语言学教程（胡壮麟版）综合测试题含标准答案
英语语言学试卷
（一）
第一部分选择题
I. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets. (2%X10=20%)
’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, but they differ in that ____________.
A. Saussure took a sociological view of language while Chomsky took a psychological point of view
B. Saussure took a psychological view of language while Chomsky took a sociological point of view
C. Saussure took a pragmatic view of language while Chomsky took a semantic point of view
D. Saussure took a structural view of language while Chomsky took a pragmatic point of view
2. Language is a system of ____________ vocal symbols used for human communication.
A. unnatural
B. artificial
C. superficial
D. arbitrary
3. We are born with the ability to acquire language, _______________.
A. and the details of any language system are genetically transmitted
B. therefore, we needn’t learn the details of our mother tongue
C. but the details of language have to be learnt.
D. and the details are acquired by instinct
4. A(n)________ is a phonological unit of distinctive value. It is a collection of distinctive phonetic features. A. phone B. allophone C. phoneme D. sound
5. The morpheme –ed in the word “worked” is a(n) __________morpheme. A. derivational B. inflectional
C. free
D. word-forming
6. WH-movement is __________ in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative. A. obligatory B. optional
C. selectional
D. arbitrary
7. Naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, was proposed by
_____________. A. Grice B. Plato
C. Saussure
D. Ogden and Richards
8. “John married a blond heiress.”__________ “John married a blond.” A. is
synonymous with B. is inconsistent with
C. entails
D. presupposes
9. In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called ____________, which
is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A. utterance
B. reference
C. predication
D. morpheme
10. In Austin’s speech act theory, ___________ is the act of expressing the
spea ker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A. a
perlocutionary act B. a locutionary act
C. a constative act
D. an illocutionary act
特特外语专业考研门户特特外语专业考研门户特特外语专业考研门户特特外语专
业考研门户
第二部分非选择题
II. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word,
the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in
One word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given. (1%X10=10%)
11. P___________ relates the study of language to psychology. It aims to answer such
questions as how the human mind works when people use language.
12. A d_________ study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical
development of language over a period of time.
13. Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels.
At the lower level, there is a structure of meaningless sounds, which can be combined
into a large number of meaningful units at the higher level. This design feature
is called d___________.
14. The articulatory apparatus of a human being is contained in three important areas:
the pharyngeal cavity, the o_________ cavity and the nasal cavity.
15. The localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular
hemisphere of the brain is called l_____________.
16. S_____________ features such as stress, tone and intonation can influence the interpretation of meaning.
17. Phrase structure rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their r_________ properties.
18. H__________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
19. Some important missions of historical linguists are to identify and classify families of related languages in a genealogical family tree, and to reconstruct the p____________, the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist.
20. In Sociolinguistics, speakers are treated as members of social groups. The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech c___________.
III. Directions: Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets in front of each statement. (2%X10=20%)
( ) 21. Linguists believe that whatever occurs in the language people use should be described and analyzed in their investigation.
( ) 22. Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between words and what these words actually refer to.
( ) 23. The conclusions we reach about the phonology of one language can be generalized into the study of another language.
( ) 24. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in English because English, unlike Chinese, is a typical tone language.
( ) 25. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.
( ) 26. When we think of a concept, we actually try to see the image of something in our mind’s eye every time we come across a linguistic symbol.
( ) 27. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences. For example, “Good morning!” can be restored to “I wish you a good morning.”
( ) 28. Two people who are born and brought up in the same town and speak the same regional dialect may speak differently because of a number of social factors.
( ) 29. Black English is linguistically inferior to standard English because Black English is not as systematic as standard English.
( ) 30. Any child who is capable of acquiring some particular human language is capable of acquiring any human language spontaneously and effortlessly.
IV. Directions: Explain the following terms. (3%X10=30%)
31. parole:
32. broad transcription:
33. allophones:
34. phrase structure rules:
35. context
36. Historical Linguistics:
37. standard language:
38. linguistic taboo:
39. acculturation:
40. care-taker speech:
V. Answer the following questions. (10%X2=20%)
41. Enumerate three causes that lead to the systematic occurrence of errors in second language acquisition and give your examples.
42. English has undergone tremendous changes since its Anglo-Saxon days. Identify the major periods in its historical development and name major historical events that led to the transition from one period to the next.
英语语言学试卷答案
(一)
第一部分选择题
I. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets. (2%X10=20%)
1. A
2. D
3. C
4. C 6. A 7. B 8. C 9. C 10. D
第二部分非选择题
II. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in One word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given. (1%X10=10%)
11. Psycholinguistics
12. diachronic
13. duality
14. oral
15. lateralization
16. Suprasegmental
17. recursive
18. Homonymy
19. protolanguage
20. community
III. Directions: Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets in front of each statement. (2%X10=20%) ( T ) 21. Linguists believe that whatever occurs in the language people use should be described and analyzed in their investigation.
( T ) 22. Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between words and what these words actually refer to.
( F ) 23. The conclusions we reach about the phonology of one language can be generalized into the study of another language.
( F ) 24. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in English because English, unlike Chinese, is a typical tone language.
特特外语专业考研门户特特外语专业考研门户特特外语专业考研门户
( T ) 25. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.
( F ) 26. When we think of a concept, we actually try to see the image of something
in our mind’s eye every time we come across a linguistic symbol.
( F ) 27. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences. For example, “Good morning!” can be restored to “I wish you a good morning.”
( T ) 28. Two people who are born and brought up in the same town and speak the same regional dialect may speak differently because of a number of social factors.
( F ) 29. Black English is linguistically inferior to standard English because Black English is not as systematic as standard English.
( T ) 30. Any child who is capable of acquiring some particular human language is capable of acquiring any human language spontaneously and effortlessly.
IV. Directions: Explain the following terms. (3%X10=30%)
31. parole: It refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is concrete and varies with context.
32. Broad transcription is the transcription with letter symbols only. It is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks.
33. Allophones are the different phones that represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.
34. Phrase structure rules are the rewrite rules which allow for the possible combination of words to form phrases and sentences.
35. Context is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
36. Historical linguistics studies language change ( or historical development of language).
37. Standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media and taught in educational institutions.
38. Linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.
39. Acculturation is a process of adapting to the culture and value system of the second language community.
40. It is simple and modified speech used by parents, baby-sitter, etc. when they talk to young children who are acquiring their native language.
V. Answer the following questions. (10%X2=20%)
41. Enumerate three causes that lead to the systematic occurrence of errors in second
language acquisition and give your examples.
1) Mother tongue interference
2) interlingual interference
3) Overgeneralization
42. English has undergone tremendous changes since its Anglo-Saxon days. Identify the major periods in its historical development and name major historical events that led to the transition from one period to the next.
Major periods: Old English (449-1100)
Middle English (1100-1500)
Modern English (1500-present)
Historical events: The old English period began with the invasion of the British Isles by English-speaking Anglo-Saxons from Europe, and ended with the arrival of Norman French invaders historically known as the Norman Conquest. The Middle English period is distinguished from the Old English period by the Norman Conquest. The European renaissance movement marked the beginning of the Modern English period.
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1.3.2 Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 加1 Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. 加2 the direct/non-arbitrary/non-symbolic relation between meaning and form. There are resemblances between the language form and what they refer to. That relationship is called icon. Iconicity exists in sounds, lexicons and syntax. It is the motivation between language forms and meanings. It is a relation of resemblance between language form and what they refer to. 1.5 Functions of language As is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions: 1. Referential: to convey message and information; 2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake; 3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions; 4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties; 5. Phatic: to establish communion with others; 6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. three metafunctions: 1. function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is
Chapter 2 Speech sounds Contents ?How sounds are made? ?Consonants and vowels ?Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features ?Suprasegmentals 超音段 ?Two major areas for studying speech sounds: phonetics and phonology ?Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and perceived. ?Three branches of phonetics: ?Articulatory phonetics发声语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds. ?Acoustic phonetics声学语音学 is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech. Auditory phonetics听觉语音学 is concerned with the perception of speech sounds ?Phonology：it deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme 音素 as the point of departure. ?It studies the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. ?Ultimately it aims to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. How speech sounds are made? ? speech organs 言语器官 ?Speech organs are also known as vocal organs（发音器官）. ?Parts of human body involved in the production of speech sounds: lungs, trachea (windpipe) 气管, throat, nose, mouth ? organs of speech (Figure 2.2, p.26 on our books)
语言学教程笔记 第一章语言学导论 语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。 1. 任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核 心特征。例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作 a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pe n/。 任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。（2）句法层面上的任意性。 （3） 任意性和规约性。 2. 二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成， 每层都有自身的组合规则。话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是 相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产 性。 3. 创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性 和递归性。利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。 4. 移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的 物体、时间或观点。因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而 后者位置距我们非常之远。语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。移位性赋予人 们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化 的语境中。他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。 5. 文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。 6. 互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的 角色是可以随意更换的。 元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考"。所以只有人类才能提问：元语言功能对交际、思考及人类的意义是什么？
Literary linguistics studies the language of literature. It focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style. 9.1 Theoretical background
9.2.1 Foregrounding and grammatical form 9.2.2 Literal language and figurative language Simile Metaphor Metonymy Synecdoche 9.2.3 The analysis of literary language
9.3.1 Sound patterning 9.3.2 Different forms of sound patterning Rhyme Alliteration Assonance Consonance Reverse rhyme Pararhyme Repitition
-Metre(Dimetre, Trimetre, Tetrametre, Hexametre, Heptametre, Octametre) -Foot (Iamb, Trochee, Anapest, Dactyl,Spondee, Pyrrhic) 9.3.4 Conventional forms of metre and sound Couplets Quatrains Blank verse Sonnet 9.3.5 The poetic functions of sound and metre 9.3.6 How to analyse poetry?
将英语译成中文(简体)胡壮麟“语言学教程”课后答案 定义以下条款： 1。设计特点：是他们的特点来定义，如任意性，双重性，创造性，位移，文化传播等，我们人类的语言， 2。功能：语言的使用ommunicate，思考，等anguage功能inclucle imformative 功能，人际功能，表演功能，人际功能，表演功能，情感功能，寒暄交流，娱乐功能和工具功能。 3。客位：在与主位是从美国语言学家派克的语音和音位的区别源于长期的对比。作为客位芒作出太多，以及behaviously无关紧要，鉴别，就像是多嚼不语言学与语音正确vx.phonemic分析实例。 4。主位：在与客位的是从美国语言学家派克的语音和音位的区别源于长期的对比。作者：主位言语行为和事件必须被作为一个有意义的资源，验证通过的最后一次演说communith本地成员，而不是通过qppeal到研究者的ingenuith或直觉孤单。‘ 5。同步：一类是描述以一个固定的瞬间（通常，但不一定，目前的）作为观察点。大多数语法是这样的。 6。历时：一种语言的研究是通过其进行的历史过程。 7。规范：一种语言的研究是通过其进行的历史过程。 8。规范：这类研究的语言，一切事都应该是如何规定的，ielaying下来的语言使用规则。 9。描述：这类研究的语言，一切事都只是描述。 10。独断性：一种人类的语言，这是指语言符号的脸，不承担任何形式的关系，其意义自然的设计特点。11。对偶：一种人类的语言，这是指有两对是二次元素组成的各级物业设计功能。水平和两级各有自己的组织原则。12。排量：一种人类的语言，这意味着人类语言的设计特点，使他们的用户，象征着在目前的通信对象，事件和概念并不在时间和空间目前?。13。寒暄交流：人类语言的一种功能，它是指语言的社会互动。14。元语言：语言符号或特定的分析和研究方面的某些种类的描述。15。macrolinguistics：他的语言之间的相互作用，如心理学，社会学，人种学，法学和人工智能等门类的
英语语言学教程（胡壮麟版） Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. 1.What is language? “Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, “shu” in Ch inese. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 2.Design Features of Language. “Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability (1)Arbitrariness: By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. (2)Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. (3)Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. (4)Displacement: “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. (5)Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. (6)Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3.Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. (1)Phatic function: The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. (2)Directive function: The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer
第10章认知语言学 10.1 复习笔记 本章要点: 1. Cognitive linguistics 认知语言学 2. Categorization and categories 范畴化与范畴 3. Conceptual metaphor and metonymy 概念隐喻与转喻 4. Iconicity and grammaticalization 象似性与语法化 常考考点： 认知语言学定义；范畴化与范畴定义分类等；概念隐喻与转喻的定义，层次分类；象似性的分类以及语法化等。 本章内容索引： I. Definition of cognitive linguistics II. Categorization and categories
1. Definition of categorization 2. The classical theory 3. The prototype theory 4. Levels of categorization III. Conceptual metaphor and metonymy 1. Conceptual metaphor 2. Conceptual metonymy IV. Iconicity 1. Iconicity of order 2. Iconicity of distance 3. Iconicity of complexity V. Grammaticalization I. Definition of cognitive linguistics (认知语言学定义) 【考点：名词解释】 Cognitive linguistics is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information. 认知语言学是一种研究自然语言的方法，集中研究语言组织，处理与传达信息的作用。 II. Categorization and categories (范畴化与范畴) 1. Definition of categorization and categories (定义)
英语语言学教程(胡壮麟版) Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. 1. What is language? “ Languageis system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains a is explained by the fact that different languages have different “ books ”“:book ”in English, “ livre in” French, “shu” ii n eCseh. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “ human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 2. Design Features of Language. “ Design features ” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability (1) Arbitrariness: By “ arbitrariness ”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. (2) Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. (3) Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one?s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. (4) Displacement: “ Displacement ”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. (5) Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. (6) Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3. Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. (1) Phatic function: The “ phaticfunction r”efers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. (2) Directive function: The “ directive function ”thamt laenagnusage may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the res you finish. ” (3) Informative function: Language serves an “ informational function ”when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). (4) Interrogative function: When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “ interrogat
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第4章练习题参考答案Chapter 4 Syntax 1. What is syntax? Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. 2. What is phrase structure rule? The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule. The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows: NP →(Det) N (PP) ... VP →(Qual) V (NP) ... AP →(Deg) A (PP) ... PP →(Deg) P (NP) ... We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P. 3. What is category? How to determine a word's category? Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. 若详细回答，则要加上： Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving. The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.
语言学：It studies how speech sounds are produced,transmitted,and perceived.研究语音的发生、传递和感知 2. Articulatory phonetics发音语言学: the study of production of speechsounds.研究语言的发生 phonetics声学语言学：is the study of physical properties of speech sounds.研究语音的物质特征 or Auditory phonetics感知语音学或听觉语音学：is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.研究语音的感知 音系学is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.研究各种语言的语音模式和语音系统 6. IPA国际音标表: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet 变音符:are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.是与元音或辅音符号结合使用的一些附加符号或记号，用于表示元音或辅音在发音上的微小变化 辅音: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.声道紧闭，或声道变窄的程度达到无法 9. Vowl元音:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.气流可以相对不受阻碍的从口腔或鼻腔中排出
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Definition : linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is always guided by the three cannons of science:exhaustiveness, consistency and economy. Linguistics Linguistics versus traditional grammar: Scope Microlinguistics Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics Macrolinguistics Sociolinguistics Psycholinguistics Neurolinguistics Stylistics Discourse analysis Computational linguistics Cognitive linguistics Definition: Ding-Dong Theory: human speech developed from primitive man giving vocal expression to the objects he encountered. Sing-Song Theory: language developed from primitive ritual songs of praise. Pooh-Pooh Theory: language came from interjections, which express he speaker ’s emotions. Origins Yo-He-Ho Theory: language came from the cries uttered, during strain of work. Ta-Ta Theory : language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongues movements. Bow-Wow Theory: language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature. Design features Linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness while traditional grammar emphasizes correctness. Linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written while traditional grammar emphasizes the priority of written language. Traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages. Linguistics describes each language on its language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system---elements in it are not arranged and combined randomly, but according to some rules and principles. Language is arbitrary --- there is no intrinsic connection between the word . pen) and the thing. what we write with).Language is vocal---the primary medium for all languages is sound. Language is used for human communication ---it is human-specific, very different form Arbitrarines s: this refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, English should use the sounds/d?g/ to refer to the animal dog, but Chinese should use “gou ” to refer to te same animal. A dog may be called a pig if the first man happens to name it as a “pig ”. So, the relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental. Of course, onomatopoetic words such as “quack-quack ” and “bang ” are exceptions, but words these are relatively few compared withe the total number of words in language. Duality: language operates on two levels of structure. At one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. Productivity : productivity or creativity refers to man ’s linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before. Interchangeability : interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease. Displacement: displacement is a property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time. Specialization : specialization refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. Cultural transmission : language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity. A human being brought up in isolations simply doesn ’t acquire language, as is demonstrated by the studies of children brought up by animals without human contact. Animals transmit their cries simply from parent to child, while human baby doesn ’t speak any language at birth. What language a baby is going to speak