and Coupon Competition,''BellJournal of Economics, 14 (Autumn 1983), pp. 315-25.4. D. Fudenberg and J. Tirole, "Capital as a Commitment: Strategic Investment to Deter Mobility,''Journal of Economic Theory,31 (December 1983), 227-250.5. R. Schmalensee, ''Entry Deterrence in the Ready-to-Eat Breakfast Cereal Industry,''BellJournal of Economics, 9 (Autumn 1978), pp. 305-27.6. K. Judd, ''Credible Spatial Preemption,"Rand Journal of Economics,16 (Summer 1985), pp. 153-66.7. D. Fudenberg and J. Tirole, "Learning by Doing and Market Performance,''BellJournal of Economics,14 (Autumn 1983), pp. 522-30.8. P. Aghion and P. Bolton, "Entry Prevention Through Contracts with Customers,''American Economic Review, 77, June 1987, pp. 388-401.9. T.E. Cooper, "Most-Favored Customer Pricing and Tacit Collusion,''Rand Journal of Economics, 17 (Autumn 1986), pp. 377-88.10. J. J. Laffont, P. Rey and J. Tirole, "Network Competition I: Overview and Nondiscriminatory Pricing,''Rand Journal of Economics, 29 (Spring 1 998), l -37.C. Empirical Evidence on Strategic Investment1. J. Chevalier, "Capital Structure and Product Market Competition: Empirical Evidence from the Supermarket Industry,''American Economic Review, June 1995.2. M. Lieberman, "Post Entry investment and Market Structure in the Chemical Processing Industry,"Rand Journal of Economics, 18 (Winter 1987), 533-549.3. G. Hurdle, et al., "Concentration, Potential Entry, and Performance in the Airline Industry,''Journal of Industrial Economics,38 (December 1989), 119-140.4. R. Smiley, "Empirical Evidence on Strategic Entry Deterrence,''International Journal of Industrial Organization, 6 (June 1988), 167- 180.IX. Information and Strategic BehaviorA. Limit Pricing1. Tirole, Sections 9.0 - 9.4.2. P. Milgrom and J. Roberts, ''Limit Pricing and Entry Under Incomplete Information: An Equilibrium Analysis,''Econometrica, 50 (March 1982), 443-460.B. Predation1. Tirole, Sections 9.5 - 9.7.2. P. Milgrom and J. Roberts, ''Predation, Reputation, and Entry Deterrence,"Journal of Economic Theory,27 (August 1982), pp. 288-312.3. G. Saloner, ''Predation, Merger, and Incomplete information,"RandJournal of Economics,18 (Summer 1987), pp. 165-186.4. D. Fudenberg and J. Tirole, ''A 'Signal-Jamming' Theory of Predation,''Rand Journal of Economics, 17 (Autumn 1986), pp. 366-76.5. P. Bolton and D. Scharfstein, ''A Theory of Predation Based on Agency Problems in Financial Contracting,''American Economic Review, 80 (March 1 990), pp. 93- 106.6. Benoit, J.P., ''Financially Constrained Entry in a Game of Incomplete Information,"Rand Journal of Economics,15, pp. 490-99.7. J. Oulover and G. Saloner, ''Predation, Monopolization and Antitrust," inHIO.C. Empirical Studies of Information Asymmetries and Predation1. D. Cooper, S. Garvin and J. Kagel, "Signaling and Adaptive Learning in an Entry Limit Pricing Game,''Rand Journal of Economics, 28 (Winter 1997), 662-683.2. D. Genesove, "Adverse Selection in the Wholesale Used Car Market,''Journal of Political Economy,101 (August 1993), 644-665.3. M. Doyle and C. Snyder, "Information Sharing and Competition in the Motor Vehicle Industry," mimeo.4. T. Hubbard, "Consumer Beliefs and Buyer and Seller Behavior in the Vehicle Inspection Market,'' mimeo.5. J. McGee,'' Predatory Price Cutting The Standard Oil (NJ) Case,''Journal of Law and Economics, l (October 1958), 137-169.6. D. Genesove and W. Mullin, "Predation and Its Rate of Return: The Sugar industry, l887- 1914,"NBER Working Paper6032, 1997.7. D. Weiman and R. Levin, ''Preying for Monopoly: Southern Bell,"Journal of Political Economy,102 (February 1994), 103-26.8. Kadiyali, V., ''Entry, Its Deferrence, and its Accommodation: A Study of the U.S. Photographic Film Industry,"The Rand Journal of Economics, Autumn 1 996, Vol. 27,X. Advertising1. Tirole, Sections2.2-2.4, 7.32. M. Stegeman, ''Advertising in Competitive Markets,''American Economic Review, 81 (March 1991), 210-223.3. F. M. Scherer and D. Ross,Industrial Market Structure and Economic Performance, Chapter 18.4. Kwoka, J. ''Advertising the Price and Quality of Optometric Services,''American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings, 1984, 211 -216.5. P. Ippolito and A. Mathios, ''Information, Advertising and Health: A Study of the Cereal Market,''Rand Journal of Economics,21 (Autumn 1 990), 459-480.6. D. Ackerberg, "Advertising, Learning, and Consumer Choice in Experience Good Markets: An Empirical Examination,'' mimeo.XI. Auctions1. P. McAfee and J. McMillan, ''Auctions and Bidding,"JEL, June 1987, pp. 699-738.2. P. Milgrom, "Auctions and Bidding: A Primer,"JEP, Summer 1989, pp. 3-22.3. K. Hendricks and R. Porter, ''An Empirical Study of an Auction with Asymmetric Information,''American Economic Review, December 1 988, pp. 865-83.4. R. Porter, ''The Role of Information in U.S. Offshore Oil and Gas Lease Auctions,"Econometrica, 63 (January 1995), pp. 1-27.5. R. Porter and D. Zona, "Detection of Bid Rigging in Procurement Auctions,"JPE, June 1993, pp.5 18-38.6. P. Bajari, "Econometrics of the First Price Auction with Asymmetric Bidders," mimeo.7. J.-J. Laffont, H. Ossard, and Q. Vuong, ''Econometrics of First Price Auctions,''EM, July 1995, pp. 953-80.8. J. Kagel, R. Harstad and D. Levin, ''Information Impact and Allocation Rules in Auctions with Affiliated Private Values: A Laboratory Study, "Econometrica, 55 (1987), pp. 1275- 1304.9. J. Kagel, ''Auctions: A Survey of Experimental Research,'' in J. Kagel and A. Roth, eds.,The Handbook of Experimental Economics.XII. Technological ChangeA. Research and Development1. Tirole, Sections 10.l - 10.5, 8. l.32. G. C. Loury, ''Market Structure and Innovation,''Quarterly Journal of Economics, 93 (1979), pp. 395-410.3. D. Fudenberg, R. Gilbert, J. Stiglitz, and J. Tirole, "Preemption, Leapfrogging, and Competition in Patent Races,"European Economic Review, 22 (1983), pp. 3-31.4. D. Fudenberg and J. Tirole, ''Preemption and Rent Equalization in the Adoption of New Technology,''Review of Economic Studies, 52 (1985), pp. 383-401.5. Symposium on Patent Policy,Rand Journal of Economics, 21 (Spring 1990).B. Standardization1. J. Farrell and G. Saloner, "Standardization, Compatibility, and Innovation,''Rand Journal of Economics, 16 (1985), pp. 70-83.2. M. Katz and C. Shapiro, ''Technology Adoption in the Presence of Network Externalities,"Journal of Political Economy, 94 (1986), pp. 822-841.C. Diffusion of Technologies1. Rogers and Shoemaker,The Diffusion of Innovation: A Cross-Cultural Approach, Free Press, 1971.2. G. Ellison and D. Fudenberg, "Rules of Thumb for Social Learning,"Journal of Political Economy, 101 (1993), pp. 612-643.D. Empirical Studies1. A. Pakes, "Patents as Options: Some Estimates of the Value of Holding European Patent Stocks,Econometrica, 54 (July 1986), 755-784.2. M. Trajtenberg, "The Welfare Analysis of Product Innovations with an Application to Computed Tomography Scanners,"Journal of Political Economy, 97 (April 1989), 444-479.3. G. Saloner and A. Shepard, "Adoption of Technologies with Network Effects: An Empirical Examination of the Adoption of Automated Teller Machines,"Rand Journal of Economics, 13 (Autumn 1995), 479-501.4. T. Hubbard, "Why Are Process Monitoring Technologies Valuable? The Use of On-Board Information Technology in the Trucking Industry," mimeo.5. E. Mansfield, "How Rapidly Does New industrial Technology Leak Out?"Journal of Industrial Economics, 34 (December 1985), 217-223.6. N. L. Rose and P. L. Joskow, ''The Diffusion of New Technologies. Evidence from the Electric Utility industry,"Rand Journal of Economics, 21 (Autumn 1990), 354-373.XIII. Managerial incentives and Firm Behavior1. Tirole, pages 34-55.2. B. Holmstrom, "Managerial Incentive Problems - A Dynamic Perspective,'' inEssays in Honor of Lars Wahlbeck,1982.3. S. Grossman and O. Hart, "Takeover Bids, the Free-Rider Problem and the Theory of the Corporation,''BellJournal of Economics, 11 (Spring 1980), 42-64.4. A. Shleifer and R. Vishny, "Large Shareholders and Corporate Control,''Journal of Political Economy, 94 (June 1996), 461-488.5. O. Hart, "The Market Mechanism as an Incentive Scheme,''BellJournal of Economics,14 (Autumn 1983), 366-382.6. C. Fershtman and K. Judd, "Equilibrium Incentives in Oligopoly,"American Economic Review, 77(December 1987), 927-940.7. R. Masson, "Executive Motivation, Earnings, and Consequent Equity Performance,"Journal of Political Economy, 79 (December 1971), 1278- 1292.8. P. Healy, "The Effect of Bonus Schemes on Accounting Decisions,''Journal of Accounting and Economics,7 (April 1985), 85-107.XIV. Antitrust: Overview1. Kaye, Scholer, Fierman, Hays & Handler, 1992, "Executive Summary of the Antitrust Laws."Kaye, Scholer's Antitrust Deskbook, NY, pp. 319.2. Kaye, Scholer, Fierman, Hays & Handler, 1992, "Introduction to EC Competition Law,''Kaye, Scholer's Antitrust Deskbook, NY, pp. 237-242.XV. Antitrust: Horizontal MergersA. Policy Issues1. Materials on Time-Warner/Turner Merger (mimeo).Available from Graphic Arts as Part A of the 14.272 Readings Packet.B. Theory and Evidence1. J. Farrell & C. Shapiro, "Horizontal Mergers: An Equilibrium Analysis,"American Economic Review, 80 (March 1990), 107-126.2. Robert D. Willig, "Merger Analysis, Industrial Organization Theory, and Merger Guidelines,"Brookings Papers on Economic Activity: Microeconomics, 1991, pp. 281-332.3. B.E. Eckbo, "Mergers and Market Concentration Doctrine Evidence from the Capital Market,"Journal of Business,58 (July 1985), 325-349.4. R. McAfee & M. Williams, "Can Event Studies Detect Anticompetitive Merger?"Economic Letters, (1988), 199-203.5. R.A. Prager, "The Effects of Horizontal Mergers on Competition: The Case of the Northern Securities Company,"Rand Journal of Economics, 23 (Spring 1992), 123-133.6. G.L. Mullin, J.C. Mullin, and W.P. Mullin, "The Competitive Effects of Mergers: Stock Market Evidence from the U.S. Steel Dissolution Suit,"Rand Journal of Economics, 26 (Summer 1995), 314-330.7. S. Bhagat, A. Shleifer, & R.W. Wishny, "Hostile Takeovers in the 1980s: The Return to Corporate Specialization,"Brookings Papers on Economic Activity. Microeconomics, 1990. 1-84.8. M. Pesendorfer, "Horizontal Mergers in the Paper industry,''NBER Working Paper6751. October 1988C. Horizontal Merger Policy1. US Department of Justice,Horizontal Merger Guidelines(revised April 1992).2. J. Hausman and G. Leonard, "Economic Analysis of Differentiated Product Mergers Using Real World Data," mimeo, October 25, 1996.3. David Scheffman and Pablo Spiller, "Econometric Market Delineation,''Managerial and Decision Economics, Vol. 17, 165-178 (1996)4. G.J. Werden and L.M. Froeb, "The Effects of Mergers in Differentiated Products Industries: Logit Demand and Merger Policy,''Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization,10 (October 1994), 407-26.5. S.C. Salop, L.J. White, F. M. Fisher, & R. Schmalensee, "Symposium: Horizontal Mergers and Antitrust,"Journal of Economic Perspectives, 1 (Fail 1987), 3-54.6. S. Dalkir & F.R. Warren-Boulton, "Prices, Market Definition, and the Effects of Merger: Staples-Office Depot (1997),'' in J.E. Kwoka, Jr. and L.J. White, eds.,The Antitrust Revolution: Economics, Competition, and Policy,3rded. Oxford: Oxford University Press (1999), pp. 143-165. XVI. Antitrust: Vertical Relations & Vertical Restraints1. Tirole, Chapter 4 (including supplementary section).2. J.A. Ordover, G. Saloner, & S.C. Salop, "Equilibrium Vertical Foreclosure,"American Economic Review,80 (March 1990), 127-142.3. Benjamin Klein, "Market Power in Aftermarkets,"Managerial and Decision Economics, Vol. 17, 143-164 (1996).4. Carl Shapiro, "Aftermarkets and Consumer Welfare: Making Sense of Kodak,''Antitrust Law Journal, Vol. 63 at 483 (1995).5. O. Hart and J. Tirole, "Vertical Integration and Market Foreclosure,"Brookings Papers on Economic Activity: Microeconomics, 1990, 205-286.6. P. Rey and J. Stiglitz, " The Role of Exclusive Territories in Producers' Competition,"Rand Journal of Economics, 26 (Autumn 1995), 431-451.7. M. B. Lieberman, "Determinants of Vertical Integration: An Empirical Test,"Journal of Industrial Economics,39(September 1991), 451-466.8. S.J. Ornstein & D.M. Hanssens, "Resale Price Maintenance: Output Increasing or Restructuring? The Case of Distilled Spirits in the United States,"Journal of Industrial Economics, 36 (September 1987), 1-18.9. F. Lafontaine, "Agency Theory and Franchising: Some Empirical Results,''Rand Journal of Economics,23 (Summer 1992) 263-283.XVII. The Political Economy of Regulation1. R. G. Noll, ''Economic Perspectives on the Politics of Regulation,'' in R. Schmalensee & R. D. Willig (eds.),Handbook of Industrial Organization,Volume 2, Amsterdam North- Holland, 1989, Ch. 22, 1253-1287.2. Armstrong et al, Chapter 1.3. G.J. Stigler, "The Theory of Economic regulation,''Bell Journal of Economics, 2 (Spring 1971), 3-21.4. S. Peltzman, ''The Economic Theory of regulation after a Decade of Deregulation,"Brookings Papers on Economic Activity: Microeconomics, 1989, 1-60.5. R.A. Posner, ''Taxation by Regulation,''BellJournal of Economics, 2 (Spring 1971 ), 22-50.6. R.A. Posner, ''Theories of Economic Regulation,"BellJournal of Economics,5 (Autumn 1974), 335-358.7. J.Q. Wilson, "The Politics of Regulation," in J.Q. Wilson (Ed.),The Politics of Regulation,Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980.8. J.P. Kalt & M. A. Zupan, "Capture and Ideology in the Economic Theory of Politics,"American Economic Review, 74 (June 1984), 279-300.9. R. Prager, "Using Stock Price Data to Measure the Effects of Regulation The Interstate Commerce Act and the Railroad industry,''Rand Journal of Economics, 20 (Summer 1989), 280-290.10. T. Romer de H. Rosenthal, "Modern Political Economy and the Study of Regulation," in E. E. Bailey (ed.),Public Regulation: Perspectives on Institutions and Policies, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1987, 73-116.。
人工智能建议信英语小作文模拟题全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1Artificial Intelligence Recommendation LetterDear Sir/Madam,I am writing to provide recommendations regarding the use of artificial intelligence (AI) technology in our society. As we continue to witness the rapid advancements in AI, it is crucial for us to understand its potential benefits and risks in order to make informed decisions about its integration into various aspects of our lives.First and foremost, I believe that AI has the potential to revolutionize many industries by increasing efficiency, improving accuracy, and enabling innovation. In healthcare, AI can help with early detection of diseases, personalized treatment plans, and medical image analysis. In agriculture, AI can optimize crop yields, monitor soil quality, and predict weather patterns. In transportation, AI can improve traffic flow, enhance safety measures, and support autonomous vehicles. These examplesdemonstrate the vast opportunities that AI can offer in enhancing the quality of our lives.However, it is also important to acknowledge the potential risks associated with the widespread adoption of AI. One major concern is the impact of AI on the job market, as automation may lead to the displacement of human workers in certain industries. Additionally, there are ethical implications to consider, such as bias in AI algorithms, privacy concerns, and the ethical use of AI in decision-making processes. It is crucial for policymakers, industry leaders, and researchers to work together to address these challenges and ensure that AI is developed and deployed responsibly.In order to harness the full potential of AI while mitigating its risks, I recommend the following strategies:1. Ethical Principles: Establish ethical guidelines and standards for the development and deployment of AI technologies to ensure transparency, fairness, and accountability.2. Education and Training: Invest in education and training programs to equip individuals with the skills needed to thrive in a world with AI, and promote lifelong learning opportunities for workers to adapt to technological changes.3. Collaboration: Foster collaboration between academia, industry, and government to promote interdisciplinary research, share best practices, and address emerging challenges in AI development.4. Regulation: Develop and implement regulations that address the ethical, legal, and social implications of AI, and ensure that AI systems are designed and used in a way that benefits society as a whole.By following these recommendations, we can unlock the full potential of AI technology while addressing the associated risks and challenges. I urge stakeholders to come together and work towards a shared vision of a future where AI enhances our society in a responsible and ethical manner.Thank you for considering my recommendations on this important issue.Sincerely,[Your Name]篇2Dear Sir/Madam,I am writing to offer some suggestions on the development and implementation of artificial intelligence (AI) technology. As AI continues to advance and become more integrated into our daily lives, it is important to consider the ethical and social implications of its use.Firstly, I believe that there should be clear guidelines and regulations in place to ensure that AI technology is used responsibly and ethically. This includes ensuring that AI systems are transparent and accountable, and that they do not promote discrimination or bias in decision-making processes.Secondly, I suggest that there should be more research and investment in the development of AI systems that are designed to benefit society as a whole. This includes using AI technology to address pressing social issues such as healthcare, climate change, and poverty.Furthermore, it is important to invest in education and training programs to prepare the workforce for the changes brought about by AI technology. This includes providing opportunities for retraining and upskilling, as well as promoting diversity and inclusivity in the tech industry.In conclusion, I believe that AI technology has the potential to bring about great benefits to society, but it is important toapproach its development and implementation with caution and foresight. By following these suggestions, we can ensure that AI technology is used for the greater good of humanity.Thank you for considering my suggestions.Sincerely,[Your Name]篇3Dear Sir/Madam,I am writing to offer some suggestions regarding the development and implementation of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies. As AI continues to advance at a rapid pace, it is important to ensure that these technologies are used in a responsible and ethical manner.First and foremost, I believe that transparency is crucial when it comes to AI. Companies and organizations should be open about how their AI systems work, what data they are using, and how decisions are being made. This will help to build trust with users and ensure that AI is being used in a fair and unbiased way.Secondly, it is essential to prioritize data privacy and security when developing AI systems. With the increasing amount of databeing collected and analyzed by AI, it is imperative that measures are put in place to protect this data from cyber threats and unauthorized access. Companies should also be transparent about how they are using and storing data, and give users control over their own personal information.Furthermore, I believe that ethical guidelines and standards should be established for the development and use of AI. These guidelines should address issues such as accountability, bias, and discrimination, and provide a framework for ensuring that AI is being used in a way that benefits society as a whole.In addition, I recommend investing in AI education and training programs to ensure that individuals have the skills and knowledge needed to work with these technologies effectively. By providing opportunities for people to learn about AI and develop their technical skills, we can help to create a more inclusive and diverse workforce in the field of artificial intelligence.Overall, I believe that these suggestions can help to guide the responsible development and implementation of AI technologies in the future. By embracing transparency, prioritizing data privacy and security, establishing ethical guidelines, and investing in education and training, we canensure that AI is used in a way that benefits society while minimizing potential risks.Thank you for considering my suggestions.Sincerely,[Your Name]。
Managerial Economics（机械工业出版社）J. R. McGuigan, R. C. Moyer, F. H. Harris (9th Edition)Application, Strategy & TacticsByProf. Dr. Song BingliangShanghai Maritime UniversityObjective of This SubjectIt is designed to help executives to make use of the insights of economic theory and explores how economic methods and techniques can be used to improve the understanding of economy-wide business conditions and the quality of managerial decision-making.Fundamental Concepts of Economics1. The Background for Studying EconomicsScarcity: Free Goods & Economic GoodsComparing with the ever-lastingly increasing demands for goods and services, all the resources are limited. Therefore, all the mankind are always faced with the problem how to allocate the scarce resources the most efficiently.2. An Introduction to M. Economics⏹The application of microeconomic theory and methodology to decision-making problems.⏹Its Process:1) identify – the alternative means; 2) select – the most efficient alternative.⏹Its Formation:Theories + TechniquesManagerial Economics Micro- OptimizationMacro- Approaches3. An Introduction to MacroeconomicsMacroeconomics is the study of the behavior of the economy as a whole.It examines the reasons behind the economic growth and decline of nations, which are crucial to not only the government but all the profitable organizations as well.Contrarily, Microeconomics studies individual prices, quantities, and markets.4. Decision ModelCh1. Goals of the Firm (p2)What’s the ultimate objective for a firm to run its business?⏹Profit Maximization, or Market Share Maximization or Revenue Maximization, or Other Goals?Short-run, Static perspective: Profit MaximizationEconomic Interpretation: Revenue – Economic Cost, which is quite different from Accounting Profit.⏹Its sources: Risk-Bearing; Monopoly; Innovation; Managerial Efficiency.Discussion: Petroleum Industry⏹In the period following the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq, oil prices increased significantly, as did the profits earned by many oil companies. Some politicians argued that these profits are undeserved and call for increased taxes.Discuss the pros and cons of these proposals .A Critic Assessment of Profit Max:Profit is usually calculated annually.So, it does not incorporate the time dimension in the decision process.Alternative A: 1st year : $2m; 2nd year: $3m. Alternative B: 1st year $4m; 2nd year: $0.9m. Which is better?Profit-maximization model does not consider risk.The risk within a year must be much smaller than the risk among a decade.Shareholder Wealth-Maximization ModelDivergent ObjectivesThe Development of A Firm’ Structure:Proprietorship ⇒ Partnership ⇒ CorporationSeparation of ownership and control has permitted managers to pursue goals more consistent with their own self-interests.E.g. in the early 1980s, Exxon managers diversified the general administrative function of the company into product lines, such as computer software, where Exxon had little or no competitive advantage.How to Deal With Such Problems?Salomon Brothers: offer managers cash bonuses based on the overall performance of the firm (p3). Kodak: require 40 of its top executives to invest one to four times their base salary in Kodak stock. General Motors: require its top 65 executives to hold General Motors common stock (=annual salary) Panhandle Eastern’s: pay its president entirely in common stock of the company.Similar Arrangements in China.上市公司高管年薪天上人间一、阔的比美国总统还牛：2003-1-4《文汇报》排名代码公司地域年薪（万元）1 000921 科龙电器广东750.002 600660 福耀玻璃福建127.113 600588 用友软件北京123.33二、穷的比做保姆收入还低：1 600807 济南百货山东0.802 000915 山大华特山东0.923 000695 灯塔油漆天津 1.00上市公司老总的收入没有规矩、没有章法，全凭各自随心所欲。
2022年自学考试英语二真题10月份作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇12022年自学考试英语二真题10月份作文Topic: The Importance of Lifelong LearningLifelong learning refers to the continuous process of gaining new knowledge and skills throughout one's life. In today's rapidly changing world, lifelong learning has become more important than ever before. In this essay, we will discuss the significance of lifelong learning and how it can benefit individuals in various aspects of their lives.Firstly, lifelong learning helps individuals to adapt to changes in the workplace. With advancements in technology and globalization, the job market is constantly evolving, and new skills are in demand. By engaging in lifelong learning, individuals can stay relevant and competitive in their careers. They can acquire new skills, update their knowledge, and improve their job performance, which can lead to better job opportunities and career advancement.Secondly, lifelong learning contributes to personal growth and development. Learning new things can broaden one's horizons, stimulate intellectual curiosity, and enhance critical thinking skills. It can also boost self-confidence and self-esteem, as individuals gain a sense of achievement and fulfillment from acquiring new knowledge and skills. Lifelong learning can also improve social skills and relationships, as individuals connect with others who share their interests and passions.Furthermore, lifelong learning is essential for staying mentally sharp and healthy. Research has shown that engaging in intellectually stimulating activities, such as reading, writing, and learning new skills, can help prevent cognitive decline and reduce the risk of developing dementia in old age. Lifelong learning can also improve memory, concentration, and problem-solving abilities, which are crucial for everyday tasks and decision-making.In conclusion, lifelong learning is a valuable and essential pursuit for individuals in today's fast-paced and ever-changing world. It offers numerous benefits, such as adaptability in the workplace, personal growth and development, and mental sharpness and health. Therefore, it is important for everyone to cultivate a habit of lifelong learning and to embraceopportunities to expand their knowledge and skills throughout their lives.Overall, lifelong learning is not only beneficial for individuals, but also for society as a whole. It can lead to a more knowledgeable, skilled, and innovative workforce, as well as a more engaged and informed citizenry. By promoting lifelong learning opportunities and creating a culture of continuous learning, we can build a more prosperous and thriving society for the future.篇22022 Self-study Exam English II October Essay QuestionDirections:Write an essay of at least 2000 words responding to the following topic. You must support your position with evidence and examples.Topic:Discuss the impact of technology on education in the 21st century.With the rapid advancement of technology in the 21st century, the way education is delivered and accessed hasundergone significant changes. In this essay, we will explore the various ways in which technology has impacted education, both positively and negatively.One of the most significant benefits of technology in education is the increased accessibility to information. With the internet, students now have access to a vast array of resources, making it easier for them to conduct research and learn about a wide range of topics. This has greatly enriched the learning experience and encouraged independent and self-directed learning.Furthermore, technology has also made education more interactive and engaging. Online platforms and learning management systems allow for personalized learning experiences, catering to the individual needs and learning styles of students. Interactive tools such as educational games and simulations make learning more fun and enjoyable, leading to better retention of information.On the other hand, technology has also brought about some challenges in education. The reliance on technology has raised concerns about student's ability to think critically and problem-solve independently. In addition, the prevalence ofonline sources has made it easier for students to plagiarize and cheat on assignments, posing ethical dilemmas for educators.In conclusion, the impact of technology on education in the 21st century is both positive and negative. While technology has greatly enhanced the accessibility and interactivity of education, it has also introduced new challenges that need to be addressed. Educators and policymakers must find a balance between harnessing the benefits of technology and mitigating its pitfalls to ensure that students receive a quality education in the digital age.篇32022年自学考试英语二真题10月份作文Directions: For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a short essay on the topic of “The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Society”. You should write at least 150 words but no more than 200 words.The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on SocietyWith the rapid development of technology, artificial intelligence (AI) has become an integral part of our daily lives. From voice assistants like Siri and Alexa to self-driving cars and facial recognition software, AI is changing the way we live, work,and interact with the world around us. While AI has brought many benefits, it also raises concerns about its impact on society.One of the major concerns about AI is the potential loss of jobs. As AI systems become more advanced, they are able to perform tasks that were once done by humans, leading to job displacement in many industries. This can result in unemployment and economic instability for those who are replaced by machines.Another issue is the ethical implications of AI. AI systems can be programmed with biases and prejudices, leading to discrimination in areas such as hiring, lending, and policing. There is also the risk of AI being used for malicious purposes, such as cyber attacks and surveillance, posing a threat to individual privacy and security.Despite these challenges, AI also has the potential to bring many benefits to society. AI can improve efficiency, accuracy, and productivity in various sectors, from healthcare and education to transportation and agriculture. It can also help solve complex problems, such as climate change and disease prevention, by analyzing vast amounts of data and identifying patterns and trends that humans may overlook.In conclusion, the impact of artificial intelligence on society is complex and multifaceted. While AI presents challenges that must be addressed, it also offers opportunities to improve our lives and create a better future for all. By harnessing the power of AI responsibly and ethically, we can ensure that it benefits society as a whole.。
科技对人类生活的影响越来越大英语学问作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1With the rapid development of technology in recent years, its impact on human life has become increasingly significant. From communication to transportation, from healthcare to entertainment, technology plays a crucial role in shaping our daily routines and interactions. In this essay, we will explore how technology has transformed various aspects of human life and discuss the implications of its growing influence.One area where technology has revolutionized human life is communication. The invention of smartphones, social media platforms, and messaging apps has made it easier than ever to connect with others regardless of geographic boundaries. People can stay in touch with friends and family, collaborate with colleagues, and share their thoughts and experiences instantaneously. This has not only increased the speed and efficiency of communication but also expanded the ways in which we interact with one another.Moreover, technology has greatly impacted the way we work and learn. With the rise of remote work and online education, people now have the flexibility to work and study from anywhere in the world. This has opened up new opportunities for individuals to pursue their career goals and further their education without being tied to a physical location. Additionally, advancements in artificial intelligence and automation have transformed industries and created new job opportunities in fields such as data science, robotics, and digital marketing.In the field of healthcare, technology has led to significant improvements in diagnosis, treatment, and patient care. Medical devices, such as MRI machines, pacemakers, and insulin pumps, have revolutionized the way we diagnose and treat diseases. Telemedicine platforms allow patients to consult with healthcare providers remotely, reducing the need for in-person visits and improving access to healthcare services. Furthermore, electronic health records enable healthcare providers to access patient information more efficiently and make more informed decisions about their care.Another area where technology has had a profound impact is entertainment. Streaming services, video games, virtual reality, and augmented reality have transformed the way we consumeentertainment content. People can now access a wide range of movies, TV shows, music, and games from the comfort of their homes, giving them more options for entertainment than ever before. Additionally, social media platforms and online communities allow individuals to connect with like-minded individuals and share their interests and experiences with others.Despite the numerous benefits that technology brings, its growing influence also raises concerns about privacy, security, and ethical implications. The collection and use of personal data by tech companies have raised concerns about privacy and data protection. Cybersecurity threats, such as hacking and data breaches, pose risks to individuals and organizations that rely on technology for their daily operations. Moreover, the ethical implications of artificial intelligence, such as biases in algorithms and the impact on job displacement, raise important questions about the role of technology in society.In conclusion, the impact of technology on human life has become increasingly significant in recent years. From communication to healthcare, from work to entertainment, technology has transformed the way we live, work, and interact with one another. While the benefits of technology are undeniable, it is important to consider the ethical, privacy, andsecurity implications of its growing influence. By being mindful of these concerns and working towards responsible and ethical use of technology, we can harness its benefits and create a more sustainable and equitable future for all.篇2With the rapid advancement of technology in recent years, its impact on human life has become more and more significant. From the way we communicate and interact with each other to the way we work, travel, and even entertain ourselves, technology has become an integral part of our daily lives. In this essay, we will explore how technology has transformed human life and discuss the implications of its increasing influence.First and foremost, technology has revolutionized the way we communicate with each other. The development of the internet, social media platforms, and smartphones has made it easier for people to stay connected and share information with each other. We can now communicate with friends and family members from around the world in real-time, no matter where we are. This has helped to bridge the gap between people and foster a sense of global connectivity.Moreover, technology has also transformed the way we work. With the rise of remote work and digital nomadism, more and more people are able to work from anywhere in the world as long as they have an internet connection. This has provided greater flexibility and work-life balance for employees, as well as opened up new opportunities for businesses to operate on a global scale.In addition to communication and work, technology has also changed the way we travel and entertain ourselves. From booking flights and accommodations online to streaming movies and music on-demand, technology has made it easier for us to explore the world and enjoy various forms of entertainment. Virtual reality and augmented reality technologies have also opened up new possibilities for immersive experiences, allowing us to escape reality and enter new worlds.However, with the increasing reliance on technology, there are also concerns about its impact on human life. The rise of automation and artificial intelligence has raised questions about the future of work and the potential displacement of jobs. There are also concerns about the negative effects of technology on mental health, such as addiction to social media and online gaming.In conclusion, while technology has undoubtedly had a significant impact on human life, its increasing influence also raises important questions and challenges. As we continue to embrace and integrate technology into our daily lives, it is essential to consider the implications of its use and strive to find a balance between harnessing its benefits and mitigating its potential drawbacks. Ultimately, the key lies in using technology responsibly and ethically to enhance our lives and create a more sustainable future for generations to come.篇3The Impact of Technology on Human LifeIn today's rapidly advancing world, technology plays an increasingly important role in shaping human life. From communication to healthcare, transportation to entertainment, nearly every aspect of our daily lives is influenced by technology. The impact of technology on human life is undeniable, and its effects are only becoming more pronounced as technology continues to evolve and expand.One of the most significant ways in which technology has impacted human life is in the realm of communication. With the advent of the internet, smartphones, and social media, peopleare now able to connect with each other in ways that were previously unimaginable. Distance is no longer a barrier to communication, as people can instantaneously send messages, make video calls, and share photos with friends and family across the globe. This has led to a more interconnected world, where people can easily stay in touch and collaborate with each other regardless of their physical location.In addition to communication, technology has also revolutionized the way we work, learn, and access information. The rise of digital platforms and online tools has made it easier for people to work remotely, pursue online education, and conduct research from the comfort of their own homes. This has not only increased efficiency and productivity but has also democratized access to information, enabling people from all walks of life to learn and grow in unprecedented ways.Furthermore, technology has made a significant impact on the field of healthcare. Advancements in medical technology, such as the development of diagnostic tools, surgical robots, and telemedicine services, have improved the quality of healthcare and made it more accessible to people around the world. Patients can now receive remote consultations, access their medical records online, and even undergo surgeries usingminimally invasive techniques, all thanks to the power of technology.On a more personal level, technology has also influenced the way we live our daily lives. Smart homes, wearable devices, and virtual assistants have made it easier for us to manage our homes, track our health, and stay organized. We can now control our appliances, monitor our fitness goals, and set reminders with just a few taps on our devices, making our lives more convenient and efficient.Despite the many benefits that technology offers, it also raises concerns about privacy, security, and ethical implications. The increasing use of data-driven technologies, such as artificial intelligence and machine learning, has sparked debates about the ethical use of personal data and the potential for bias and discrimination in algorithms. Moreover, the rise of automation and robotics has raised questions about the future of work and the impact on employment opportunities for humans.In conclusion, the impact of technology on human life is profound and far-reaching. While technology has undoubtedly improved our lives in many ways, it also presents challenges that need to be addressed. As we continue to embrace and adapt to technological advancements, it is essential to consider theethical, social, and environmental implications of these technologies and work towards creating a more inclusive and sustainable future for all.。
HAPTER 6ECONOMIES OF SCALE, IMPERFECT COMPETITION, AND INTERNATIONAL TRADEChapter OrganizationEconomies of Scale and International Trade: An OverviewEconomies of Scale and Market StructureThe Theory of Imperfect CompetitionMonopoly: A Brief ReviewMonopolistic CompetitionLimitations of the Monopolistic Competition ModelMonopolistic Competition and TradeThe Effects of Increased Market SizeGains from an Integrated Market: A Numerical ExampleEconomies of Scale and Comparative AdvantageThe Significance of Intraindustry TradeWhy Intraindustry Trade MattersCase Study: Intraindustry Trade in Action: The North American Auto Pact DumpingThe Economics of DumpingCase Study: AntiDumping as ProtectionReciprocal DumpingThe Theory of External EconomiesSpecialized SuppliersLabor Market PoolingKnowledge SpilloversExternal Economies and Increasing ReturnsExternal Economies and International TradeExternal Economies and the Pattern of TradeTrade and Welfare with External EconomiesBox: Tinseltown EconomicsDynamic Increasing ReturnsSummaryAppendix: Determining Marginal RevenueCHAPTER OVERVIEWIn previous chapters, trade between nations was motivated by their differences in factor productivity or relative factor endowments. The type of trade which occurred, for example of food for manufactures, is based on comparative advantage and is called interindustry trade. This chapter introduces trade based on economies of scale in production. Such trade in similar productions is called intraindustry trade, and describes, for example, the trading of one type of manufactured good for another type of manufactured good. It is shown that trade can occur when there are no technological or endowment differences, but when there are economies of scale or increasing returns in production.Economies of scale can either take the form of 1) external economies whereby the cost per unit depends on the size of the industry but not necessarily on the size of the firm; or as 2) internal economies, whereby the production cost per unit of output depends on the size of the individual firm but not necessarily on the size of the industry. Internal economies of scale give rise to imperfectly competitive markets, unlike the perfectly competitive market structures that were assumed to exist in earlier chapters. This motivates the review of models of imperfect competition, including monopoly and monopolistic competition. The instructor should spend some time making certain that students understand the equilibrium concepts of these models since they are important for the justification of intraindustry trade.In markets described by monopolistic competition, there are a number of firms in an industry, each of which produces a differentiated product. Demand for its good depends on the number of other similar products available and their prices. This type of model is useful for illustrating that trade improves the trade-off between scale and variety available to a country. In an industry described by monopolistic competition, a larger market -- such as that which arises through international trade -- lowers average price (by increasing production and lowering average costs) and makes available for consumption a greater range of goods. While an integrated markets also supports the existence of a larger number of firms in an industry, the model presented in the text does not make predictions about where these industries will be located.It is also interesting to compare the distributional effects of trade when motivated by comparative advantage with those when trade is motivated by increasing returns to scale inproduction. When countries are similar in their factor endowments, and when scale economies and product differentiation are important, the income distributional effects of trade will be small. You should make clear to the students the sharp contrast between the predictions of the models of monopolistic competition and the specific factors and Heckscher-Ohlin theories of international trade. Without clarification, some students may find the contrasting predictions of these models confusing.Another important issue related to imperfectly competitive markets is the practice of price discrimination, namely charging different customers different prices. One particularly controversial form of price discrimination is dumping, whereby a firm charges lower prices for exported goods than for goods sold domestically. This can occur only when domestic and foreign markets are segmented. While there is no good economic justification for the view that dumping is harmful, it is often viewed as an unfair trade practice.The other type of economies of scale, external economies, has very different economic implications than internal economies. Since external economies of scale occur at the industry level rather than the firm level, it is possible for there to be many small competitors in an industry, in contrast to the structure which develops under internal economies of scale. Under external economies, trade may not be beneficial to all countries and there may be some justification for protectionism. Dynamic scale economies, which arise when unit production costs fall with cumulative production over time, rather than with current levels of production, also provide a potential justification for protectionism.ANSWERS TO TEXTBOOK PROBLEMS1. Cases a and d reflect external economies of scale since concentration of the productionof an industry in a few locations reduces the industry's costs even when the scale of operation of individual firms remains small. External economies need not lead to imperfect competition. The benefits of geographical concentration may include a greater variety of specialized services to support industry operations and larger labor markets or thicker input markets. Cases b and c reflect internal economies of scale and occur at the level of the individual firm. The larger the output of a product by a particular firm, the lower its average costs. This leads to imperfect competition as in petrochemicals, aircraft, and autos.2. The profit maximizing output level of a monopolist occurs where marginal revenueequals marginal cost. Unlike the case of perfectly competitive markets, under monopoly marginal revenue is not equal to price. Marginal revenue is always less than price under imperfectly competitive markets because to sell an extra unit of output the firm must lower the price of all units, not just the marginal one.3. By concentrating the production of each good with economies of scale in one countryrather than spreading the production over several countries, the world economy will use the same amount of labor to produce more output. In the monopolistic competition model, such a concentration of labor benefits the host country, which can also capture some monopoly rents, while it may hurt the rest of the world which could then face higher prices on its consumption goods. In the external economies case, such monopolistic pricing behavior is less likely since imperfectly competitive markets are less likely.4. Although this problem is a bit tricky and the numbers don't work out nicely, a solutiondoes exist. The first step in finding the solution is to determine the equilibrium number of firms in the industry. The equilibrium number of firms is that number, n, at which price equals average cost. We know that AC=F/X + c , where F represents fixed costs of production, X represents the level of sales by each firm, and c represents marginal costs. We also know that P=c+ (1/bn), where P and b represent price and the demand parameter. Also, if all firms follow the same pricing rule, then X=S/n where S equals total industry sales. So, set price equal to average cost, cancel out the c's and replace X by S/n. Rearranging what is left yields the formula n2=S/Fb. Substitute in S=900,000+ 1,600,000+ 3,750,000 =6,250,000, F=750,000,000 and b=1/30,000. The numerical answer is that n=15.8 firms. However, since you will never see .8 firms, there will be15 firms that enter the market, not 16 firms since the last firm knows that it can notmake positive profits. The rest of the solution is straight-forward. Using X=S/n, output per firm is 41,666 units. Using the price equation, and the fact that c=5,000, yields an equilibrium price of $7,000.5. a. The relatively few locations for production suggest external economies of scale inproduction. If these operations are large, there may also be large internal economies of scale in production.b. Since economies of scale are significant in airplane production, it tends to be done by asmall number of (imperfectly competitive) firms at a limited number of locations. One such location is Seattle, where Boeing produces.c. Since external economies of scale are significant in semiconductor production,semiconductor industries tend to be concentrated in certain geographic locations. If, for some historical reason, a semiconductor is established in a specific location, the export of semiconductors by that country is due to economies of scale and not comparative advantage.d. "True" scotch whiskey can only come from Scotland. The production of scotchwhiskey requires a technique known to skilled distillers who are concentrated in the region. Also, soil and climactic conditions are favorable for grains used in local scotch production. This reflects comparative advantage.e. France has a particular blend of climactic conditions and land that is difficult toreproduce elsewhere. This generates a comparative advantage in wine production.6. The Japanese producers are price discriminating across United States and Japanesemarkets, so that the goods sold in the United States are much cheaper than those sold in Japan. It may be profitable for other Japanese to purchase these goods in the United States, incur any tariffs and transportation costs, and resell the goods in Japan. Clearly, the price differential across markets must be non-trivial for this to be profitable.7. a. Suppose two countries that can produce a good are subject to forward-falling supplycurves and are identical countries with identical curves. If one country starts out as a producer of a good, i.e. it has a head start even as a matter of historical accident, then all production will occur in that particular country and it will export to the rest of the world.b. Consumers in both countries will pay a lower price for this good when externaleconomies are maximized through trade and all production is located in a single market. In the present example, no single country has a natural cost advantage or is worse off than it would be under autarky.8. External economies are important for firms as technology changes rapidly and as the“cutting edge” moves quickly with frequent innovations. As this process slows, manufacturing becomes more routine and there is less advantage conferred by external economies. Instead, firms look for low cost production locations. Since externaleconomies are no longer important, firms find little advantage in being clustered and it is likely that locations other than the high-wage original locations are chosen.FURTHER READINGSFrank Graham. "Some Aspects of Protection Further Considered." Quarterly Journal of Economics 36 (1923) pp.199-227.Elhanan Helpman and Paul Krugman.Market Structure and Foreign Trade: Increasing Returns, Imperfect Competition, and the International Economy. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1985.Henryk Kierzkowski, ed. Monopolistic Competition and International Trade. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984.Staffan Burenstam Linder. An Essay on Trade and Transformation. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1961.Michael Porter. The Competitive Advantage of Nations. New York: Free Press, 1990. Annalee Saxenian. Regional Advantage. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994.。
经济学原理曼昆英文1. Economics as a Social Science: In this chapter, the author introduces the study of economics as a social science that explores how individuals, firms, and societies make decisions about resource allocation.2. The Role of Incentives: This chapter explores how individuals respond to incentives and how they influence decision-making in economics. Various types of incentives, such as financial rewards and punishments, are discussed.3. Supply and Demand: The concept of supply and demand is explained in this chapter. It delves into how the interaction between buyers and sellers in a market determines the equilibrium price and quantity of a product.4. Elasticity and Its Applications: Elasticity, a measure of responsiveness, is discussed in this chapter. The various types of elasticity, including price elasticity of demand and income elasticity of demand, are explained and their applications are explored.5. Consumer Choice: This chapter explores how individuals make choices as consumers, considering factors such as preferences, constraints, and budget constraints. Utility theory and indifference curves are introduced as tools to understand consumer choice.6. Production and Costs: The author discusses how firms make decisions regarding production and cost in this chapter. Topics covered include production functions, costs of production, and theconcept of economies of scale.7. Perfect Competition: This chapter explores the characteristics of perfect competition, including the large number of buyers and sellers, homogenous products, and ease of entry and exit. It also examines the implications of perfect competition on market outcomes.8. Monopoly: The concept of monopoly, where a single firm controls the market, is discussed in this chapter. The author analyzes the sources of monopoly power and its implications for prices and output in the market.9. Market Failures and Government Intervention: This chapter examines market failures, situations where the market fails to allocate resources efficiently. Different types of market failures, such as externalities and public goods, are explained, along with the role of government intervention in correcting these failures.10. Externalities: Externalities, or the consequences of economic activities on third parties, are explored in this chapter. The author discusses positive and negative externalities and their implications for resource allocation.11. Public Goods and Common Resources: This chapter focuses on the characteristics of public goods and common resources. It discusses the free-rider problem and the challenges in providing public goods efficiently.12. Markets for Factors of Production: The author explores themarkets for factors of production, including labor and capital, in this chapter. Wage determination, discrimination, and other factors influencing the prices of these factors are analyzed.13. The Economics of Income Inequality: Income inequality and its causes are discussed in this chapter. The author explores different theories and factors that contribute to income inequality, as well as its implications for society and policy considerations.14. The Theory of Consumer Choice: This chapter delves deeper into the theory of consumer choice, examining topics such as consumer preferences, budget constraints, and the concept of utility maximization.15. Frontiers of Microeconomics: The final chapter explores the frontiers of microeconomics, including topics such as behavioral economics, game theory, and the economics of information. The author discusses how these fields have expanded our understanding of economic behavior.。
Review of Network Economics Vol.3, Issue 3 – September 2004 323 The Evolution of Price Discrimination in Transportation and its Implications for the Internet
ANDREW ODLYZKO * University of Minnesota University of Minnesota
Abstract A wide-ranging discussion of the evolution of pricing in early transportation industries, such as lighthouses, canals, and turnpikes, is presented. It shows that price discrimination was an important factor in the development of those industries, and tended to intensify with time. In order to make differential tariffs effective, service providers had the right of detailed inspection of the cargo. These historical precedents help explain the drive by large sectors of the telecommunications industry to gain greater control over what is transmitted over the Internet. The implications for the evolution of the Internet are briefly explored.
1 Introduction With telecommunications in a slump, the search is on for ways to re-invigorate this key industry. The main problems are clearly economic much more than technological, and many of the proposed remedies would lead to new architectures for the Internet that would provide for greater control by carriers. The fundamental question in all the discussions about open access, unbundling, line sharing, and related policies is whether carriers should be able to restrict voice over Internet (VoIP) services or control what movies customers receive over their broadband connections. The objective would be to impose differential charging, taking advantage of the wide disparity in willingness to pay for different types of communications services shown in Table 1.1
* Mailing address: Digital Technology Center, University of Minnesota, 499 Walter Library, 117 Pleasant St. SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States. E-mail address: odlyzko@umn.eduSasha Nichols-Geerdes provided extensive and valuable research assistance in locating historical sources. Jouko Tossavainen helped with pointers to information about the Sound Tolls. Ted Stout provided helpful perspectives on the transportation industry, and Sam Paltridge references to telecom liberalization analyses. Ross Anderson, Dan Bogart, Bob Briscoe, Liudvikas Bukys, Dave Burstein, Steve Crandall, Daniel Davis, Rolf Engstrand, Bob Frankston, Jim Gray, Tom Hazlett, Chris Hogendorn, Tim Janik, Ihor Lys, Paul Odlyzko, Andy Oram, Hal Purdy, Jere Retzer, Nate Taylor, Adam Thierer, and Philip Webre helped with comments on an earlier draft. 1 These are estimates of what U.S. residential users pay per megabyte of traffic from various sources. The
methodology used in constructing the table is only approximate (for example, the cable TV rate is computed Review of Network Economics Vol.3, Issue 3 – September 2004 324 Service Typical revenue monthly bill Revenue per MB Cable $40 $0.00012 broadband Internet $50 $0.025 Phone $70 $0.08 dial Internet $20 $.33 cell phone $50 $3.50 SMS $3000
Table 1. Value of bits: Cost per megabyte of various services. The advantages of such practices are well known to economists as well as business leaders, as shown by an email of August 17, 1997 from Warren Buffett, the famous investor and head of Berkshire Hathaway, to Jeff Raikes of Microsoft (made public through a lawsuit, and quoted partially in Wilke and Clark, 2004)):
[Alexander Graham] Bell should have anticipated Bill [Gates] and let someone else put in the phone infrastructure while he collected by the minute and distance (and even importance of the call if he could have figured a wait [sic] to monitor it) in perpetuity.
Such differential charging according to values of individual transactions is foreign to today’s voice telephone business (although it had been attempted in the past).2 However, other price discrimination practices are rife, such as high charges for roaming in mobile telephony, or charging more for a basic wired connection for a business customer than for a residential one. The Internet owes its success largely to the end-to-end principle, which concentrates functionality at the edges, and relegates most of the network to a “dumb pipe”. This structure makes it difficult for service providers to engage in differential pricing. The concern is that without price discrimination, they will not have the incentive to build out and maintain the network. As broadband connections spread in both wireline and wireless sectors, the Internet is taking over other services, giving rise to concerns about viability of the entire telecommunications system. Historical precedents in telecommunications argue for continuation of the trend towards simplicity, as is shown in Odlyzko (2001b). However, the picture is completely different if we look at another network industry, namely transportation. There differential pricing has been the norm, as is shown by Table 2, which presents some of the tolls charged by the Beverley Beck Navigation in 18th century England.3
