Asynchronous epoch management in replicated databases

MICHAL HERZENSTEIN,SCOTT SONENSHEIN,and UTPAL M.DHOLAKIAThis research examines how identity claims constructed in narrativesby borrowers influence lender decisions about unsecured personal loans.Specifically,do the number of identity claims and their content influ-ence lending decisions,and can they predict the longer-term perfor-mance of funded loans?Using data from the peer-to-peer lending website,the authorsfind that unverifiable information affects lendingdecisions above and beyond the influence of objective,verifiable informa-tion.As the number of identity claims in narratives increases,so doesloan funding,whereas loan performance suffers,because these borrow-ers are less likely to pay back the loan.In addition,identity content playsan important role.Identities focused on being trustworthy or successfulare associated with increased loan funding but ironically are less predic-tive of loan performance than other identities(i.e.,moral and economichardship).Thus,some identity claims aim to mislead lenders,whereasothers provide true representations of borrowers.Keywords:identities,narratives,peer-to-peer lending,decision makingunder uncertainty,consumerfinancial decision making Tell Me a Good Story and I May Lend Y ou Money:The Role of Narratives inPeer-to-Peer Lending DecisionsThe past decade has witnessed a growing number of business models that facilitate economic exchanges between individuals with limited institutional mediation. Consumers can buy products on eBay,lend money on peer-to-peer(P2P)loan auction sites such as , and provide zero-interest“social loans”to entrepreneurs through .In all these cases,strangers decide whether to engage in an economic exchange and on what terms,using only information provided by the borrowers. *Michal Herzenstein is Assistant Professor of Marketing,Lerner College of Business and Economics,University of Delaware(e-mail: michalh@).Scott Sonenshein is Assistant Professor of Man-agement,Jones Graduate School of Business,Rice University(e-mail: scotts@).Utpal M.Dholakia is Professor of Management, Jones Graduate School of Business,Rice University(e-mail:dholakia@ ).The authors thank Rick Andrews,Richard Schwarz,and Greg Hancock for their statistical assistance.They further thank the editor John Lynch,the associate editor,and the two JMR reviewers for their insight-ful comments.Financial support from the Lerner College of Business and Economics at the University of Delaware and the Jones Graduate School of Business at Rice University is greatly appreciated.David Mick served as associate editor for this article.Objective quantitative data about exchange partners often are difficult to obtain,insufficient,or unreliable.As a result, decision makers may turn to subjective,unverifiable,but potentially diagnostic qualitative data(Michels2011). One form of qualitative data useful to decision makers in such economic exchanges are the narratives constructed by potential exchange partners.A narrative is a sequentially structured discourse that gives meaning to events that unfold around the narrator(Riessman1993).For example,a narra-tive might explain a person’s past experiences,current sit-uation,or future hopes(e.g.,Thompson1996;Wong and King2008).By providing an autobiographical sketch that explains the vicissitudes of their life,the narrative authors provide a window into how they conceptualize themselves (Gergen and Gergen1997)and a portrait of how they con-struct their identity.However,as a result of either ambiguity or the strategic use of the medium to influence others(e.g., Schau and Gilly2003),narratives offer only one of several possible interpretations of self-relevant events(Sonenshein 2010).As a result,narrators can relay interpretations of their circumstances that convey the most favorable identities (Goffman1959).©2011,American Marketing AssociationISSN:0022-2437(print),1547-7193(electronic)S138Journal of Marketing ResearchV ol.XLVIII(Special Issue2011),S138–S149Role of Narratives in Peer-to-Peer Lending Decisions S139RESEARCH MOTIVATIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS The idea that narratives may involve the construction of a favorable identity poses two key questions for research. First,whereas narratives can provide diagnostic informa-tion to a decision maker who is considering an economic exchange,the veracity of the narrator’s story is difficult to determine.Because a narrative offers the possibility of describing either an authentic,full,true self or a partial, inauthentic,misleading self,potential exchange partners are left to intuit the truth of the presentation.Accordingly a key question to consider is,given their potential for diagnostic and misleading information,to what extent do narratives influence economic exchange transactions?Previous con-sumer research has largely focused on narratives of con-sumption experiences(Thompson1996)or consumption stories(Levy1981),but scholars have not examined the role of narratives in economic exchanges.We believe that narratives may be a particularly powerful lens,in that they allow the consumer to attempt to gain better control over the exchange and thus can provide a means to help con-summate the exchange.Second,to what extent do narratives affect the perfor-mance and outcomes of an economic exchange?Narrative scholars claim that the construction and presentation of a narrative can shape its creator’s future behavior(Bruner 1990)but rarely examine the nature of this influence empir-ically.Such an examination would be critical to understand-ing how a mixture of quantitative and qualitative factors shapes outcome quality(e.g.,Hoffman and Yates2005). We examine these two questions using data from the online P2P loan auctions website,,by studying borrower-constructed narratives(particularly the identities embedded in them),the subsequent decisions of lenders, and transaction performance two years later.We define identity claims as the ways that borrowers describe them-selves to others(Pratt,Rockmann,and Kaufmann2006). Borrowers can construct an identity based on a range of ele-ments,such as religion or success.The elements become an identity claim when they enter public discourse as opposed to private cognition.With this framework,we make several contributions.First,by developing and testing theory around how nar-ratives supplement more objective sources of information that decision makers use when considering afinancial trans-action,we draw attention to how narrators can intentionally exploit uncertainty and favorably shape circumstantial facts to obtain resources,such as access to money in unmediated environments.The narrative,as a supplementary,yet some-times deal-making or deal-breaking,information source for decision makers is predicated on compelling stories versus objective facts.It thus offers a means for people to recon-struct their pasts and describe their futures in positive ways. Second,by linking narratives to objective performance measures,we show how narratives may predict the longer-term performance of lending decisions.Because the deci-sion stakes are high in this unmediated and unsecured financial arena,lenders engage in highly cognitive pro-cessing(Petty and Wegener1998).The strong disincen-tive of potentialfinancial loss leads to cognitive process-ing,which tends to produce accurate attributions about a person and the probabilities of future events(Osborne and Gilbert1992).Because of this motivation for accuracy,we suspect lenders use narratives to help them make invest-ment decisions.Third,from a practice perspective,the recentfinancial crisis has exposedflaws in the criteria used to make lend-ing decisions.Quantitativefinancial metrics,such as credit scores,have proven unreliable for predicting the ability or likelihood of consumers to repay unsecured loans(Feldman 2009).A narrative perspective on the consummation and performance offinancial transactions offers the promise of improving systems for assessing borrowers.RESEARCH SETTINGWe conducted our research on (hereinafter, Prosper),the largest P2P loan auction site in the United States,with more than one million members and$238mil-lion in personal loans originated since its inception in March2006(as of June2011).On Prosper,borrowers and lenders never meet in person,so we can assess the role of narratives in overcoming the uncertainty that arises during financial transactions between unacquainted actors.The process of borrowing and lending money through a loan auction on Prosper is as follows:Before posting their loan request,borrowers give Prosper permission to ver-ify relevant personal information(e.g.,household income, home ownership,bank accounts)and access their credit score from Experian,a major credit-reporting ing this and other information,such as pay stubs and income tax returns,Prosper assigns each borrower a credit grade that reflects the risk to lenders.Credit grades can range from AA, which indicates that the borrower is extremely low risk(i.e., high probability of paying back the loan),through A,B,C, D,and E to HR,which signifies the highest risk of default. Borrowers then post loan requests for auction.When post-ing their loan auctions,borrowers choose the amount(up to $25,000)and the highest interest rate they will pay.They also may use a voluntary open-text area,with unlimited space,to write anything they want—that is,the borrower’s narrative(see Michels2011).After the listing becomes active,lenders decide whether to bid,how much money to offer,and the interest rate. A$1,000loan might befinanced by one lender who lends $1,000or by40lenders,each lending$25for example. Most lenders bid the minimum amount($25)on individual loans to diversify their portfolios(Herzenstein,Dholakia, and Andrews2011).After the auction closes,listings with bids that cover the requested amount are funded.If a list-ing receives bids covering more than its requested amount, the bids with the lowest interest rates win.If the auc-tion does not receive enough bids,the request remains unfunded.Prosper administers the loan,collects payments, and receives fees of.5%to3.0%from borrowers,as well as a1%annual fee from lenders.We employed three dependent variables in our study. First,loan funding is the percentage of the loan request to receive a funding commitment from lenders.For exam-ple,if a loan request for$1,000receives bids worth$500, loan funding is50%.If it receives bids worth$2,000,loan funding equals200%.A higher loan funding value signi-fies greater lender interest.Second,percentage reduction infinal interest rate captures the decrease in the inter-est rate between the borrower’s maximum specified rate and thefinal rate.For example,if a borrower’s maximumS140JOURNAL OF MARKETING RESEARCH,SPECIAL ISSUE 2011T able 1DEFINITIONS OF IDENTITIES AND EXAMPLES FOR DATA CODINGIdentityDefinitionExamplesTrustworthy (Duarte,Siegel,and Young 2009)Lenders can trust the borrower to pay back the money on time.“I am responsible at paying my bills and lending me funds would be a good investment.”(Listing #17118)Successful (Shafir,Simonson,and Tversky 1993)The borrower is someone with a successful business or job/career.“I have [had]a very solid and successful career with an Aviation company for the last 13years.”(Listing #18608)Hardworking (Woolcock 1999)The borrower will work very hard to pay the loan back.“I work two jobs.I work too much really.I work 26days a month with both jobs.”(Listing #18943)Economic hardship (Woolcock 1999)The borrower is someone in need because of hardship,as a result of difficult circumstances,bad luck,or other misfortunes that were,or were not,under the borrower’s control.“Unfortunately,a messy divorce and an irresponsible ex have left me with awful credit.”(Listing #20525)Moral (Aquino et al.2009)The borrower is an honest or moral person.“On paper I appear to be an extremely poor financial risk.In reality,I am an honest,decent person.”(Listing #17237)Religious (Weaver and Agle 2002)The borrower is a religious person.“One night,the Lord awaken me and myspouse our business has been an enormous success with G-d on our side.”(Listing #21308)interest rate is 18%and the final rate is 17%,the per-centage reduction in interest rate is 18−17 /18=5 56%.rate decreases only if the loan request receives full greater lender interest results in greater reduc-of the interest rate.Third,loan performance is the payment status of the loan two years after its origination.We further classify the types of identity claims made by prospective borrowers.Borrowers in our sample employed six identity claims in their narratives:trustworthy,economic hardship,hardworking,successful,moral,and religious.In Table 1,we provide definitions and illustrative examples of each identity claim.Borrowers provided an average of 1.53 SD =1 14 identity claims in their narratives.RESEARCH HYPOTHESESWho Is Likely to Provide More Identity Claims in Their Narratives?Narratives,when viewed as vehicles for identity work,provide opportunities for people to manage the impres-sions that others hold of them.Impression management the-ory posits that people want to create and maintain specific identities (Leary and Kowalski 1990).Narratives provide an avenue for impression management;through discourse,people can shape situations and construct identities that are designed specifically to obtain a desired outcome (Schlenker and Weigold 1992).Some scholars argue that people use narratives strategically to establish,maintain,or protect their desired identities (Rosenfeld,Giacalone,and Riordan 1995).However,the use of impression manage-ment need not automatically signal outright lying;people may select from a repertoire of self-images they genuinely believe to be true (Leary and Kowalski 1990).Nevertheless,strategic use of impression management means that,at a minimum,people select representations of their self-image that are most likely to garner support.In economic exchanges involving repeated transactions,each party receives feedback from exchange partners thateither validates or disputes the credibility of their self-constructions (Leary and Kowalski 1990),so they can determine if an identity claim has been granted.Prior transactions also offer useful information through feedback ratings and other mechanisms that convey and archive rep-utations (Weiss,Lurie,and MacInnis 2008).However,in one-time economic exchanges,such feedback is not avail-able.Instead,narrators have a single opportunity to present a convincing public view of the self,and receivers of the information have only one presentation to deem the presen-ter as credible or not.We hypothesize that in these conditions,borrowers are strategic in their identity claims.Borrowers with satisfac-tory objective characteristics are less likely to construct identity claims to receive funding;they feel their case stands firmly on its objective merits alone.In contrast,borrowers with unsatisfactory objective characteristics may view narratives as an opportunity to influence the attribu-tions that lenders make,because in narratives,they can counter past mistakes and difficult circumstances.In this scenario,borrowers make identity claims that offset the attributions made by lenders about the borrower being fundamentally not a creditworthy person.These disposi-tional attributions are often based on visible characteristics (Gilbert and Malone 1995).The most relevant objective characteristic of borrowers is the credit grade assigned by Prosper,derived from the borrower’s personal credit history (Herzenstein,Dholakia,and Andrews 2011).With more than one identity claim,borrowers can present a more com-plex,positive self to counteract negative objective informa-tion,such as a low credit grade.Thus:H 1:The lower the borrower’s credit grade,the greater isthe number of identities claimed by the borrower in the narrative.Role of Narratives in Peer-to-Peer Lending Decisions S141Impact of the Number of Identity Claims onLenders’DecisionAlthough economists often predict that unverifiable information does not matter(e.g.,Farrell and Rabin1996), we suggest that the number of identity claims in a bor-rower’s narrative play a role in lenders’decision making, for at least two reasons.First,borrower narratives with too few identities may fail to resolve questions about the borrower’s disposition.If a borrower fails to provide suf-ficient diagnostic information for lenders to make attri-butions about the borrower(Cramton2001),lenders may suspect that the borrower lacks sufficient positive or dis-tinctive information or is withholding or hiding germane information.Second,the limited diagnostic information provided by fewer identity claims limits a decision maker’s ability to resolve outcome uncertainties.Research on perceived risk supports this reasoning;decision makers gather informa-tion as a risk-reduction strategy and tend to be risk averse in the absence of sufficient information about the decision (e.g.,Cox and Rich1964).In the P2P lending arena,the loan request and evaluation process unfold online with-out any physical interaction between the parties.Further-more,on Prosper,borrowers are anonymous(real names and addresses are never revealed).This lack of seemingly relevant information is especially salient,because many decision makers view unmediated online environments as ripe for deception(Caspi and Gorsky2006).To the extent that the identity claims presented in a narrative reduce uncertainty about a borrower,lenders should be more likely to view the listing favorably,increase loan funding,and decrease thefinal interest rate.Therefore,the number of identity claims in a borrower’s narrative may serve as a heuristic for assessing the borrower’s loan application and lead to greater interest in the listing.Although we suggest that the number of identities bor-rowers claim result in favorable lending decisions,we also argue that these identity claims may persuade lenders erroneously,such that lenders fund loans with a lower likelihood of repayment.Borrowers can use elaborate multiple-identity narratives to craft“not-quite-true”stories and make promises they mightfind difficult to keep.More generally,a greater number of identity claims suggests that borrowers are being more strategic and positioning them-selves in a manner they believe is likely to resonate with lenders,as opposed to presenting a true self.Therefore,we posit that,consciously or not,borrowers who construct sev-eral identities may have more difficulty fulfilling their obli-gations and be more likely to fall behind on or stop loan repayments altogether.Thus,despite the high stakes of the decision,lenders swayed by multiple identities are more likely to fall prey to borrowers that underperform or fail (Goffman1959).H2:Controlling for objective,verifiable information,the more identities borrowers claim in their loan requests,the morelikely lenders are to(a)fund the loan and(b)reduce itsinterest rate,but then(c)the lower is the likelihood of itsrepayment.Role of the Content of Identity Claims onLender Decision Making and Loan PerformanceWe also examine the extent to which select identities affect lenders’decision making and the longer-term per-formance of loans.With a limited theoretical basis for determining the types of identities most likely to influ-ence lenders’decision making,this part of our study is exploratory.Research on trust offers a promising starting point(Mayer,Davis,and Schoorman1995),because it sug-gests that identities may reduce dispositional uncertainty and favorably influence lenders.Trust is a crucial element for the consummation of an economic exchange(Arrow 1974).Scholars theorize that trust involves three compo-nents:integrity(borrowers adhere to principles that lenders accept),ability(borrowers possess the skills necessary to meet obligations),and benevolence(borrowers have some attachment to lenders and are inclined to do good)(Mayer, Davis,and Schoorman1995).We theorize that trustworthy,religious,and moral iden-tities increase perceptions of integrity because they lead lenders to believe that borrowers ascribe to the lender-endorsed principle of fulfilling obligations,either directly (trustworthy)or indirectly by adhering to a philosophy (religious or moral).Specifically,a moral identity tells potential lenders that the person has“a self-conception organized around a set of moral traits”(Aquino et al.2009, p.1424),which should increase perceptions of integrity.A religious identity signals a set of role expectations to which a person is likely to adhere,and though religions vary in the content of these expectations(Weaver and Agle 2002),many of them include principles oriented against lying or stealing and toward honoring contractual agree-ments.A hardworking identity should increase perceptions of integrity,because hardworking people are determined and dependable,which often makes them problem solvers (Witt et al.2002),meaning that they will do their best to meet their obligations,a disposition likely to resonate with lenders.We also reason that the religious and moral identities invoke in lenders a sense of benevolence,which is a foun-dational principle of many religions and moral philoso-phies.Similarly,the economic hardship identity may invoke benevolence,because the borrower exhibits forthrightness about his or her past mistakes and thus suggests to lenders that the borrower is trying to create a meaningful relation-ship based on transparency.We theorize that an identity claim of success can increase perceptions of ability and the belief that the narrator is capable of fulfilling promises(Butler1991).Lenders are more likely to lend money to a borrower if they perceive that the person is capable of on-time repayment(Newall and Swan2000).A successful identity likely describes the past or present,but it also can serve as an indication of a probable future(i.e.,the borrower will continue to be successful),which helps“fill in the blanks”about the bor-rower in a positive way.In contrast,economic hardship likely constructs the borrower as someone who has had a setback,which ultimately undermines perceptions of ability and thus negatively affects lenders’decisions.We have offered some preliminary theory in support of these specific relationships between identity content and loan funding/interest rate reductions,but this examinationS142JOURNAL OF MARKETING RESEARCH,SPECIAL ISSUE2011remains exploratory,so we pose these relationships as exploratory research questions(ERQ):ERQ1:Which types of identity claims influence lending deci-sions,as indicated by(a)an increase in loan fundingand(b)a decrease in thefinal interest rate?We also explore the impact of the content of identity claims on loan performance.We envision two potential sce-narios.In thefirst,identities are diagnostic of the borrower or serve as self-fulfilling prophecies.Examining the ability aspect of trustworthiness,we anticipate a negative relation between an economic hardship identity and loan perfor-mance(borrowers validate their claim of setbacks)but a positive relation between a successful identity and loan per-formance(borrowers prove their claim of past success). Moreover,we expect the four integrity-related identities—trustworthy,hardworking,moral,and religious—to indicate better loan performance.After a self-presentation as having integrity,the borrower probably has a strong psychological desire for consistency between the narrative and his or her actions(Cialdini and Trost1998).That is,in their narra-tives,borrowers may make an active,voluntary,and public commitment that psychologically binds them to a partic-ular set of beliefs and subsequent behaviors(Berger and Heath2007).Because these four identities speak to funda-mental self-beliefs versus predicted outcomes(e.g.,success or hardship),they can strongly motivate borrowers to live up to their claims.Thus these identities,regardless of their accuracy,can become true and predict the performance of the lending decision.In the other scenario,however,identities improve the lender’s impression of the borrower,thereby allowing bor-rowers to exert control over the provided impressions (Goffman1959).Borrowers(or narrators,more generally) construct positive impressions and may misrepresent them-selves and send signals that may not be objectively war-ranted.Despite the belief that self-constructing identities are helpful for a lending decision,they actually may have no impact or even be harmful to lenders.These mixed pos-sibilities lead to another exploratory research question: ERQ2:How are the content of identity claims and loan perfor-mance related?STUDYDataOur data set consists of1,493loan listings posted by borrowers on Prosper in June2006and June2007.We extracted this data set using a stratified random sampling ing a web crawler,we extracted all loan listings posted in June2006and June2007(approximately5,400 and12,500listings,respectively).A significant percentage of borrowers on Prosper have very poor credit histories, and most loan requests do not receive funding.To avoid overweighting high-risk borrowers and unfunded loans,we sampled an equal number of loan requests from each credit grade.To do so,wefirst separated funded loan requests from unfunded ones,then divided each group by the seven credit grades assigned by Prosper.We also eliminated all loan requests without any narrative text,for three reasons. First,including loan requests without narratives could con-found the borrower’s choice to write something other than narratives in the open text box with the choice to write nothing at all.Second,the vast majority of listings lack-ing a narrative do not receive funding.Third,loan requests without text represent only9%of all loans posted in June 2006and4%of those posted in June2007.We nevertheless used the“no text”loans in our robustness check.We randomly sampled posts from the14subgroups (2funding status×7credit grades).In2006,we sampled 40listings from each subgroup(until data were exhausted) to obtain513listings;in2007,we sampled70listings from each subgroup to obtain980listings,for a total of 1,493listings.Each listing includes the borrower’s credit grade,requested loan amount,maximum interest rate,loan funding,final interest rate of funded loans,payback sta-tus of funded loans after two years,and open-ended text data.Before combining the data from2006and2007,we tested for a year effect but found none,which supports their combination.Dependent VariablesThefirst dependent variable,loan funding,ranges from 0%to905%in our data set,but requiring an equal inclu-sion of all credit ratings skews these statistics.The mean percentage funded(including all listings)is105.74%(SD= 129 2)and that for funded listings is205.45%(SD=119 6). Because it was skewed,we log-transformed loan fund-ing as follows:Ln(percent funded+1).The second depen-dent variable,percentage reduction in thefinal interest rate, ranges from0%to56%in our data set.The mean per-centage reduction in interest rate for all listings is6.4% (SD=10 7)and for funded listings is11.88%(SD=12 75). Because the distribution is skewed,we log-transformed it (we provide the distributionfigures in the Web Appendix, /jmrnov11).The third dependent variable is loan performance,mea-sured two years after loan funding.For each funded loan in our data set,we obtained data about whether the loan was paid ahead of schedule and in full(31.1%of funded list-ings),was current and paid as scheduled(40.5%),involved payments between one and four months late(7.1%),or had defaulted(21.3%).This dependent variable may appear ordered,but the likelihood ratio tests reveal that a multino-mial logit model fares better than an ordered logit model for analyzing these data(for both the number and content of identities).Thus,in the following analysis,we employ a multinomial logit model.Independent VariablesWe read approximately one-third of all narratives and developed our inductively derived list of six identity claims (Miles and Huberman1994):trustworthy,economic hard-ship,hardworking,successful,moral,and religious,as we define in Table1.Two research assistants examined the same data and determined these six identities were exhaustive.Next,five additional pairs of research assistants (10total)coded the entire data set.We coded each iden-tity as a dichotomous variable that receives the value of1 if the identity claim was present in a borrower’s narrative and0if otherwise.A pair of research assistants read each listing in the data set,independently atfirst,then discussed them to determine the unified code for each listing.Accord-ing to20randomly sampled listings from our data set,used。

Never giving up is a principle that can be applied to various aspects of life,from personal growth to professional achievements.Here are some key points to consider when writing an essay on the importance of perseverance in English:1.Introduction:Begin by defining what it means to never give up.You could start with a quote or a story that illustrates the concept of perseverance.2.Importance of Perseverance:Discuss why it is essential to keep going even when faced with challenges.This could include the development of resilience,the satisfaction of overcoming obstacles,and the potential for growth and learning.3.Examples of Perseverance:Historical Figures:Mention individuals like Thomas Edison,who failed numerous times before inventing the light bulb,or Abraham Lincoln,who faced numerous defeats before becoming the President of the United States.Athletes:Cite examples of athletes who have overcome injuries or setbacks to achieve success,such as Michael Jordan,who was cut from his high school basketball team but went on to become one of the greatest players in history.4.Personal Stories:Share personal anecdotes or experiences where perseverance led to success.This could be a personal achievement or a situation where you witnessed someone elses determination pay off.5.Strategies for Perseverance:Setting Goals:Explain how setting realistic and achievable goals can help maintain motivation.Developing a Growth Mindset:Discuss the concept of a growth mindset and how it can foster resilience in the face of failure.Seeking Support:Mention the importance of having a support system,such as friends, family,or mentors,who can provide encouragement and advice.6.Overcoming Failure:Address the fear of failure and how it can be a stepping stone to success.Discuss how learning from mistakes and viewing them as opportunities for growth can be beneficial.7.The Power of Persistence:Highlight the psychological benefits of persistence,such as increased selfconfidence and a sense of accomplishment.8.Conclusion:Summarize the main points of your essay and reiterate the importance of never giving up.End with a call to action,encouraging readers to adopt a perseveringattitude in their own lives.nguage and Style:Use a variety of sentence structures and vocabulary to convey your message effectively.Emphasize the positive connotations of perseverance and the negative implications of giving up.10.Revision and Editing:After writing the first draft,revise your essay for clarity, coherence,and grammatical accuracy.Ensure that your essay flows logically and that each paragraph contributes to the overall argument.Remember,an essay on never giving up should inspire and motivate readers to face their challenges with determination and a positive e concrete examples and a compelling narrative to make your essay engaging and memorable.。

自我面孔的返回抑制研究自我面孔的返回抑制是指个体在注意任务中，尤其是需要关注任务外部刺激时，对其自身面孔的基本特征进行压制，使其对自己的面孔产生较少关注的现象。

该现象涉及神经和认知心理学领域，是一项极具现代意义的研究领域。

过去几十年来，有越来越多的学者关注这一现象，并以不同的方法来研究自我面孔的返回抑制，这些研究结果表明，自我面孔的返回抑制在社会认知、身份认同、情感体验、自我提升等方面都会产生重要的影响。

自我面孔的返回抑制最早由Humphreys和Bruce（1989）提出，他们在注意任务中发现参与者容易对外界不相关的刺激产生干扰，却对自己的面孔产生较低的干扰，科学家们经过多年的研究和发现，目前已知的自我面孔的返回抑制的表现也是多样的。

下面我们将围绕着自我面孔的返回抑制展开研究，并举出5个例子证明。

第一个例子是社会认知领域。

回想一下，当我们作为观众时，如果我们看到一名演员在戏剧中化妆成另一个角色，我们会很容易地将该演员和他所扮演的角色区分开来。

这表明，我们在注意外部刺激时，更多地关注了演员化妆后的面孔而不是他的真实面孔。

这种现象的出现就涉及到自我面孔的返回抑制。

Bang et al.（2010）的研究表明，当某个角色被赋予了某种特定的身份或特定的情绪性格，观众会更加注意该角色扮演者刻意呈现的属性而非本身的自我面孔属性。

这一现象说明了自我面孔的返回抑制过程在人们的社会认知中具有重要意义。

第二个例子是身份认同领域。

Fessele et al.（2011）的研究表明，人们在观看一个自己的照片时，往往需要经历一种心理过程，试图将自己抽离出去，才能做到像旁观者一样看待自己。

这种心理过程表明了个体在注意外部任务时，很容易忽略掉自己的自我面孔属性。

此外，对某些有着强烈身份认同特征的人群，如跨性别者等，在特定时刻也会出现与普通人不同的自我面孔返回抑制现象。

第三个例子是情感体验领域。

人们随时随地都在体验着各种情绪，而自我面孔的返回抑制也会影响情感体验的方式。

专利名称：残差半循环神经网络专利类型：发明专利
发明人：汤琦,祁褎然
申请号：CN202080036830.3申请日：20200323
公开号：CN114175052A
公开日：
20220311
专利内容由知识产权出版社提供
摘要：残差半循环神经网络(RSNN)可以被配置成接收时不变输入和时变输入数据以生成一个或多个时间序列预测。

所述时不变输入可以由所述RSNN的多层感知器处理。

所述多层感知器的输出可以用作所述RSNN的循环神经网络单元的初始状态。

循环神经网络单元还可以接收时不变输入，并且利用所述时不变输入处理所述时不变输入以生成输出。

所述多层感知器和所述循环神经网络单元的输出可以被组合以生成所述一个或多个时间序列预测。

申请人：赛诺菲
地址：法国巴黎
国籍：FR
代理机构：北京坤瑞律师事务所
代理人：封新琴
更多信息请下载全文后查看。

随着资本市场的火热发展，财务报表分析也成为了当今炙手可热的话题。

投资者通过对企业财务报表的会计资料进行分析，可以了解识别企业的优劣，预测企业的未来以及企业的经营业绩，为决策提供有用的信息。

下面是搜索整理的财务报表分析论文英文参考文献，欢迎借鉴参考。

财务报表分析论文英文参考文献一： [1]Jon D. Cromer,JoAnne Brewster,Kethera Fogler,Michael Stoloff. 911 Calls in Homicide Cases: What Does the Verbal Behavior of the Caller Reveal?[J]. Journal of Police and CriminalPsychology,2019,34(2). [2]Matthias Demmer,Paul Pronobis,Teri Lombardi Yohn. Mandatory IFRS adoption and analyst forecast accuracy: the role of financial statement-based forecasts and analyst characteristics[J]. Review of Accounting Studies,2019,24(3). [3]Jean Turlington,Stephan Fafatas,Elizabeth Goad Oliver. Is it U.S. GAAP or IFRS? Understanding how R&D costs affect ratioanalysis[J]. Business Horizons,2019,62(4). [4]Ana Je?ovita. Accounting Information in a Business Decision-Making Process – Evidence from Croatia[J]. Zagreb International Review of Economics and Business,2015,18(1). [5]Nino Veskovi?. Financial Analysis of Serbian Companies Undergoing Privatization[J]. The European Journal of Applied Economics,2016,13(1). [6]Jerzy Ró?ański,Pawe?Kopczyński. 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Zeitschrift für Betriebswirtschaft,2012,82(11). [48]Messod D. Beneish,Charles M. C. Lee,Robin L. Tarpley. Contextual Fundamental Analysis Through the Prediction of Extreme Returns[J]. Review of Accounting Studies,2001,6(2-3). [49]Yaniv Konchitchki,Yan Luo,Mary L. Z. Ma,Feng Wu. Accounting-based downside risk, cost of capital, and the macroeconomy[J]. Review of Accounting Studies,2016,21(1). [50]David Matsumoto,Hyisung C. Hwang,Lisa G. Skinner,Mark G. Frank. Positive Effects in Detecting Lies from Training to Recognize Behavioral Anomalies[J]. Journal of Police and CriminalPsychology,2014,29(1). [51]Andreas Scholze. A Simple Accounting-Based Valuation Modelfor the Debt Tax Shield[J]. BuR - Business Research,2010,3(1). [52]James M. Wahlen,Matthew M. Wieland. Can financial statement analysis beat consensus analysts’ recommendations?[J]. Review of Accounting Studies,2011,16(1). [53]Pedro Santa-clara. Discussion of “Implied Equity Duration: A New Measure of Equity Risk”[J]. 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英语哲学思想解读50题1. The statement "All is flux" was proposed by _____.A. PlatoB. AristotleC. HeraclitusD. Socrates答案：C。

本题考查古希腊哲学思想家的观点。

赫拉克利特提出了“万物皆流”的观点。

选项A 柏拉图强调理念论；选项B 亚里士多德注重实体和形式；选项D 苏格拉底主张通过对话和反思来寻求真理。

2. "Know thyself" is a famous saying from _____.A. ThalesB. PythagorasC. DemocritusD. Socrates答案：D。

此题考查古希腊哲学家的名言。

“认识你自己”是苏格拉底的名言。

选项A 泰勒斯主要研究自然哲学；选项B 毕达哥拉斯以数学和神秘主义著称；选项C 德谟克利特提出了原子论。

3. Which philosopher believed that the world is composed of water?A. AnaximenesB. AnaximanderC. ThalesD. Heraclitus答案：C。

本题考查古希腊哲学家对世界构成的看法。

泰勒斯认为世界是由水组成的。

选项A 阿那克西美尼认为是气；选项B 阿那克西曼德认为是无定；选项D 赫拉克利特提出万物皆流。

4. The idea of the "Forms" was put forward by _____.A. PlatoB. AristotleC. EpicurusD. Stoics答案：A。

这道题考查古希腊哲学中的概念。

柏拉图提出了“理念论”，即“形式”。

选项B 亚里士多德对其进行了批判和发展；选项C 伊壁鸠鲁主张快乐主义；选项D 斯多葛学派强调道德和命运。

5. Who claimed that "The unexamined life is not worth living"?A. PlatoB. AristotleC. SocratesD. Epicurus答案：C。

Perseverance is a quality that is highly valued in many cultures and is often the subject of English essays.Here are some points that you could consider including in an essay about persistence:1.Definition of Perseverance:Begin by defining what perseverance means.It is the ability to continue in a course of action in spite of difficulty or opposition.2.Importance of Perseverance:Discuss why perseverance is important.It can lead to success in various fields such as academics,sports,business,and personal goals.3.Historical Examples:Provide examples of historical figures who demonstrated perseverance.For instance,Thomas Edisons numerous attempts to create a practical light bulb or Abraham Lincolns many setbacks before becoming the President of the United States.4.Personal Stories:Share personal anecdotes or stories of individuals who have overcome significant obstacles through perseverance.This could include overcoming illness,achieving a difficult goal,or recovering from a failure.5.Strategies for Perseverance:Offer practical advice on how to cultivate perseverance. This might include setting realistic goals,breaking down larger tasks into smaller steps, seeking support from others,and maintaining a positive attitude.6.Overcoming Failure:Discuss how failure can be a stepping stone to success if one is persistent.Explain that learning from mistakes and not giving up is a key aspect of perseverance.7.The Role of Perseverance in Teamwork:Explain how perseverance is not just an individual trait but also plays a crucial role in team settings.Team members who persevere can inspire others and contribute to the overall success of the group.8.Cultural Perspectives:Explore how different cultures view perseverance.Some cultures may place a higher value on persistence and hard work,while others may emphasize adaptability and flexibility.9.The Impact of Technology:Discuss how technology has both helped and hindered perseverance.On one hand,it provides tools and resources that can make tasks easier,but on the other hand,it can lead to a culture of instant gratification that may undermine persistence.10.Conclusion:Summarize the main points of your essay and reiterate the importance of perseverance.Encourage readers to embrace this quality in their own lives.Remember to use a variety of sentence structures and vocabulary to make your essay engaging and to avoid repetition.Additionally,providing concrete examples and evidence will strengthen your argument and make your essay more persuasive.。

Artificial Intelligence AI has become an integral part of modern society,with its applications ranging from healthcare to entertainment.As with any technology,AI has its advantages and disadvantages,which are worth exploring in depth.Advantages of Artificial Intelligence:1.Efficiency and Productivity:AI systems can process information and perform tasks at a speed far exceeding human capabilities.This has led to increased efficiency and productivity in various industries,from manufacturing to customer service.2.Accuracy:AI algorithms are designed to minimize errors.In fields such as data analysis and medical diagnostics,AI can provide more accurate results than human judgment alone.3.24/7Availability:Unlike humans,AI does not require rest.This means that AI systems can operate around the clock,providing continuous service and support.4.Customization:AI can be programmed to adapt to individual needs and preferences, offering personalized experiences in areas such as online shopping,entertainment,and education.5.Innovation:AI drives innovation by enabling the exploration of complex problems and the creation of new solutions that might be beyond human comprehension. Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence:1.Job Displacement:The automation of tasks by AI can lead to job losses,particularly in sectors where repetitive tasks are common.2.Ethical Concerns:The use of AI raises ethical questions,such as privacy issues related to data collection and the potential for biased algorithms that can perpetuate discrimination.3.Dependence on Technology:Overreliance on AI can lead to a decrease in human skills and critical thinking abilities,as people may become overly dependent on technology for decisionmaking.4.Security Risks:AI systems can be vulnerable to hacking and misuse,which can have serious implications for security and privacy.ck of Empathy:AI lacks the human touch,which is essential in certain professions such as healthcare and social work.The absence of empathy can affect the quality of service provided.Balancing the Pros and Cons:To harness the benefits of AI while mitigating its drawbacks,it is crucial to implement ethical guidelines and regulations.This includes ensuring transparency in AI decisionmaking processes,investing in education to prepare the workforce for an AIdriven economy,and fostering a culture of continuous learning and adaptation.In conclusion,while AI presents significant opportunities for advancement,it is essential to approach its integration into society with caution and consideration for its potential impacts.By doing so,we can strive for a future where AI serves as a tool for positive change rather than a source of conflict and disadvantage.。

DIRECTIVE NUMBER: CPL 02-00-150 EFFECTIVE DATE: April 22, 2011 SUBJECT: Field Operations Manual (FOM)ABSTRACTPurpose: This instruction cancels and replaces OSHA Instruction CPL 02-00-148,Field Operations Manual (FOM), issued November 9, 2009, whichreplaced the September 26, 1994 Instruction that implemented the FieldInspection Reference Manual (FIRM). The FOM is a revision of OSHA’senforcement policies and procedures manual that provides the field officesa reference document for identifying the responsibilities associated withthe majority of their inspection duties. This Instruction also cancels OSHAInstruction FAP 01-00-003 Federal Agency Safety and Health Programs,May 17, 1996 and Chapter 13 of OSHA Instruction CPL 02-00-045,Revised Field Operations Manual, June 15, 1989.Scope: OSHA-wide.References: Title 29 Code of Federal Regulations §1903.6, Advance Notice ofInspections; 29 Code of Federal Regulations §1903.14, Policy RegardingEmployee Rescue Activities; 29 Code of Federal Regulations §1903.19,Abatement Verification; 29 Code of Federal Regulations §1904.39,Reporting Fatalities and Multiple Hospitalizations to OSHA; and Housingfor Agricultural Workers: Final Rule, Federal Register, March 4, 1980 (45FR 14180).Cancellations: OSHA Instruction CPL 02-00-148, Field Operations Manual, November9, 2009.OSHA Instruction FAP 01-00-003, Federal Agency Safety and HealthPrograms, May 17, 1996.Chapter 13 of OSHA Instruction CPL 02-00-045, Revised FieldOperations Manual, June 15, 1989.State Impact: Notice of Intent and Adoption required. See paragraph VI.Action Offices: National, Regional, and Area OfficesOriginating Office: Directorate of Enforcement Programs Contact: Directorate of Enforcement ProgramsOffice of General Industry Enforcement200 Constitution Avenue, NW, N3 119Washington, DC 20210202-693-1850By and Under the Authority ofDavid Michaels, PhD, MPHAssistant SecretaryExecutive SummaryThis instruction cancels and replaces OSHA Instruction CPL 02-00-148, Field Operations Manual (FOM), issued November 9, 2009. The one remaining part of the prior Field Operations Manual, the chapter on Disclosure, will be added at a later date. This Instruction also cancels OSHA Instruction FAP 01-00-003 Federal Agency Safety and Health Programs, May 17, 1996 and Chapter 13 of OSHA Instruction CPL 02-00-045, Revised Field Operations Manual, June 15, 1989. This Instruction constitutes OSHA’s general enforcement policies and procedures manual for use by the field offices in conducting inspections, issuing citations and proposing penalties.Significant Changes∙A new Table of Contents for the entire FOM is added.∙ A new References section for the entire FOM is added∙ A new Cancellations section for the entire FOM is added.∙Adds a Maritime Industry Sector to Section III of Chapter 10, Industry Sectors.∙Revises sections referring to the Enhanced Enforcement Program (EEP) replacing the information with the Severe Violator Enforcement Program (SVEP).∙Adds Chapter 13, Federal Agency Field Activities.∙Cancels OSHA Instruction FAP 01-00-003, Federal Agency Safety and Health Programs, May 17, 1996.DisclaimerThis manual is intended to provide instruction regarding some of the internal operations of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and is solely for the benefit of the Government. No duties, rights, or benefits, substantive or procedural, are created or implied by this manual. The contents of this manual are not enforceable by any person or entity against the Department of Labor or the United States. Statements which reflect current Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission or court precedents do not necessarily indicate acquiescence with those precedents.Table of ContentsCHAPTER 1INTRODUCTIONI.PURPOSE. ........................................................................................................... 1-1 II.SCOPE. ................................................................................................................ 1-1 III.REFERENCES .................................................................................................... 1-1 IV.CANCELLATIONS............................................................................................. 1-8 V. ACTION INFORMATION ................................................................................. 1-8A.R ESPONSIBLE O FFICE.......................................................................................................................................... 1-8B.A CTION O FFICES. .................................................................................................................... 1-8C. I NFORMATION O FFICES............................................................................................................ 1-8 VI. STATE IMPACT. ................................................................................................ 1-8 VII.SIGNIFICANT CHANGES. ............................................................................... 1-9 VIII.BACKGROUND. ................................................................................................. 1-9 IX. DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY. ........................................................ 1-10A.T HE A CT................................................................................................................................................................. 1-10B. C OMPLIANCE S AFETY AND H EALTH O FFICER (CSHO). ...........................................................1-10B.H E/S HE AND H IS/H ERS ..................................................................................................................................... 1-10C.P ROFESSIONAL J UDGMENT............................................................................................................................... 1-10E. W ORKPLACE AND W ORKSITE ......................................................................................................................... 1-10CHAPTER 2PROGRAM PLANNINGI.INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 2-1 II.AREA OFFICE RESPONSIBILITIES. .............................................................. 2-1A.P ROVIDING A SSISTANCE TO S MALL E MPLOYERS. ...................................................................................... 2-1B.A REA O FFICE O UTREACH P ROGRAM. ............................................................................................................. 2-1C. R ESPONDING TO R EQUESTS FOR A SSISTANCE. ............................................................................................ 2-2 III. OSHA COOPERATIVE PROGRAMS OVERVIEW. ...................................... 2-2A.V OLUNTARY P ROTECTION P ROGRAM (VPP). ........................................................................... 2-2B.O NSITE C ONSULTATION P ROGRAM. ................................................................................................................ 2-2C.S TRATEGIC P ARTNERSHIPS................................................................................................................................. 2-3D.A LLIANCE P ROGRAM ........................................................................................................................................... 2-3 IV. ENFORCEMENT PROGRAM SCHEDULING. ................................................ 2-4A.G ENERAL ................................................................................................................................................................. 2-4B.I NSPECTION P RIORITY C RITERIA. ..................................................................................................................... 2-4C.E FFECT OF C ONTEST ............................................................................................................................................ 2-5D.E NFORCEMENT E XEMPTIONS AND L IMITATIONS. ....................................................................................... 2-6E.P REEMPTION BY A NOTHER F EDERAL A GENCY ........................................................................................... 2-6F.U NITED S TATES P OSTAL S ERVICE. .................................................................................................................. 2-7G.H OME-B ASED W ORKSITES. ................................................................................................................................ 2-8H.I NSPECTION/I NVESTIGATION T YPES. ............................................................................................................... 2-8 V.UNPROGRAMMED ACTIVITY – HAZARD EVALUATION AND INSPECTION SCHEDULING ............................................................................ 2-9 VI.PROGRAMMED INSPECTIONS. ................................................................... 2-10A.S ITE-S PECIFIC T ARGETING (SST) P ROGRAM. ............................................................................................. 2-10B.S CHEDULING FOR C ONSTRUCTION I NSPECTIONS. ..................................................................................... 2-10C.S CHEDULING FOR M ARITIME I NSPECTIONS. ............................................................................. 2-11D.S PECIAL E MPHASIS P ROGRAMS (SEP S). ................................................................................... 2-12E.N ATIONAL E MPHASIS P ROGRAMS (NEP S) ............................................................................... 2-13F.L OCAL E MPHASIS P ROGRAMS (LEP S) AND R EGIONAL E MPHASIS P ROGRAMS (REP S) ............ 2-13G.O THER S PECIAL P ROGRAMS. ............................................................................................................................ 2-13H.I NSPECTION S CHEDULING AND I NTERFACE WITH C OOPERATIVE P ROGRAM P ARTICIPANTS ....... 2-13CHAPTER 3INSPECTION PROCEDURESI.INSPECTION PREPARATION. .......................................................................... 3-1 II.INSPECTION PLANNING. .................................................................................. 3-1A.R EVIEW OF I NSPECTION H ISTORY .................................................................................................................... 3-1B.R EVIEW OF C OOPERATIVE P ROGRAM P ARTICIPATION .............................................................................. 3-1C.OSHA D ATA I NITIATIVE (ODI) D ATA R EVIEW .......................................................................................... 3-2D.S AFETY AND H EALTH I SSUES R ELATING TO CSHO S.................................................................. 3-2E.A DVANCE N OTICE. ................................................................................................................................................ 3-3F.P RE-I NSPECTION C OMPULSORY P ROCESS ...................................................................................................... 3-5G.P ERSONAL S ECURITY C LEARANCE. ................................................................................................................. 3-5H.E XPERT A SSISTANCE. ........................................................................................................................................... 3-5 III. INSPECTION SCOPE. ......................................................................................... 3-6A.C OMPREHENSIVE ................................................................................................................................................... 3-6B.P ARTIAL. ................................................................................................................................................................... 3-6 IV. CONDUCT OF INSPECTION .............................................................................. 3-6A.T IME OF I NSPECTION............................................................................................................................................. 3-6B.P RESENTING C REDENTIALS. ............................................................................................................................... 3-6C.R EFUSAL TO P ERMIT I NSPECTION AND I NTERFERENCE ............................................................................. 3-7D.E MPLOYEE P ARTICIPATION. ............................................................................................................................... 3-9E.R ELEASE FOR E NTRY ............................................................................................................................................ 3-9F.B ANKRUPT OR O UT OF B USINESS. .................................................................................................................... 3-9G.E MPLOYEE R ESPONSIBILITIES. ................................................................................................. 3-10H.S TRIKE OR L ABOR D ISPUTE ............................................................................................................................. 3-10I. V ARIANCES. .......................................................................................................................................................... 3-11 V. OPENING CONFERENCE. ................................................................................ 3-11A.G ENERAL ................................................................................................................................................................ 3-11B.R EVIEW OF A PPROPRIATION A CT E XEMPTIONS AND L IMITATION. ..................................................... 3-13C.R EVIEW S CREENING FOR P ROCESS S AFETY M ANAGEMENT (PSM) C OVERAGE............................. 3-13D.R EVIEW OF V OLUNTARY C OMPLIANCE P ROGRAMS. ................................................................................ 3-14E.D ISRUPTIVE C ONDUCT. ...................................................................................................................................... 3-15F.C LASSIFIED A REAS ............................................................................................................................................. 3-16VI. REVIEW OF RECORDS. ................................................................................... 3-16A.I NJURY AND I LLNESS R ECORDS...................................................................................................................... 3-16B.R ECORDING C RITERIA. ...................................................................................................................................... 3-18C. R ECORDKEEPING D EFICIENCIES. .................................................................................................................. 3-18 VII. WALKAROUND INSPECTION. ....................................................................... 3-19A.W ALKAROUND R EPRESENTATIVES ............................................................................................................... 3-19B.E VALUATION OF S AFETY AND H EALTH M ANAGEMENT S YSTEM. ....................................................... 3-20C.R ECORD A LL F ACTS P ERTINENT TO A V IOLATION. ................................................................................. 3-20D.T ESTIFYING IN H EARINGS ................................................................................................................................ 3-21E.T RADE S ECRETS. ................................................................................................................................................. 3-21F.C OLLECTING S AMPLES. ..................................................................................................................................... 3-22G.P HOTOGRAPHS AND V IDEOTAPES.................................................................................................................. 3-22H.V IOLATIONS OF O THER L AWS. ....................................................................................................................... 3-23I.I NTERVIEWS OF N ON-M ANAGERIAL E MPLOYEES .................................................................................... 3-23J.M ULTI-E MPLOYER W ORKSITES ..................................................................................................................... 3-27 K.A DMINISTRATIVE S UBPOENA.......................................................................................................................... 3-27 L.E MPLOYER A BATEMENT A SSISTANCE. ........................................................................................................ 3-27 VIII. CLOSING CONFERENCE. .............................................................................. 3-28A.P ARTICIPANTS. ..................................................................................................................................................... 3-28B.D ISCUSSION I TEMS. ............................................................................................................................................ 3-28C.A DVICE TO A TTENDEES .................................................................................................................................... 3-29D.P ENALTIES............................................................................................................................................................. 3-30E.F EASIBLE A DMINISTRATIVE, W ORK P RACTICE AND E NGINEERING C ONTROLS. ............................ 3-30F.R EDUCING E MPLOYEE E XPOSURE. ................................................................................................................ 3-32G.A BATEMENT V ERIFICATION. ........................................................................................................................... 3-32H.E MPLOYEE D ISCRIMINATION .......................................................................................................................... 3-33 IX. SPECIAL INSPECTION PROCEDURES. ...................................................... 3-33A.F OLLOW-UP AND M ONITORING I NSPECTIONS............................................................................................ 3-33B.C ONSTRUCTION I NSPECTIONS ......................................................................................................................... 3-34C. F EDERAL A GENCY I NSPECTIONS. ................................................................................................................. 3-35CHAPTER 4VIOLATIONSI. BASIS OF VIOLATIONS ..................................................................................... 4-1A.S TANDARDS AND R EGULATIONS. .................................................................................................................... 4-1B.E MPLOYEE E XPOSURE. ........................................................................................................................................ 4-3C.R EGULATORY R EQUIREMENTS. ........................................................................................................................ 4-6D.H AZARD C OMMUNICATION. .............................................................................................................................. 4-6E. E MPLOYER/E MPLOYEE R ESPONSIBILITIES ................................................................................................... 4-6 II. SERIOUS VIOLATIONS. .................................................................................... 4-8A.S ECTION 17(K). ......................................................................................................................... 4-8B.E STABLISHING S ERIOUS V IOLATIONS ............................................................................................................ 4-8C. F OUR S TEPS TO BE D OCUMENTED. ................................................................................................................... 4-8 III. GENERAL DUTY REQUIREMENTS ............................................................. 4-14A.E VALUATION OF G ENERAL D UTY R EQUIREMENTS ................................................................................. 4-14B.E LEMENTS OF A G ENERAL D UTY R EQUIREMENT V IOLATION.............................................................. 4-14C. U SE OF THE G ENERAL D UTY C LAUSE ........................................................................................................ 4-23D.L IMITATIONS OF U SE OF THE G ENERAL D UTY C LAUSE. ..............................................................E.C LASSIFICATION OF V IOLATIONS C ITED U NDER THE G ENERAL D UTY C LAUSE. ..................F. P ROCEDURES FOR I MPLEMENTATION OF S ECTION 5(A)(1) E NFORCEMENT ............................ 4-25 4-27 4-27IV.OTHER-THAN-SERIOUS VIOLATIONS ............................................... 4-28 V.WILLFUL VIOLATIONS. ......................................................................... 4-28A.I NTENTIONAL D ISREGARD V IOLATIONS. ..........................................................................................4-28B.P LAIN I NDIFFERENCE V IOLATIONS. ...................................................................................................4-29 VI. CRIMINAL/WILLFUL VIOLATIONS. ................................................... 4-30A.A REA D IRECTOR C OORDINATION ....................................................................................................... 4-31B.C RITERIA FOR I NVESTIGATING P OSSIBLE C RIMINAL/W ILLFUL V IOLATIONS ........................ 4-31C. W ILLFUL V IOLATIONS R ELATED TO A F ATALITY .......................................................................... 4-32 VII. REPEATED VIOLATIONS. ...................................................................... 4-32A.F EDERAL AND S TATE P LAN V IOLATIONS. ........................................................................................4-32B.I DENTICAL S TANDARDS. .......................................................................................................................4-32C.D IFFERENT S TANDARDS. .......................................................................................................................4-33D.O BTAINING I NSPECTION H ISTORY. .....................................................................................................4-33E.T IME L IMITATIONS..................................................................................................................................4-34F.R EPEATED V. F AILURE TO A BATE....................................................................................................... 4-34G. A REA D IRECTOR R ESPONSIBILITIES. .............................................................................. 4-35 VIII. DE MINIMIS CONDITIONS. ................................................................... 4-36A.C RITERIA ................................................................................................................................................... 4-36B.P ROFESSIONAL J UDGMENT. ..................................................................................................................4-37C. A REA D IRECTOR R ESPONSIBILITIES. .............................................................................. 4-37 IX. CITING IN THE ALTERNATIVE ............................................................ 4-37 X. COMBINING AND GROUPING VIOLATIONS. ................................... 4-37A.C OMBINING. ..............................................................................................................................................4-37B.G ROUPING. ................................................................................................................................................4-38C. W HEN N OT TO G ROUP OR C OMBINE. ................................................................................................4-38 XI. HEALTH STANDARD VIOLATIONS ....................................................... 4-39A.C ITATION OF V ENTILATION S TANDARDS ......................................................................................... 4-39B.V IOLATIONS OF THE N OISE S TANDARD. ...........................................................................................4-40 XII. VIOLATIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY PROTECTION STANDARD(§1910.134). ....................................................................................................... XIII. VIOLATIONS OF AIR CONTAMINANT STANDARDS (§1910.1000) ... 4-43 4-43A.R EQUIREMENTS UNDER THE STANDARD: .................................................................................................. 4-43B.C LASSIFICATION OF V IOLATIONS OF A IR C ONTAMINANT S TANDARDS. ......................................... 4-43 XIV. CITING IMPROPER PERSONAL HYGIENE PRACTICES. ................... 4-45A.I NGESTION H AZARDS. .................................................................................................................................... 4-45B.A BSORPTION H AZARDS. ................................................................................................................................ 4-46C.W IPE S AMPLING. ............................................................................................................................................. 4-46D.C ITATION P OLICY ............................................................................................................................................ 4-46 XV. BIOLOGICAL MONITORING. ...................................................................... 4-47CHAPTER 5CASE FILE PREPARATION AND DOCUMENTATIONI.INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 5-1 II.INSPECTION CONDUCTED, CITATIONS BEING ISSUED. .................... 5-1A.OSHA-1 ................................................................................................................................... 5-1B.OSHA-1A. ............................................................................................................................... 5-1C. OSHA-1B. ................................................................................................................................ 5-2 III.INSPECTION CONDUCTED BUT NO CITATIONS ISSUED .................... 5-5 IV.NO INSPECTION ............................................................................................... 5-5 V. HEALTH INSPECTIONS. ................................................................................. 5-6A.D OCUMENT P OTENTIAL E XPOSURE. ............................................................................................................... 5-6B.E MPLOYER’S O CCUPATIONAL S AFETY AND H EALTH S YSTEM. ............................................................. 5-6 VI. AFFIRMATIVE DEFENSES............................................................................. 5-8A.B URDEN OF P ROOF. .............................................................................................................................................. 5-8B.E XPLANATIONS. ..................................................................................................................................................... 5-8 VII. INTERVIEW STATEMENTS. ........................................................................ 5-10A.G ENERALLY. ......................................................................................................................................................... 5-10B.CSHO S SHALL OBTAIN WRITTEN STATEMENTS WHEN: .......................................................................... 5-10C.L ANGUAGE AND W ORDING OF S TATEMENT. ............................................................................................. 5-11D.R EFUSAL TO S IGN S TATEMENT ...................................................................................................................... 5-11E.V IDEO AND A UDIOTAPED S TATEMENTS. ..................................................................................................... 5-11F.A DMINISTRATIVE D EPOSITIONS. .............................................................................................5-11 VIII. PAPERWORK AND WRITTEN PROGRAM REQUIREMENTS. .......... 5-12 IX.GUIDELINES FOR CASE FILE DOCUMENTATION FOR USE WITH VIDEOTAPES AND AUDIOTAPES .............................................................. 5-12 X.CASE FILE ACTIVITY DIARY SHEET. ..................................................... 5-12 XI. CITATIONS. ..................................................................................................... 5-12A.S TATUTE OF L IMITATIONS. .............................................................................................................................. 5-13B.I SSUING C ITATIONS. ........................................................................................................................................... 5-13C.A MENDING/W ITHDRAWING C ITATIONS AND N OTIFICATION OF P ENALTIES. .................................. 5-13D.P ROCEDURES FOR A MENDING OR W ITHDRAWING C ITATIONS ............................................................ 5-14 XII. INSPECTION RECORDS. ............................................................................... 5-15A.G ENERALLY. ......................................................................................................................................................... 5-15B.R ELEASE OF I NSPECTION I NFORMATION ..................................................................................................... 5-15C. C LASSIFIED AND T RADE S ECRET I NFORMATION ...................................................................................... 5-16。

创新产品新颖性和实用性评价上的从众效应-社会心理学论文-社会学论文——文章均为WORD文档，下载后可直接编辑使用亦可打印——从众心理论文第四篇：创新产品新颖性和实用性评价上的从众效应摘要：尽管对从众效应已经开展了广泛的研究, 但对于创造性产品的评价是否存在从众效应仍有待探讨。

本实验以原创性程度不同的两类创造性产品创新产品和革新产品为材料, 采用初次评价-从众导-延时再评的实验程序, 研究了人们在创造性产品的两个基本维度新颖性和实用性的感知和评价上是否存在从众效应。

结果发现, 两类产品在两个维度的评价上都存在从众效应;但创新产品在实用性维度的评价上比革新产品更容易从众。

实验进一步比较了被试在做出两个维度的评价时其确定性程度有无差异, 发现被试在对创新产品进行实用性评价时所伴随的不确定感较之革新产品更强, 这提示可能是对创新产品进行实用性判断时所具有的更大的不确定感导致了从众程度的增加。

关键词：创新产品; 革新产品; 实用性; 新颖性; 从众效应; 不确定性;Conformity effect of the evaluation of creative productsZHANG Hong REN jingyuan LIU Chenyang LUO JingBeijing Key Laboratory of Learning Cognition, school of Psychology, Capital Normal University Chinese Institute for Brain ResearchAbstract：Although previous studies have found that aconformity effect exists widely, whether people are affected by groups in the evaluation of creative products, the new products with the basic characteristics of novelty and practicability, remains a question to be studied. Compared to artistic products, such products are closely related to real life, reflecting actual creativity, and they are typical creative products in life. Although such products reveal new perspectives for consumers, they also promote a sense of uncertainty. Research shows that when faced with uncertainty, participants are more likely to follow others. Almost all studies on this subject have involved the evaluation of creativity, yet novelty and practicability are two important aspects of creativity.Researchers have studied the characteristics of creativity or creative products; however, creative products can be divided into innovative products and renovative products according to their originality. Therefore, we plan to compare the conformity effect of the two kinds of creative products in the evaluation of novelty and practicability in this study.An initial evaluation-conformity induced-delay re-evaluation paradigm was used in Experiment 1, in which participants were first asked to evaluate the practicability (or novelty) of creative products; then the 200 undergraduates average rating and the participants own ratings were revealed. The group rating would be revealed as higher or lower than or similar to the participants rating. Thirty-minutes later, participants evaluated the task again were entirelyunexpected. To further analyze the difference in conformity degree between the two types of creative products, the subjects were required to make a certainty judgment on the novelty and practicality of the product in Experiment 2.Experiment 1 revealed that participants had decreased their practicability (or novelty) ratings when the group rating was lower than their first rating, increased their practicability (or novelty) ratings when the group rating was higher than their first rating, and did not change their ratings significantly when the group rating was comparable to their first rating. In the evaluation of practicability, it was found that the conformity of variation (the second rating the first rating) of innovative products was significantly higher than that of renovative products. Nevertheless, in the evaluation of novelty, the two types of creative products had the same conformity of variation. Similarly, Experiment 2 found that the uncertainty of the evaluation of the practicability of the innovative product was greater than that of the renovative product. In the evaluation of the novelty of the two kinds of products, the degree of uncertainty was the same.In summary, both the evaluation of novelty and the practicability of creative products had a conformity effect. In the practicality evaluation of innovative products, it was easier for respondents to follow others, which might be caused by the greater uncertainty in the practical evaluation of innovative products than in that of renovative products. Nevertheless, in the absence ofknowledge of new things, blindly following the crowd is likely to have unimaginable consequences. For long-term development, we should fully understand that innovative products are practical and decide what to do the next.1 引言1951年, 心理学家Asch利用比较线段长短的任务进行了经典的从众实验研究(Asch, 1951) 。