Chapter 8 The Instruments of Trade Policy
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Specific tariffs are
(a) import taxes stated in specific legal statutes.
(b) import taxes calculated as a fixed charge for each unit of imported goods.
(c) import taxes calculated as a fraction of the value of the imported goods.
(d) the same as import quotas.
(e) None of the above.
Answer: B
2. Ad valorem tariffs are
(a) import taxes stated in ads in industry publications.
(b) import taxes calculated as a fixed charge for each unit of imported goods.
(c) import taxes calculated as a fraction of the value of the imported goods.
(d) the same as import quotas
(e) None of the above.
Answer: C
3. The excess supply curve of a product we (H) import from foreign countries (F) increases as
(a) excess demand of country H increases.
(b) excess demand of country F increases.
(c) excess supply of country H increases.
(d) excess supply of country F increases.
(e) None of the above.
Answer: D
4. If a good is imported into (large) country H from country F, then the imposition of a tariff
in country H
(a) raises the price of the good in both countries (the “Law of One Price”).
(b) raises the price in country H and cannot affect its price in country F.
(c) lowers the price of the good in both countries.
(d) lowers the price of the good in H and could raise it in F.
(e) raises the price of the good in H and lowers it in F.
Answer: E
Chapter 8 The Instruments of Trade Policy 93 5. If a good is imported into (small) country H from country F, then the imposition of a tariff In
country H
(a) raises the price of the good in both countries (the “Law of One Price”).
(b) raises the price in country H and does not affect its price in country F.
(c) lowers the price of the good in both countries.
(d) lowers the price of the good in H and could raise it in F.
(e) raises the price of the good in H and lowers it in F.
Answer: B
6. If a good is imported into (large) country H from country F, then the imposition of a tariff in country
H in the presence of the Metzler Paradox,
(a) raises the price of the good in both countries (the “Law of One Price”).
(b) raises the price in country H and cannot affect its price in country F.
(c) lowers the price of the good in both countries.
(d) lowers the price of the good in H and could raise it in F.
(e) raises the price of the good in H and lowers it in F.
Answer: C
7. The effective rate of protection measures
(a) the “true” ad valorum value of a tariff.
(b) the quota equivalent value of a tariff.
(c) the efficiency with which the tariff is collected at the customhouse.
(d) the protection given by the tariff to domestic value added.
(e) None of the above.
Answer: D
8. If the tariff on computers is not changed, but domestic computer producers shift from domestically
produced semiconductors to imported components, then the effective rate of protection in the
computer industry will
(a) increase.
(b) decrease
(c) remain the same.
(d) depend on whether computers are PCs or “Supercomputers.”
(e) None of the above.
Answer: A
9. If the tariff on computers is not changed, but the government then adds hitherto nonexistent tariffs
on imported semi-conductor components, then the effective rate of protection in the computer
industry will
(a) increase.
(b) decrease
(c) remain the same.
(d) depend on whether computers are PCs or “Supercomputers.”
(e) None of the above.
Answer: B
10. If a small country imposes a tariff, then
(a) the producers must suffer a loss.
(b) the consumers must suffer a loss.
(c) the government revenue must suffer a loss.
(d) the demand curve must shift to the left.
(e) None of the above.
Answer: B
11. If a large country imposes a tariff, then
(a) the producers must suffer a loss.
(b) the consumers must suffer a loss.
(c) the government revenue must suffer a loss.
(d) the demand curve must shift to the left.
(e) None of the above.
Answer: E
12. The imposition of tariffs on imports results in deadweight (triangle) losses. These are
(a) production and consumption distortion effects.
(b) redistribution effects.
(c) revenue effects
(d) efficiency effects.
(e) None of the above.
Answer: E
13. Suppose the United States eliminates its tariff on ball bearings used in producing exports. Ball
bearing prices in the United States would be expected to
(a) increase, and the foreign demand for U.S. exports would increase.
(b) decrease, and the foreign demand for U.S. exports would increase.
(c) increase, and the foreign demand for U.S. exports would decrease.
(d) decrease, and the foreign demand for U.S. exports would decrease.
(e) None of the above.
Answer: C
14. A specific tariff provides home producers more protection when
(a) the home market buys cheaper products rather than expensive products.
(b) it is applied to a commodity with many grade variations.
(c) the home demand for a good is elastic with respect to price changes.
(d) it is levied on manufactured goods rather than primary products.
(e) None of the above.
Answer: A
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Chapter 8 The Instruments of Trade Policy 93
15. A lower tariff on imported steel would most likely benefit
(a) foreign producers at the expense of domestic consumers.
(b) domestic manufacturers of steel.
(c) domestic consumers of steel.
(d) workers in the steel industry.
(e) None of the above.
Answer: C
16. When a government allows raw materials and other intermediate products to enter a country duty
free, this generally results in a(an)
(a) effective tariff rate less than the nominal tariff rate.
(b) nominal tariff rate less than the effective tariff rate.
(c) rise in both nominal and effective tariff rates.
(d) fall in both nominal and effective tariff rates.
(e) None of the above.
Answer: B
17. Of the many arguments in favor of tariffs, the one that has enjoyed significant economic justification
has been the
(a) cheap foreign labor argument.
(b) infant industry argument.
(c) even playing field argument.
(d) balance of payments argument
(e) domestic living standard argument.
Answer: B
18. The main redistribution effect of a tariff is the transfer of income from
(a) domestic producers to domestic buyers.
(b) domestic buyers to domestic producers.
(c) domestic producers to domestic government.
(d) domestic government to domestic consumers.
(e) None of the above.
Answer: B
19. The principle benefit of tariff protection goes to
(a) domestic consumers of the good produced.
(b) foreign consumers of the good produced.
(c) domestic producers of the good produced.
(d) foreign producers of the good produced.
(e) None of the above.
Answer: C
20. As globalization tends to increase the proportion of imported inputs relative to domestically supplied
components,
(a) the nominal tariff automatically increases.
(b) the rate of (effective) protection automatically decreases.
(c) the nominal tariff automatically decreases.
(d) the rate of (effective) protection automatically increases.
(e) None of the above.
Answer: D
21. Which of the following policies permits a specified quantity of goods to be imported at one tariff
rate and a higher tariff rate to imports above this quantity?
(a) Import tariff
(b) Voluntary exports restraint
(c) Tariff quota
(d) Ad valorum tariff
(e) None of the above.
Answer: C
22. Should the home country be “large” relative to its trade partners, its imposition of a tariff on imports
would lead to an increase in domestic welfare if the terms of the trade rectangle exceed the sum of the
(a) revenue effect plus redistribution effect.
(b) protective effect plus revenue effect.
(c) consumption effect plus redistribution effect.
(d) protective distortion effect plus consumption distortion effect.
(e) None of the above.
Answer: D
23. A problem encountered when implementing an “infant industry” tariff is that
(a) domestic consumers will purchase the foreign good regardless of the tariff.
(b) the industry may never “mature.”
(c) most industries require tariff protection when they are mature.
(d) the tariff may hurt the industry’s domestic sales.
(e) None of the above.
Answer: B
24. Which of the following is a fixed percentage of the value of an imported product?
(a) Specific tariff
(b) Ad valorem tariff
(c) Nominal tariff
(d) Effective protection tariff
(e) None of the above.
Answer: B
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Chapter 8 The Instruments of Trade Policy 93
25. A tax of 20 cents per unit of imported garlic is an example of a(n)
(a) specific tariff.
(b) ad valorem tariff.
(c) nominal tariff.
(d) effective protection tariff.
(e) None of the above.
Answer: A
26. A tax of 20 percent per unit of imported garlic is an example of a(n)
(a) specific tariff.
(b) ad valorem tariff.
(c) nominal tariff.
(d) effective protection tariff.
(e) None of the above.
Answer: B
27. Which type of tariff is forbidden in the United States on Constitutional grounds?
(a) Import tariff
(b) Export tariff
(c) Specific tariff
(d) Prohibitive tariff
(e) None of the above.
Answer: B
28. The deadweight loss of a tariff
(a) is a social loss because it promotes inefficient use of national resources.
(b) is a social loss because it reduces the revenue of the government.
(c) is not a social loss because it merely redistributes revenue from one sector to another.
(d) is not a social loss bacuase it is paid for by rich corporations.
(e) None of the above.
Answer: A
29. Tariffs are not defended on the ground that they
(a) improve the terms of trade of foreign nations.
(b) protect jobs and reduce unemployment.
(c) promote growth and development of young industries.
(d) prevent over-dependence of a country on only a few industries.
(e) None of the above.
Answer: A
30. The most vocal political pressure for tariffs is generally made by
(a) consumers lobbying for export tariffs.
(b) consumers lobbying for import tariffs.
(c) consumers lobbying for lower import tariffs.
(d) producers lobbying for export tariffs.
(e) producers lobbying for import tariffs.
Answer: E
31. A policy of tariff reduction in the computer industry is
(a) in the interest of the United States as a whole and in the interest of computer producing regions
of the country.
(b) in the interest of United States as a whole but not in the interest of computer producing regions
of the country.
(c) not in the interest of the United States as a whole but in the interests of computer producing
regions of the country.
(d) not in the interest of the United States as a whole and not in the interests of computer consumers.
(e) None of the above.
Answer: B
32. The fact that industrialized countries levy very low or no tariff on raw materials and semi processed
goods
(a) helps developing countries export manufactured products.
(b) has no effect on developing country exports.
(c) hurts developing country efforts to export manufactured goods.
(d) hurts developing country efforts to export raw materials.
(e) None of the above.
Answer: C
33. The Metzler Paradox
(a) explains why the United States uses both specific and ad valorum tariffs.
(b) explains why the United States uses many none-tariff barriers to imports.
(c) refers to the fact that the United States exported labor-intensive goods.
(d) is not considered to be of practical application in the real world.
(e) None of the above.
Answer: D
34. The Metzler Paradox
(a) could theoretically happen when a small country levies a tariff.
(b) refers to a situation when an Optimal Tariff hurts a country’s economic welfare.
(c) refers to a situation when the imposition of a tariff lowers domestic prices.
(d) refers to a situation when the imposition of a tariff helps foreign exporters.
(e) None of the above.
Answer: C
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Chapter 8 The Instruments of Trade Policy 93
35. An Optimal Tariff
(a) could theoretically happen when a small country levies a tariff.
(b) refers to a situation when a tariff hurts a country’s economic welfare.
(c) refers to a situation when the imposition of a tariff lowers domestic prices.
(d) refers to a situation when the imposition of a tariff helps foreign exporters.
(e) None of the above.
Answer: E
36. An Optimal Tariff is considered unlikely to be observed in the real world because of
(a) The Metzler Paradox.
(b) it is practically impossible to define optimality in trade policy terms.
(c) the likelihood of foreign repercussions.
(d) real countries are considered to be “small” in the world trade context.
(e) None of the above.
Answer: C
37. In an inflationary environment, then over time
(a) A specific tariff will tend to raise more revenue than an ad valorum tariff.
(b) An ad valorum tariff will tend to raise more revenue than a specific tariff
(c) An optimum tariff will tend to raise more revenue than an escalating tariff
(d) A tariff quota will tend to raise more revenue than a specific tariff.
(e) None of the above
Answer: B
38. The imposition of tariffs will help a nation attain which of the following goals?
(a) Decreased domestic consumer prices
(b) Increased domestic employment
(c) Increased amount and variety of goods available for consumers
(d) Increased competition between domestic and foreign producers
(e) None of the above
Answer: E
39. Tariff rates on products imported into the U.S.
(a) have dropped substantially over the past 50 years.
(b) were prohibited by the constitution
(c) reached an all time high in 2002.
(d) have risen steadily since 1920
(e) None of the above
Answer: A
40. What is a true statement concerning the imposition in the U.S. of a tariff on steel?
(a) It lowers the price of cheese domestically
(b) It raises the price of cheese internationally
(c) It raises revenue for the government
(d) It will always result in retaliation from abroad
(e) None of the above
Answer: C
41. An important difference between tariffs and quotas is that tariffs
(a) raise the price of the good
(b) generate tax revenue for the government
(c) stimulate international trade
(d) help domestic producers
(e) None of the above
Answer: B
Essay Questions
1. Economic theory in general, and trade theory in particular are replete with equivalencies. For
example, it is argued that for any specific tariff one can find an equivalent ad valorum tariff; and that for any quota one can calculate a tariff equivalent. Discuss conditions or situations under which a specific and an ad valorum tariff are not equivalent. Discuss conditions or situations when a tariff and a quota are not equivalent.
Answer: E.g., during a period of price inflation, an ad valorum tariff would become increasingly more effective. The government does not receive any of the quota revenues, unless the
import licenses are sold or auctioned.
2. The Metzler Paradox is a special case of the optimum tariff concept. Discuss this assertion. Would
the optimum tariff tend to be a high one or a low one in the case where this paradox exists? What conditions would be needed in the international ma rkets for a country’s exports for this paradox to exist? Why do you suppose empirical support for the existence of this paradox has not been
forthcoming to date?
Answer: The Metzler Paradox describes an unlikely situation in which the imposition of a tariff not only improves a country’s welfare, but also improves that of its domestic consumers. If
this paradox were present then the magnitude of the optimum tariff would tend to be large,
since the welfare decreasing decrease in imports is not present in this case (the imports
actually increase, as world prices drastically drop). The Metzler Paradox could occur only
if the foreign offer curves are inelastic. It is not likely to be observed because trade
elasticities tend to be relatively large. Also, were it to exist, its activation by a large
country would tend to evoke foreign retaliation.
3. Some argue that tariffs always hurt the imposing country’s economic welfare, and are typically
designed to shift resources from one sector to another, protected or preferred one, within an
economy. Find and discuss a counterexample to this argument.
Answer: The optimum tariff is theoretically a first-best trade policy.
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Chapter 8 The Instruments of Trade Policy 93 4. The effective rate of protection is a weighted average of nominal tariffs and tariffs on imported
inputs. It has been noted that in most industrialized countries, the nominal tariffs on raw materials or intermediate components or products are lower than on final-stage products meant for final markets.
Why would countries design their tariff structures in this manner? Who tends to be helped, and who is harmed by this cascading tariff structure?
Answer: The cascading tariff structure is probably the result of systematic lobbying on the part of manufacturing interests and lobbies to lower costs of production (in terms of imported
inputs). The end result is in fact to create effective rates of protection for downstream, or
final manufacturing processes that are often much higher than nominal tariffs on these
products. An important group, which is hurt by this are exporters of raw materials and
components in developing countries.
5. The two deadweight triangles are the Consumption distortion and Production distortion losses. It is
easy to understand why the Consumption distortion constitutes a loss for society. After all it raises the prices of goods to consumers, and even causes some consumers to drop out of the market
altogether. It seems paradoxical that the Production distortion is considered an equivalent burden on society. After all, in this case, profits increase, and additional production (with its associated
employment) comes on line. This would seem to be an offset rather than an addition to the burden or loss borne by society. Explain why the Production distortion is indeed a loss to society, and what is wrong with the logic that leads to the apparent paradox.
Answer: The Production Distortion represents an inefficient shift of society’s resources to produce
a good, which it could not sell profitably at world prices. Since (with full employment
assumed) these resources were formerly used to produce export goods, which could
compete profitably, the net result is a loss in real income to the country.
6. It is argued that a tariff may help promote employment in a single industry, but is not likely to help
employment in general. Discuss.
Answer: A general tariff on all imports is equivalent to a depreciation in the value of the country’s currency. It would raise the prices of all imports, and have a considerable income effect.
This income effect will have a negative effect on total consumption of the import-
competing sector (as well as the exportables and non-tradables). In addition, under
conditions of a flexible exchange rate regime (assuming the Marshal-Lerner Conditions
hold) it will lower the supply of the country’s currency in the foreign exchange market,
and hence cause an appreciation of the currency. This will harm the country’s exports, and
negatively affect this sector’s employment.
Quantitative/Graphing Problems
consume?
Answer: 60
2. In the absence of trade what is the country’s consumer plus producer surplus?
Answer: $180, $180
3. With free trade and no tariffs, what is the quantity of Widgets imported?
Answer: 100
4. With a specific tariff of $3 per unit, what is the quantity of Widget imports?
Answer: 80
5. The loss of Consumer Surplus due to the tariff equals
Answer: $230
6. The lowest specific tariff which would be considered prohibitive is
Answer: $5
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第1篇国际贸易理论 第2章世界贸易概览 2.1复习笔记 1．经济规模与进出口总额之间的关系 （1）规模问题：引力模型 现实证明一国的经济规模与其进出口总额息息相关。把整个世界贸易看成整体，可利用引力模型（gravity model）来预测任意两国之间的贸易规模。引力模型方程式如下： 其中， T是i国与j国的贸易额，A为常量，i Y是i国的国内生产总值，j Y是j国的国 ij 内生产总值， D是两国的距离。引力模型方程式表明：其他条件不变的情况下，两国间的 ij 贸易规模与两国的GDP成正比，与两国间的距离成反比。 （2）引力模型的内在逻辑 引力模型之所以能较好地拟合两国之间的实际贸易现状，其原因在于：大的经济体收入高，因而大量进口产品；大的经济体能生产更多品种的系列产品，因而更能满足其他国家的需求，进而大量出口产品。在两国贸易中，任一方的经济规模越大，则双方的贸易量就越大。 （3）引力模型的应用：寻找反例 当两国之间的贸易量与依照引力模型计算得出的结果相差较大时，就需要从其他因素进行分析，如文化的亲和性、地理位置、运输成本等因素。事实上，这也是引力模型的重要用
途之一，即有助于明确国际贸易中的异常现象。 （4）贸易障碍：距离、壁垒和疆界 距离、壁垒和疆界对国际贸易有负面作用，会使得两国之间的贸易额大大小于根据引力模型所计算出的结果。另外，在各国GDP和距离给定的情况下，有效贸易协定（trade agreement）比无效的贸易协定更能显著增加成员国的贸易量，这也是美国与其邻国的贸易量明显大于其和相同大小的欧盟的贸易量的原因之一。 2．正在演变的世界贸易模式 （1）世界变小了吗？ 人们认为，现代化的运输和通讯可以超越空间距离的束缚，世界因此成了小“村落”。事实的确如此。但是，有时候政治的力量可以超过技术进步的作用，两次世界大战、20世纪30年代的大萧条及战后全世界范围内的贸易保护主义等都严重制约着国际贸易的发展，使得国际贸易大幅萎缩，并且用了几十年才得以恢复。 （2）交易内容 从全世界范围来看，工业制成品是主要的交换产品，所占比重最大。矿产品特别是现代世界不可或缺的石油依旧是世界贸易的主要部分。引人注目的是发展中国家已经从初级产品出口国转变为主要的制成品出口国。另外，服务贸易在国际贸易中凸显重要，并且其重要性越来越突出。 （3）服务外包 随着现代信息技术的发展和应用，一种新的贸易形式——服务外包（service outsourcing）随之出现。服务外包也称之为离岸服务，是一种新兴的国际贸易现象，使得曾经必须在一国国内实现的服务现在可以在国外实现。 （4）旧规则依然可行吗？
Chapter 1 Introduction Multiple Choice Questions Historians of economic thought often describe ___________ written by _______ and published in __________ as the first real exposition of an economic model. “Of the Balance of Trade,” David Hume, 1776 “Wealth of Nations,” David Hume, 1758 “Wealth of Nations,” Adam Smith, 1758 “Wealth of Nations,” Adam Smith, 1776 “Of the Balance of Trade,” David Hume, 1758 Answer: E From 1959 to 2000, the U.S. economy roughly tripled in size. U.S. imports roughly tripled in size. the share of US Trade in the economy roughly tripled in size. U.S. Imports roughly tripled as compared to U.S. exports. U.S. exports roughly tripled in size. Answer: C The United States is less dependent on trade than most other countries because the United States is a relatively large country. the United States is a “Superpower.” the military power of the United States makes it less dependent on anything. the United States invests in many other countries. many countries invest in the United States. Answer: A Ancient theories of international economics from the 18th and 19th Centuries are: not relevant to current policy analysis. are only of moderate relevance in today’s modern international economy. are highly relevant in today’s modern internationa l economy. are the only theories that actually relevant to modern international economy. are not well understood by modern mathematically oriented theorists. Answer: C
绝对优势：是指以各国生产成本的绝对差异为基础进行的国际专业化分工，并通过自由贸易获得利益的一种国际贸易理论。 李嘉图模型：是一个单一要素模型，劳动是唯一的生产要素，劳动生产率的差异是不同国家各个产业部门之间唯一的不同之处，也是决定国际贸易的唯一因素。李嘉图模型的中心含义是如果每个国家都能够专门生产并出口本国劳动生产率较高的产品，那么他们之间的贸易就会给每个国家带来利益，他的两个核心含义：劳动生产率的差异在国际贸易中占据重要地位和贸易模式取决于比较优势而非绝对优势，至今仍能得到事实支持。 机会成本：是指因一种选择而放弃的最有替换物或失去最好机会的价值，即是指经济决策中影由中选的最优方案负担的，按所放弃的次优方案潜在收益计算的那部分资源损失。 要素比例理论/赫克歇尔俄林理论：是指从资源禀赋角度对国际贸易中的生产成本和价格的差异做出解释的国际贸易理论。其内容是：各国的贸易源于不同国家之间商品的价格存在差异，而价格差异的原因在于不同国家之间的生产成本有高有低，生产成本的高低是因为各国生产要素价格有差别，生产要素价格的差异又与各国生产要素丰裕程度密切相关。生产要素丰裕，其商品价格自认就相对低一些，生产要素稀缺，其价格相对高一些。生产要素丰裕度的差异是国际贸易产生的根本原因。 出口偏向性增长：是指一国的经济增长主要源于出口产品生产能力提高的经济增长方式，表现在生产可能性边界上就是使生产可能性边界扩张偏向出口产品。 福利恶化性增长：是指一国整体福利水平恶化的经济增长方式，是发展中国家的出口偏向型增长在严格假定下可能出现的一种极端情况。一国的出口偏向性增长可能导致该国的贸易条件恶化。因此，如果一国的经济增长方式表现为极强的出口偏向性，那么贸易条件恶化带来的负面影响就会抵消生产力提高带来的正面效应，使得该国整体的福利水平恶化。 出口补贴：是指国家为了降低出口商品的价格，提高其在国际上的竞争力，对出口商品给予的现金或财政上的补贴。 动态收益递增：成本随着累计产量下降而并非随着当前劳动生产率的上升而下降的情形就是动态收益递增 倾销：出口商以低于国内市场价格的价格，甚至以低于成本的价格在国际市场上销售商品的行为。 外部规模经济是指整个行业规模和产量的扩大而使单个企业平均成本下降或收益增加的经济现象。 边际收益：在生产的技术水平和其他投入要素的数量均保持不变情况下，新增加一个单位的某种投入要素所引起的产量的增加量。 幼稚工业论：认为新兴工业在发展初期需要国家提供保护以免在外国强大的竞争下夭折，并随着新兴工业的发展和竞争力的增强而逐步取消贸易保护，为自由贸易的实行创造条件。垄断竞争：介于完全竞争和完全垄断之间的一种市场结构，这种结构下既存在垄断，又存在竞争。 价格歧视：一家企业在销售同样的商品时，对不同的顾客索取不同价格的做法 完全垄断：完全排斥竞争的一种市场结构。 内部规模经济：单个企业生产规模不断扩大时，由其自身内部引起的平均成本不断下降，收益不断增加的经济现象。 相互倾销：不同国家生产同种或类似产品的厂商都对出口产品制定一个低于国内市场价的价格并进行双向贸易的现象。 行业内贸易：在国际贸易活动中，不同国家之间就同一产业的产品所进行的贸易。
C h a p t e r7I n t e r n a t i o n a l F a c t o r M o v e m e n t s Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which of the following differs in its essential analytical framework (a) I nternational trade in goods (b) I nternational conflict resolution (c) I nternational trade in services (d) I nternational trade in factors of production (e) I nternational borrowing and lending Answer: B 2. The slope of the production function measures (a) t he physical increase in output as country grows. (b) t he dollar-value increase in output as a country grows. (c) t he increase in number of workers as immigration proceeds. (d) t he marginal product of labor. (e) t he marginal product of capital.
Answer: D 3. International free labor mobility will under all circumstances (a) i ncrease total world output. (b) i mprove the economic welfare of everyone. (c) i mprove the economic welfare of workers everywhere. (d) i mprove the economic welfare of landlords (or capital owners) everywhere. (e) N one of the above. Answer: E 4. If the world attained a perfect Heckscher-Ohlin model equilibrium with trade, then (a) w orkers in the labor abundant country would migrate to the capital abundant country. (b) w orkers in the labor abundant country would wish to migrate to the capital abundant country. (c) w orkers in the labor abundant country would have no desire to migrate to the capital abundant country.
Chapter 1 Introduction ?Chapter Organization What Is International Economics About? The Gains from Trade The Pattern of Trade How Much Trade? Balance of Payments Exchange Rate Determination International Policy Coordination The International Capital Market International Economics: Trade and Money ?Chapter Overview The intent of this chapter is to provide both an overview of the subject matter of international economics and to provide a guide to the organization of the text. It is relatively easy for an instructor to motivate the study of international trade and finance. The front pages of newspapers, the covers of magazines, and the lead reports on television news broadcasts herald the interdependence of the U.S. economy with the rest of the world. This interdependence may also be recognized by students through their purchases of imports of all sorts of goods, their personal observations of the effects of dislocations due to international competition, and their experience through travel abroad. The study of the theory of international economics generates an understanding of many key events that shape our domestic and international environment. In recent history, these events include the causes and consequences of the large current account deficits of the United States; the dramatic appreciation of the dollar during the first half of the 1980s followed by its rapid depreciation in the second half of the 1980s; the Latin American debt crisis of the 1980s and the Mexican crisis in late 1994; and the increased pressures for industry protection against foreign competition broadly voiced in the late 1980s and more vocally espoused in the first half of the 1990s. The financial crisis that began in East Asia in 1997 and spread to many countries around the globe and the Economic and Monetary Union in Europe highlighted the way in which various national economies are linked and how important it is for us to understand these connections. These global linkages have been highlighted yet again with the rapid spread of the financial crisis in the United States to the rest of the world. At the same time, protests at global economic meetings and a rising wave of protectionist rhetoric have highlighted opposition to globalization. The text material will enable students to understand the economic context in which such events occur. ? 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Addison-Wesley
1. 在古典贸易模型中，假设A 国有120名劳动力，B 国有50名劳动力，如果生产棉花的话，A 国的人均产量是2吨，B 国也是2吨；要是生产大米的话，A 国的人均产量是10吨，B 国则是16吨。画出两国的生产可能性曲线并分析两国中哪一国拥有生产大米的绝对优势？哪一国拥有生产大米的比较优势？ 思路：B 国由于每人能生产16吨大米，而A 国每人仅生产10吨大米，所以B 国具有生产大米的绝对优 势。 从两国生产可能性曲线看出A 国生产大米的机会成本为，而B 国为，所以B 国生产大米的机会成本或相对成 本低于A 国，B 国生产大米具有比较优势。 2.下表列出了加拿大和中国生产1单位计算机和1单位小麦所需的劳动时间。假定生产计算机和小麦都只用劳动，加拿大的总劳动为600小时，中国总劳动为800小时。 （1） 计算不发生贸易时各国生产计算机和小麦的产量。 （2） 哪个国家具有生产计算机的比较优势？哪个国家具有生产小麦的比较优势？ （3） 如果给定世界价格是1单位计算机交换22单位的小麦，加拿大参与贸易可以从每单位的进 口中节省多少劳动时间？中国可以从每单位进口中节省多少劳动时间？如果给定世界价格是1 单位计算机交换24单位的小麦，加拿大和中国分别可以从进口每单位的货物中节省多少劳动 时间？ （4） 在自由贸易的情况下，各国应生产什么产品，数量是多少？整个世界的福利水平是提高还是 降低了？试用图分析。（以效用水平来衡量福利水平） 思路： （1） 中国生产计算机的机会成本为100/4=25，加拿大为60/3=20 （2） 因为加拿大生产计算机的机会成本比中国低，所以加拿大具有生产者计算机的比较优势，中国就具有生 产小麦的比较优势。 （3） 如果各国按照比较优势生产和出口，加拿大进口小麦出口计算机，中国进口计算机出口小麦。 加拿大进口一单位小麦需要出口1/22单位计算机，折合成劳动时间来算，生产一单位小麦本国要用3小 时，但生产1/22单位计算机本国要用60/22小时劳动，所以加拿大进口一单位小麦相当于用60/22小时 的劳动换回本国3小时生产的产品，节省了3-60/22=3/11小时的劳动时间。中国进口一单位计算机需要 出口22单位小麦，相当于用22*4=88小时的劳动换回本国需用100小时生产的产品，节省了100-88=12 小时的劳动时间。 如果世界价格是1单位计算机交换24单位的小麦，则相当于用60/24小时的劳动换回本国3小时生产的 产品，节省了3-60/24=1/2小时的劳动时间。中国进口一单位计算机需要出口24单位小麦，相当于用 24*4=96小时的劳动换回本国需用100小时生产的产品，节省了100-96=4小时的劳动时间。 （4） 在自由贸易的情况下，加拿大应专业生产计算机，数量为600/60=10单位；中国应专业生产小麦，数量 为800/4=200单位。 中国的福利水平从U 01上升到U 11，加拿大的福利水平从U 02上升到U 12，整个世界的福利水平上升了。 3. 假定中国总劳动为600小时，生产每单位钢铁Y 需要4小时，而生产每单位大米X 需要2小时，用图画出：
Chapter 3 1．Home has 1200 units of labor available. It can produce two goods, apples and bananas. The unit labor requirement in apple production is 3, while in banana production it is 2. a ．Graph out the production possibilities frontier: b ．What is the opportunity cost of apples in terms of bananas? 5.1=Lb La a a c ．In the absence of trade, what would the price of apples in terms of bananas be? In the absence of trade, since labor is the only factor of production and supply decisions are determined by the attempts of individuals to maximize their earnings in a competitive economy, only when Lb La b a /a a /P P =will both goods be produced. So 1.5 /P P b a = 2．Home is as described in problem 1. There is now also another country, Foreign, with a labor force of 800. Foreign ’s unit labor requirement in apple production is 5, while in banana production it is 1. a ．Graph Foreign ’s production possibilities frontier: b ．Construct the world relative supply curve. Home's PPF 0200400600800 200400600800Q apple Q banana Foreign's PPF 02004006008001000 80160240320400Q*apple Q*banana
1?在古典贸易模型中，假设A国有120名劳动力，B国有50名劳动力，如果生产棉花的话，A国的人均产量是2吨，B国也是2吨；要是生产大米的话，A国的人均产量是10吨，B国则是16吨。画出两国的生产可能性曲线并分析两国中哪一国拥有生产大米的绝对优势？哪一国拥有生产大米的比较优势？ 思路：B国由于每人能生产16吨大米，而A国每人仅生产10吨大米，所以B国具有生产大米的绝对优势。 从两国生产可能性曲线看出A国生产大米的机会成本为0.2，而B国为0.125，所以B国生产大米的机会成 本或相对成本低于A国，B国生产大米具有比较优势。 2. 下表列出了加拿大和中国生产1单位计算机和1单位小麦所需的劳动时间。假定生产计算机和小麦都只用劳动，加拿大的总劳动为600小时，中国总劳动为800小时。 （1）计算不发生贸易时各国生产计算机和小麦的产量。 （2）哪E个国家具有生产计算机的比较优势？哪个国家具有生产小麦的比较优势？ （3）如果给定世界价格是1单位计算机交换22单位的小麦，加拿大参与贸易可以从每单位的进口中节省多少劳动时间？中国可以从每单位进口中节省多少劳动时间？如果给定世界价格是1单位计算机交换24单位的小麦，加拿大和中国分别可以从进口每单位的货物中节省多少劳动时 间？ （4）在自由贸易的情况下，各国应生产什么产品，数量是多少？整个世界的福利水平是提高还是降低了？试用图分析。（以效用水平来衡量福利水平） 思路： （1）中国生产计算机的机会成本为100/4=25，加拿大为60/3=20 （2）因为加拿大生产计算机的机会成本比中国低，所以加拿大具有生产者计算机的比较优势，中国就具有生产小麦的比较优势。 （3）如果各国按照比较优势生产和出口，加拿大进口小麦出口计算机，中国进口计算机出口小麦。 加拿大进口一单位小麦需要出口1/22单位计算机，折合成劳动时间来算，生产一单位小麦本国要用3小时，但生产1/22单位计算机本国要用60/22小时劳动，所以加拿大进口一单位小麦相当于用60/22小时的劳动换回本国3 小时生产的产品，节省了3-60/22=3/11小时的劳动时间。中国进口一单位计算机需要 出口22单位小麦，相当于用22*4=88小时的劳动换回本国需用100小时生产的产品，节省了100-88=12 小时的 劳动时间。 如果世界价格是1单位计算机交换24单位的小麦，贝肪目当于用60/24小时的劳动换回本国3小时生产的产品， 节省了3-60/24=1/2 小时的劳动时间。中国进口一单位计算机需要出口24单位小麦，相当于用 24*4=96小时的劳动换回本国需用100小时生产的产品，节省了100-96=4小时的劳动时间。 （4）在自由贸易的情况下，加拿大应专业生产计算机，数量为600/60=10单位；中国应专业生产小麦，数量为800/4=200 单位。 中国的福利水平从1°1上升到U11，加拿大的福利水平从『2上升到U12,整个世界的福利水平上升了
Chapter 7 International Factor Movements Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which of the following differs in its essential analytical framework? (a) International trade in goods (b) International conflict resolution (c) International trade in services (d) International trade in factors of production (e) International borrowing and lending Answer: B 2. The slope of the production function measures (a) the physical increase in output as country grows. (b) the dollar-value increase in output as a country grows. (c) the increase in number of workers as immigration proceeds. (d) the marginal product of labor. (e) the marginal product of capital. Answer: D 3. International free labor mobility will under all circumstances (a) increase total world output. (b) improve the economic welfare of everyone. (c) improve the economic welfare of workers everywhere. (d) improve the economic welfare of landlords (or capital owners) everywhere. (e) None of the above. Answer: E 4. If the world attained a perfect Heckscher-Ohlin model equilibrium with trade, then (a) workers in the labor abundant country would migrate to the capital abundant country. (b) workers in the labor abundant country would wish to migrate to the capital abundant country. (c) workers in the labor abundant country would have no desire to migrate to the capital abundant country. (d) workers in the capital abundant country would wish to migrate to the labor abundant country. (e) workers in the capital abundant country would migrate to the labor abundant country. Answer: C
第二章 1.引力模型P13：在其他条件不变的情况下（假设任何影响两国之间的贸易的因素不变），两国间的贸易规模和两国的GDP成正比，与两国间的距离成反比。 2.行业内贸易P141：指某一行业内差异产品之间的双向贸易，它反映出规模经济。 3.行业间贸易P141：指的是一个行业的产品与另一个行业产品的交换，它反映出比较优势。 4.配额租金P184：许可证持有者能够从外国购买进口品并在国内以高价出售，他们获取的利润就是配额租金。 第三章结合第四章看（着重看理论推理） 论述：课本知识+自己观点 李嘉图模型 比较优势认为国际贸易产生的原因李嘉图的比较优势 李嘉图模型的假设是：假设劳动是唯一的生产要素 李嘉图模型认为国际间的劳动生产率的不同是国际贸易的唯一决定因素 生产效率的不同导致了比较优势的不同 结论：一个国家应该出口有比较优势的产品，进口有国内优势的产品，有这样的一个原理去支撑国际贸易产生，也就是说李嘉图模型也是在探讨国际贸易产生的原因 要素禀赋模型 与李嘉图模型的区别和原因是：区分两者共同的基础：（1）、李嘉图（第三章） （2）、要素禀赋，原则：国际顺序：？首先，说说要素禀赋理论的结论：认为一个国家应该如何参与国际贸易，认为各国间的资源差异（各国要素差异度，差异水平）是产生（国际）贸易的唯一原因（李嘉图模型）生产效率不同比较优势不同国际贸易 （要素禀赋理论）要素禀赋的差异（不一样）要素价格（不一样） 相对价格（不一样） 认为现在中国也还在参与国际贸易，那么她的比较优势和要素禀赋理论哪一个理论更贴近 第三章 1.单一要素P27：衡量生产效益：单位产品所需要的投入要素A本国生产每单位产品所需要的劳动为5单位，B外国需要3单位，同种产品相对而言外国更有效率，具有比较优势（李嘉图模型不可单独写这个） 2.比较优势P30（通过这种形式分析本国该进口或出口什么）假设： a LC/a LW Chapter 6 Economies of Scale, Imperfect Competition, and International Trade Multiple Choice Questions 1. External economies of scale arise when the cost per unit (a) rises as the industry grows larger. (b) falls as the industry grows larger rises as the average firm grows larger. (c) falls as the average firm grows larger. (d) remains constant. (e) None of the above. Answer: B 2. Internal economies of scale arise when the cost per unit (a) rises as the industry grows larger. (b) falls as the industry grows larger. (c) rises as the average firm grows larger. (d) falls as the average firm grows larger. (e) None of the above. Answer: D 3. External economies of scale (a) may be associated with a perfectly competitive industry. (b) cannot be associated with a perfectly competitive industry. (c) tends to result in one huge monopoly. (d) tends to result in large profits for each firm. (e) None of the above. Answer: A 4. Internal economies of scale (a) may be associated with a perfectly competitive industry. (b) cannot be associated with a perfectly competitive industry. (c) are associated only with sophisticated products such as aircraft. (d) cannot form the basis for international trade. (e) None of the above. Answer: B 《国际经济学》课件内容 第一章传统贸易理论及其现代分析 第一节传统国际贸易理论的演化 一、重商主义的贸易观点 国际贸易理论起源于17世纪欧洲资本原始积累时期的重商主义学说。重商主义学说的核心是其对财富的看法，他们把金银货币看作是财富的唯一形态，是一切经济活动的目的。重商主义认为，由于对外贸易可以使一国从国外获得金银从而使财富增加。因此国家必须积极干预经济生活，鼓励出口、限制进口，以保证金银货币的流入和社会财富的增长。重商主义学说又分为“货币差额论”和“贸易差额论”。 二、斯密的绝对优势理论斯密在批评重商主义观点的基础上，提出国际分工和绝对优势理论，用来解释国际贸易的基础。他认为国际贸易之所以发生，原因在于各国在生产技术进而产品成本上存在着绝对差异。当一国相对另一国在某种商品的生产上有更高效率（即有绝对优势），但在另一种商品的生产上效率更低（即有绝对劣势），那么两国就可以专门生产自己具有绝对优势的产品并进行相互交换，其结果将使双方均能从贸易中获益。因此，斯密反对国家干预经济生活，主张自由贸易。李嘉图的比较优势理论 李嘉图出的比较优势理论认为：在两国生产两种产品的条件下，即使一国由于技术原因在两种商品的生产上比另一国都处于劣势（即没有绝对优势），但只要这两种商品生产的劣势存在着程度上的差异，它仍然可以通过参与国际贸易获利。该国可以专门生产和出口绝对劣势相对较小的商品（即该国具有比较优势的商品），同时进口绝对劣势相对较大的商品（即该国具有比较劣势的产品）。比较优势成为贸易的基础，大大拓展了国际贸易的可能性和范围。穆勒的相互需求理论 穆勒在比较优势理论的基础上，进一步提出相互需求理论，用以说明国际交换比例的决定和贸易利益的分配。这一理论认为，两国贸易产品的国内交换比例决定其国际交换比例的上下限，实际的交换比例必定处于这一界限之内，它取决于两国对对方产品的需求强度。如果外国对本国产品的需求强度越大，实际交换比例就越接近外国的国内交换比例，贸易利益的分配对本国就越有利；反之则反是。举例说明：两国贸易产品的国内交换比例决定其国际交换比例的上下限。如果用6单位小麦交换到的布少于4单位，本国将拒绝贸易；同样，如果用多于2单位的布换取1单位小麦，外国也将拒绝贸易。如果本国用6单位小麦从外国换取多于4单位的布，本国就可以获益；另一方面，在外国，6单位小麦=12单位布，如果用少于12单位的布从本国换取6单位小麦，则外国也可以获益。因此，两国国际交换比例的范围是：4C＜6W＜12C（即2/3C～2C）。在这个范围内可以有许多个实际交换比例，1：1的交换比例并不是互利贸易的惟一比例。 在上面的例子里，4单位布与12单位布的差，即8单位布代表两国开展贸易的总利益。外国对本国产品的需求强度越大，交换比例就越接近外国国内交换的比例（6W=12C），外国的贸易利益越小，本国的贸易利益越大。例如，本国与外国的交换比例为6W=10C时，本国获益是6单位布，外国获益是2单位布。反之，本国对外国产品的需求强度越大，交换比例就越接近本国国内交换的比例（6W=4C），本国的贸易利益越小，外国的贸易利益越大。例如，本国与外国的交换比例为6W=6C时，本国获益是2单位布，而外国获益是6单位布。要素禀赋理论 第一章练习与答案 1．为什么说在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要？ 答案提示：当生产处于生产边界线上，资源则得到了充分利用，这时，要想增加某一产品的生产，必须降低另一产品的生产，也就是说，增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本（或社会成本）的。生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率和充分就业得以实现，但究竟选择哪一点，则还要看两个商品的相对价格，即它们在市场上的交换比率。相对价格等于机会成本时，生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。所以，在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要。 2．仿效图1—6和图1—7，试推导出Y商品的国民供给曲线和国民需求曲线。 答案提示： 3．在只有两种商品的情况下，当一个商品达到均衡时，另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡？ 试解释原因。 答案提示： 4．如果生产可能性边界是一条直线，试确定过剩供给（或需求）曲线。 答案提示： 5．如果改用Y商品的过剩供给曲线（B国）和过剩需求曲线（A国）来确定国际均衡价格，那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果是否一致？ 答案提示：国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。 6．说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。 答案提示：一国出口产品价格的相对上升意味着此国可以用较少的出口换得较多的进口产品，有利于此国贸易利益的获得，不过，出口价格上升将不利于出口数量的增加，有损于出口国的贸易利益；与此类似，出口商品价格的下降有利于出口商品数量的增加，但是这意味着此国用较多的出口换得较少的进口产品。对于进口国来讲，贸易条件变化对国际贸易利益的影响是相反的。 7．如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间，那么贸易后，国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平？ 答案提示：贸易后，国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。 8．根据上一题的答案，你认为哪个国家在国际贸易中福利改善程度更为明显些？ 答案提示：小国。 9*．为什么说两个部门要素使用比例的不同会导致生产可能性边界曲线向外凸？ 答案提示： 第二章答案 1．根据下面两个表中的数据，确定（1）贸易前的相对价格；（2）比较优势型态。 表1 X、Y的单位产出所需的劳动投入 A B 《国际经济学》（第10版）保罗·R·克鲁格曼 重点笔记 第三章劳动生产率与比较优势：李嘉图模型 1.机会成本：利用一定资源或时间生产一种商品时，而失去的利用这些资源生产其他最佳替代品的机会。 2.比较优势：如果一个国家在本国生产一种产品的机会成本（用其他产品来衡量）低于在其他国家生产该种产品的机会成本，则这个国家在生产该种产品上就具有比较优势。 比较优势和国际贸易的基本原理：如果每个国家都出口本国具有比较优势的商品，则两国之间的贸易能使两国都受益。 英国经济学家大卫·李嘉图提出的国际贸易模型。他指出，国际劳动生产率的不同是国际贸易的唯一决定因素。该理论被称为李嘉图模型。 3.单一要素经济 单位产品劳动投入（a L）：生产率的倒数，用来表示劳动生产率。 生产可能性边界（PPF）：一个国家的资源是有限的，它所能生产的产品也是有限的，因此就存在着产品替代的问题：多生产一种产品就意味着要牺牲另一种产品的产量。 一个经济体的生产可能性边界（PPF）显示了其固定数量资源所能生产的商品的最大数量。本国资源对产出的限制：a LC Q C + a LW Q W≤ L （斜率的绝对值等于横轴商品的机会成本） Q W = L/a LW– (a LC /a LW )Q C，k= - a LC /a LW =奶酪的机会成本 相对价格与供给 简化模型中，劳动是唯一的生产要素，奶酪和葡萄酒的供给是由劳动力的流向决定的，而劳动力总会流向工资比较高的部门。单一要素模型中不存在利润，奶酪部门每小时的工资率等于一个工人在1小时内创造的价值P C/a LC，葡萄酒部门每小时的工资率等于P W/a LW。 当P C/P W> a LC /a LW时，奶酪部门的工资率就比较高，该国会专业化生产奶酪；当P C/P W< a LC /a LW时，葡萄酒部门的工资率就比较高，该国会专业化生产葡萄酒；当P C /P W = a LC /a LW时，该国会生产奶酪和葡萄酒两种产品。 价格与生产之间关系的关键命题：当一个国家的奶酪的相对价格高于它的机会成本时，该国就专门生产奶酪；当奶酪的相对价格低于它的机会成本时，该国就专门生产葡萄酒。 在没有国际贸易时，产品的相对价格等于它们的相对单位产品劳动投入。如：P C/P W= a LC /a LW 4.单一要素世界中的贸易 绝对优势：当一个国家能够以少于其他国家的劳动投入生产出同样单位的商品时，我们就说该国在生产这种商品上具有绝对优势。如：a LC < a*LC和a LW < a*LW国际经济学作业答案-第六章
《国际经济学》课件内容
国际经济学作业答案
克鲁格曼国际经济学第十版重点笔记
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