Application of TBLT to English Reading Class in Junior High School
摘要
阅读是人们学习语言的四种基本技能之一，是人们获取信息的一个重要途径。学生一旦具备了独立阅读的能力，就将为以后的语言学习打下坚实的基础。因此长期以来，阅读一直受到国内外外语教育界的广泛关注。但是在现如今的外语教学中，尽管老师和学生在阅读方面投入了大量的时间和精力，然而，学生的阅读能力和阅读现状并不令人满意。绝大部分学生的阅读能力与教学大纲要求甚远。阅读课上学生缺乏学习的主动性、积极性，教学效果低。
值得幸运的是新的《英语课程标准》提倡的任务型教学途径将会改变学生被动学习的局面。然而，在英语教学中，尤其在英语阅读教学中怎样运用这种教学模式是一个值得研究的课题。
基于以上原因，本文旨在探讨以下问题：1）任务型阅读是否能够激发学生学习英语的兴趣？2）任务型阅读是否对于提高课堂效率提高学生阅读能力有帮助？3）实施任务型阅读教学是否比传统的阅读教学方法更能促进学生学习成绩的提高？
本文研究的目的主要是探讨任务型教学在英语阅读教学中的应用，从而找到提高学生英语阅读能力和培养学生英语阅读兴趣的方法。本论文作者先对本校初中英语阅读教学现状进行了问卷调查研究，找到了英语阅读教学中存在的问题，然后通过实验试图在初中英语阅读教学中贯彻实施任务型教学的理念，对初中英语任务型阅读教学进行研究。
作者在葫芦岛市实验中学的初二的两个平行班中118名学生中进行了实验。其中实验班60人,控制班58人.实验时间从2007年9月到2008年3月.笔者通过测试和采访收集数据信息。实验结果显示，采用任务型教学的班级比采用传统教学法教学的班级在阅读方面成绩取得了更为显著的进步，平均成绩比对比班高出 2.02.从而说明任务型语言教学能够有效运用于初中英语阅读课堂，提高了学生的阅读水平。实践证明该理论在我国初中英语阅读教学实践中的可行性，为初中英语阅读教学改革提供一些参考。
关键字：任务型语言教学，初中英语阅读教学，阅读任务
Reading，one of the four basic language skills，is an important approach to getting English information. Once the ability of independent reading has been developed，the students can study independently forming the solid basis for their future studies. Hence, reading has been drawn the academic concerns of TEFL both at home and at abroad for a long time. An enormous amount of time, money and effort is spent in teaching reading, however, no remarkable success has been received, and the students‘ competence hasn‘t reached the level required by the teaching syllabus.
Fortunately，the English Curriculum Criteria is being carried out throughout China，and it advocates the approach of task-based teaching and learning，which would completely enhance the instructional situation in which students learn knowledge passively. But how to employ the model in teaching English，especially in teaching English reading，is a theme worth exploring.
The main questions addressed in this study are as following: 1) Can TBR improve students‘ interest in English learning? 2) Is TBR helpful to improve the effect of the English class and the students learning or facilitate students` reading ability? 3) Can task-based reading improve the scores of students?
In this study, the author attempts to investigate the application of Task-Based Language teaching in the junior English reading classroom with a view to im proving the students‘ reading competence and enhances their interest in reading. In this thesis, the author makes the investigations about the situation of reading teaching in her school and points out the problems, and attempts to study the implementation of TBLT in reading class .
The current thesis tries to get the approval by means of carrying out task-based reading experiments in two parallel classes in Grade 8 of Hu Ludao experimental middle school. One class is an experimental class with 60 students，and the other class is a control class with 58 students. The experiment lasted from September of 2007 to March of 2008. According to the results, we know that the mean of experimental classes is 2.02 higher than that of comparative classes.
The results of the experiment show the experimental class that adopts TBLT has more remarkable progress than the control class that adopts traditional teaching method. That indicates that TBLT can be used in the reading classroom effectively and designing different and proper tasks can increase the students‘ reading ability.
Keywords: Task-based language teaching, junior English reading teaching, reading tasks
Chapter I Introduction. 1
1.1 Significance and purpose of this research. 1
1.2 The structure of the thesis. 3
Chapter II Literature Review. 4
2.1 Task-based language teaching. 4
2.1.1What is a task. 4
2.1.2 The definition of task-based language teaching. 5
2.1.3 The characteristic of TBLT. 6
2.1.4 The principles of TBLT. 7
2.1.5 The components of a TBLT framework. 8
2.2 Theoretical background of Task-based language Teaching. 9 2.2.1 Constructivism.. 9
2.2.2 Second Language Acquisition. 10
2.2.3 Input and Interaction Hypothesis. 11
2.3 A brief review of bout Reading. 12
2.3.1 The Schema Theory. 12
2.3.2 Reading models. 12
2.4 Reading Tasks. 14
2.4.1 Definition of Reading Tasks. 14
2.4.2 Features of Reading Tasks. 14
2.4.3 Components of Reading Tasks. 15
2.4.4 Types of Reading Tasks. 19
2.4.5 Features of Junior English Reading (22)
2.4.6 Basic Principles for Designing Reading Tasks. 24
Chapter III Experiment 26
3.1 Investigation of teaching reading in junior schools. 26
3.l.1 Classroom observation. 26
3.1.2 Investigations from the students. 26
3.1.3 Point ou t the problem (29)
3.2 experiment design. 29
3.2.1 Purpose. 29
3.2.2 hypothesis of the problem.. 29
3.2.3 Subject 29
3.2.4 The instruments. 30
3.2.5The procedure. 30
3.2.5.1Pre-test (30)
3.2.5.2The teac hing technique in the control class (30)
3.3.5.3Application of TBLT in reading class in the experimental class (31)
3.2.5.3.1 Designing Reading Tasks............................................. . (31)
3.2.5.3.2 A Framework of TBLT in Reading Class (35)
3.2.5.3.3Samples of Task-based Reading Classes........................... . (38)
3.2.5.4 Post-test (40)
3.2.6 Interview.. 41
Chapter IV results and analysis, discussion. 42
4.1 A comparison between the tests of both classes. 42
4.1.1A comparison of mean of reading comprehension. 42
4.1.2 A comparison of excellence rate and Passing rate of both classes. 42 4.2 Discussion. 43
4.2.1 The advantages of TBLT. 43
4.2.2 The insufficiency of TBLT. 45
4.2.3 Suggestions. 45
Chapter V Conclusion. 47
5.1 Limitations of study. 47
5.2 Conclusion. 47
Bibliography
Appendix A Samples of Reading Tasks
Appendix B Some Reading Materials in Go for it!
Appendix C中学生英语阅读情况调查问卷表
Chapter I Introduction
1.1 Significance and purpose of this research
Reading，one of the four basic language skills，is an important approach to getting English information. Once the ability of independent reading has been developed，the students can study independently forming the solid basis for their future studies. So in English teaching specially emphasis is laid on reading，and in the entrance examination reading makes up a large proportion of the scoring. The English syllabus of primary and secondary schools advocate developing the reading ability on the basis of the complete practice of listening，speaking and writing.
In New English Curriculum Standard(2001:15),issued by the Ministry of Education，junior students in China are expected to have the following reading capabilities when they finish the three-year study:
(1) Be able to find out the main idea and useful information from general reading materials;
(2) Be able to guess the meaning of new words according to the context;
(3) Be able to predict what will happen next according to the context;
(4) Be able to adopt different reading skills according to the various purposes of reading;
(5) Be able to collect information needed by different kinds of means;
(6) The amount of after-class reading needs to be more than 200,000 words, which doesn‘t include what students read in class.
English teachers in China do know it is really difficult to achieve those goals. We really face a great challenge in English teaching now. In current junior English reading class in China, many teachers deal with the text sentence by sentence and paragraph by paragraph: explaining the language points, dwelling upon the grammar rules, analyzing the sentences, providing the Chinese equivalents and giving examples to show the usage of certain words and expressions. The teachers influenced by tra ditional teaching methods assume that what the students‘ need is a good command of grammar and vocabulary. In their minds, it is still believed that grammar rules, sentence patterns and language points are the most important things for the students to learn in English reading class. In those reading classes, students only learn the knowledge of English. Besides, there is no real communication but only dull drills because there is no information gap in the classroom activities. As a result, the training of t he students‘ comprehensive reading competence is often neglected in the actual teaching and a reading class generally becomes teacher-centered and boring.
Having practiced TBLT in junior English class for more than four years, the author thinks TBLT is an effective way to solve the problems mentioned above in English reading teaching. More and
more teachers prefer TBLT because it makes English classes active, motivates students well, fosters the students’comprehensive abilities to use the target language appropriately and fluently. During the learning course，the students acquire the language by completing tasks. The authentic and meaningful tasks designed by the teacher are the torches to light up the students’passion energy and interest and afford the students interactive chances to acquaint the language actively and creatively. Students learn English with the clear aim，to develop their ability of language，thinking，communication and cooperation.
However it’s a pity that the study about the use of TBLT in junior English reading class has been done a little so far. To many English teachers，Task-based learning is a new concept for them ,some of them have the wrong ideas of it. For example, some language teachers only teach language points in class, they regard them as the main tasks，meanwhile，teachers neglect the communicative task in English reading class neglect the‘student-centered’principle，therefore，in order to apply the new method in junior English- reading class, through this study, the writer wants to explore the methods about how to use TBLT in junior English reading class effectively, accumulate some experiences about how to design reading tasks and try to find out the framework of task-based reading teaching in junior English, and evaluate the possibility of the application of TBLT in junior English reading class.
1.2 The structure of the thesis
This thesis consists of altogether five chapters. Chapter One gives a brief introduction providing the reasons why adopts TBLT in reading teaching and the outline of the thesis. Chapter Two offers literature review of TBLT theory and the theory of the essence of reading, which provide theoretical support for this thesis. It also offers something about reading tasks to English reading class in junior high school. Chapter Three is the experiment, which consists of purpose, subjects, instruments, experiment procedure, what the author does in daily teaching and the interview. Chapter Four is results and analysis, discussions. The last chapter offers a conclusion to the whole thesis and including some limitations for the thesis.
Chapter II Literature Review
2.1 Task-based language teaching
2.1.1What is a task
In general education, and in other fields such as psychology, there are many different definitions of tasks. There is also quite a variety from within the field of second language teaching.
(1) Long‘s definition is a non-technical, non-linguistic one.
A task is ―a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward. Thus, examples of tasks include painting a fence, dressing a child, filling out a form, buying a pair of
shoes, making an airline reservation, borrowing a library book, taking a driving test, typing a letter, weighing a patient, sorting letters, taking a hotel reservation, writing a check, finding a street destination, and help someone across a road. In other words, by ―task‖ is meant the hundred and one things people do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in between. ―Tasks‖ are the things people will tell you they do if you ask them and they are not applied linguists.‖ (Long, 1985:89)
(2) Another definition is from a dictionary of applied linguistics:
A task is ―an activity or action which is carried out as the result of processing or understanding language, i.e. as a response. For example, drawing a map while listening to a tape, and listening to an instruction and performing a command, may be referred to as tasks. Tasks may or may not involve the production of language. A task usually requires the teacher to specify what will be regarded as successful completion of the task. The use of variety different kinds of tasks in language teaching is said to make teaching more communicative…since it provides a purpose for classroom activity which goes beyond practice of language for its own sake.‖(Richards, Platt, and Weber, 1986:289)
(3) Crookes(1986)
A task is ―a piece of work or an activity, usually with a specified objective, undertaken as part of an educational course, at work, or used to elicit data for researc h‖.
(4)Prabhu(1987)
A task is ―an activity which required learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and which allowed teachers to control and regulate that process‖.
(5)According to Nunan, a communicative task is ―a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing, or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form. The task should also have a sense of compl eteness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right.‖(Nunan 1989:10)
(6)Skehan(1996a)
A task is ―an activity in which: meaning is primary; there is some sort of relationship to the real world; task completion has some priority; and the assessment of task performance is in terms of task outcome.‖
(7)Lee(2000)
A task is―(1) a classroom activity or exercise that has:(a)an objective obtainable only by the interaction among participants,(b)a mechanism for structuring and sequencing interaction, and(c)a
focus on meaning exchange;(2)a language learning endeavor that requires learners to comprehend, manipulate, and/or produce the target language as they perform some set of work plans ‖.
Although these researchers emphasize the different aspects of the task, the definitions we have looked at share something in common: they all imply that tasks involve realistic language use in which learners focus their attention on meaning rather than linguistic structures，and that learning tasks help learners acquire‘the ability to perform certain communicative functions through a new medium(English)’(Coupland, 1984:12).
2.1.2 The definition of task-based language teaching
Task-based language teaching offers the students an opportunity to do exactly things.The primary focus of classroom activity is the task and language is the instrument, which the students use to complete it. The task is an activity in which students use language to achieve a specific outcome. Jane Willis (2000:41) thinks TBLT is an approach to language teaching, which makes use of authentic materials in communicative pedagogical tasks. These pedagogical tasks reflect real-world tasks that the learners in a given situation would complete as a part of their daily life. Pedagogical tasks act as building blocks to an ultimate objective. Thus, TBLT relies both on the learner‘s ability to learn analytically and on the teacher‘s flexibility and creativity. The learner‘s ability to learn analytically is necessary in completing tasks focused on meaning rather than grammatical form; the teacher‘s flexibility and creativity are demanded as she or he diagnoses the outcome of each task and creates new materials in response to newly revealed learner needs. TBLT is a complex approach to language teaching, but in its complexity it responds to both current SLA theory as well as the practical needs of the classroom.
In brief, TBLT is a communicative teaching approach, which offers the students opportunities to learn and use the language by doing all kinds of things, which are likely to happen in the real life.
2.1.3 The characteristic of TBLT
Compared with the traditional English teaching, task-based language teaching not only absorbs the strong points of traditional teaching method，but also gives play to its special great advantage. First of all，it embodies the humanistic ideas and the learning notion advocated by constructivism by emphasizing the development of human beings as well as the student-centered notion. Giving respect to the sense of students，task-based teaching let students participate activities and taste the joy of success as well as the value of themselves. Secondly，it balances theoretically the conflict of the form and sense of language，that of the development of language system and the development of the communicative ability of language，that of the classroom teaching and the natural acquisition，as well as that of the improvement of language fluency，accuracy and complexity. No matter it is seen from the point view of the goal or the mode of task-based teaching，it integrates the advantages of the traditional teaching methods and communicative approach; therefore，it has
a great appeal in theory.
Nunan(1991:279)concluded the characteristic of TBLT as following:
1) An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language·
2) The introduction of authentic text into the learning situation.
3)The provision of opportunities of learners to focus，not only on language，but also on the learning process itself
4) A n enhancement of the learner‘s own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning.
5) An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside the classroom.
2.1.4 The principles of TBLT
Willis offers five principles for the implementation of TBLT (qtd. from the training materials 2002). They are:
(1) There should be exposure to worthwhile and authentic language;
(2) There should be use of language;
(3) Tasks should motivate learners to engage in language use;
(4) There should be a focus on language at some points in a task cycle;
(5) The focus on language should be more and less prominent at different times.
According to Nunan，language is better achieved in an inductive way，i.e.，Teachers should let students observe and conclude what the language is like instead of giving students the rules and examples. In case students develop wrong rules，teachers are there to help and correct. Students learn the rules from meaningful and practical contexts or tasks.
Nunan(1999) suggests the following eight principles of TBLT:
l) Scaffolding; Lesson and materials should provide support to the students. Scaffolding is a process of ?setting up‘ the situation to make the students‘ entry easy and successful and then gradually pulling back and handing the role to the students as he becomes skilled enough to manage it.(Bruner, 1983:60)
2) Task Chains; that’s also called the task dependency principle. Exercises，activity and task should build upon the ones that have gone before. A series of tasks in a lesson or unit of work forms a kind of pedagogical ladder，each task representing a rung on the ladder，enabling the learner to reach higher and higher levels of communicative performance.
3) Recycling; Recycling language maximizes opportunities for learning.
4) Organic Learning; Language ability ―grows‖ gradually.
5) Active Learning; that‘s also called Learning by doing principle. Learners learn best by actively using the language they are learning. They learn by doing.
Learning by doing motivates students to fulfill their potential. Learners master the language by using it communicatively in the classroom，although they still have to learn grammar and memorize vocabulary.
6) Integration; the lesson should teach grammatical form and how the form is used for purposes of communication.
7) Reflection; learners should be given opportunities to think about what they have learned and how well they are doing.
8)Copying to creation: Learners should not only drill and practice what has been written for them，but also be given the opportunity to use their creativity and imagination and what they have learned to solve real world tasks.
2.1.5 The components of a TBLT framework
Jane Willis(1996)，in her book“A framework for task-based learning”outlines a model for organizing lessons. It presents a model that is based on sound theoretical foundations and one which takes account of the need of authentic communication. Task-based learning is typically based on these stages:
The first of these is the pre -task stage，during which the teacher introduces and defines the topic and the learners engage in activities that either help them to recall words and Phrases that are essential to the task. This stage is followed by what Willis calls the task cycle. Here the learners perform the task. (typically a reading or listening exercise or a problem-solving exercise) in Pairs or small groups. They then prepare a report for the whole class on how they did the task and what conclusions they reached. Finally they present their findings to the class in spoken or written form. The final stage is the language focus stage during which specific language features from the task are highlighted and worked on. Feedback on the learners‘ performance at the reporting stage may
also be appropriate at this point.
2.2 Theoretical background of Task-based language Teaching
2.2.1 Constructivism
The core of task-based approach is ―learner-centered‖ and ―human-oriented‖ with a philosophical and psychological theory-the prevailing constructivism. Fosnot (1996:ix) pointed out that constructivism is a theory about knowledge and learning. Based on psychology, Philosophy and anthropology, constructivism holds that knowledge is temporary，developing and subjective，which is constructed by learners and affected by social culture. The theory thinks that the cognition of human beings is developing with experience: knowledge is a reorganization and reconstruction of experience，a continuous psychological process of construction，and a Process of experience，discovery and creation. A real，natural teaching task provides learners with such precious process for experience. The authentic，natural tasks wi11 surely animate the cognitive structure and schema. Containing the goals waiting to be attained and the questions remaining to be solved，it will inevitably stimulate the learner’s desire to new knowledge and new information. By carrying out tasks and participating activities，the learners promote the“recombination”and “reconstruction”of their knowledge，improve the interaction，connection，blending as well as integration of the new knowledge input and the learner’s known cognitive schema. Once the learner tastes the significance of the participation of the activity and the success in constructing new knowledge, he/she will be more initiative and active, and the absorbing of knowledge will thus be accelerated.
Constructivism claims that knowledge should be constructed through interaction and cooperation and emphasizes particularly learning by social interaction and cooperation. Isolated learning cannot lead to the increase of knowledge or development of ability: only when interacting with the others and cooperating with companions can one stimulate the inner elements. As is stressed by Fosnot(1996:ix)，teachers teaching according to constructivism should get rid of the incorrect thought that meaning could be infused into learners’brain by signs，that students can precisely copy the teacher’s knowledge for his/her own use，that intact concept could be separated and that knowledge can be taught without context (experience). The characteristic of now-advocated task-based language teaching lies right in the multi-leveled activities，which can meet these needs.
2.2.2 Second Language Acquisition
Task-based language teaching accords with the theoretical hypothesis of the SLA internalizing process. Many linguistics have Put forward many hypothesizes on the cognitive process of language acquisition. Rod Ellis(1997:349)once retold the flow chart of language acquired by the brain cognitive system depicted by Gass (1988)，believing that after being input into the brain，information go through the following process: Noticed input----->Comprehended input----->intake------->implicit knowledge and explicit knowledge. He illustrates the mode in this
way:
As is proven by fact，the listening and speaking ability of a foreign language mainly come from implicit and explicit knowledge. The latter refers to the language rules stored in the brain，which can supervise consciously the language spoken，while the former refers to the token of language rules，which is the internalized grammar of et the learner .This kind of grammar hides deep in man’s instinctive perception to language. The implicit knowledge，as a matter of fact，is the so-called“interlanguage”. It is the relatively stable language system constructed by SLA learners, which can help one to generate language and conduct communication. That one communicates in a foreign language in conversation mainly depends on implicit knowledge. Nevertheless though it can rely on classroom instruction and repeated exercises，it largely depends on the understandable sufficient language exposure and input，and the teaching activity that blends the structure and function in particular.
so，task-based approach provides such teaching activity; comprehensible input provided by the real teaching tasks is composed of the intake environments that acquisition must possess，the learners have chance to receive sufficient language input in this environment，then they go on the meaning negotiation and obtain the real feedback，in which the language structure is absorbed and assimilated，rules are used modified and expanded. All these promote the development of interlanguage.
2.2.3 Input and Interaction Hypothesis
It is usually thought that another theoretical basis of TBLT is Krashen‘s ―Input and Interaction Hypothesis‖, in which he declares, ―The Input Hypothesis claims that we acquire language in only one way by understanding messages, which is by receiving comprehensible input. If the input contains forms and structures just beyond the learner‘s current level of competence in the language, i.e., then comprehension and acquisition will occur.‖(qtd from the Training Materials,2002/9) Ricardo Schütz said in his article Stephen Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition that the Input Hypothesis is only concerned with acquisition, not learning. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses when he/she receives second language input that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some comprehensive input that is appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence.(qtd.from Schütz, https://www.doczj.com/doc/8f11431844.html,.br/sk-krash.html 2006/8/20)
2.3 A brief review of bout Reading
A s the writer is going to discuss the implementation of TBLT in English reading class, it‘s necessary to have a brief review about the schema theory and the reading process.
2.3.1 The Schema Theory
The schema theory is very important in reading. Christine Nuttall(2002:7) said in his book Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language that a schema is a mental structure. It‘s abstract because it doesn‘t relate to any particular experience, although it derives from all the particular experiences we have had. The way we interpret depends on the schemata activated by the text; and whether we interpret successfully depends on whether our schemata are sufficiently similar to the writer‘s New information, new concepts, new ideas can have meaning only when they can be related to something the individual already knows. It is the Gestalt psychologists who first formalized it as schema theory, starting in 1912.In meaning learning, already-known general ideas ―subsume‖ or ―anchor‖ the new particular proposition found in the texts. The readers have to be aware of which aspects of his knowledge are relevant. The full development of schema theory as a model for representing how knowledge is stored in human memory didn‘t occur until the revolution in our conception of how humans process information spurred by the computer scientists doing simulations of human cognition. And in the 1980s, schema theory became an important component of discourse analysis, reading theory, and applied linguistics.
Now we know reading makes use of existing schemata and modifies them. That means when we design a task, we need to take account of readers schemata.
2.3.2 Reading models
According to the schema theory, text comprehension requires the simultaneous interaction of two modes of information processing——the top-down approach and the bottom-up approach. Christine Nuttall (2002:16-17)had vivid descriptions about the two approaches in the book Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language. He said that we might compare top-down approach to an ea gle‘s eye view of the landscape. From a great height, the eagle can see a wide area spread out below; it understands the nature of the whole terrain, its general pattern and the relationships between various parts of it, far better than an observer on the ground. However, he said, our image of bottom-up processing might be a scientist with a magnifying glass examining the ecology of a transact-a tiny part of the landscape the eagle surveys.
(1)Bottom-up Approach
This text-based process occurs when linguis tic input from the text is mapped against the reader‘s previous knowledge. It is also called data driven because it is evoked by the incoming data. The readers build up a meaning from letters and words, working out sentence structure.
(2) Top-down Approach
This knowledge-based or conceptually driven information process occurs when readers draw on their prior knowledge to make predictions about the data they will find in a text. We understand the text based on the schemata we have acquired. Activities that assist students in gaining or accessing background knowledge facilitate top-down processing.
(3) Interactive Approach
On the other hand, in practice readers continually shifts from one approach to another, now adopting a top-down approach to predict the probable meaning, then moving to the bottom-up approach to check whether that is really what the writer says. This has become known as interactive reading. Both approaches can be mobilized by conscious choice, and both are important strategies for readers.
We had a literature review of TBLT and reading just now. Many teachers have been practicing the implementation of task-based teaching and learning. However we find only a few books and articles about the application of TBLT in English reading teaching. Jane Willis‘ A Framework of Task-based Learning, Rod Ellis‘ Task-based Language Learning and Teaching have mentioned how to teach reading with TBLT. And we may find some articles discussing this problem in magazines, newspapers or on the Internet. There‘s a need to have a further study on the implementation of TBLT in reading class.
2.4 Reading Tasks
2.4.1 Definition of Reading Tasks
When we try to give a definition to a reading task, first of all, we‘d better have a look at the definitions of task given by different education experts. In Chapter Two, we have made a list of definitions of task. Though these definitions emphasize different aspects of tasks, they have something in common. According to these definitions, the writer gives a definition to a reading task like this:
A reading task is a piece of work based on reading materials and reading comprehension. Students do different kinds of activities by using what they are learning now and their schemata to achieve a certain reading purpose. By doing so, students understand the text, learn and use the new expressions and try to improve their comprehensive ability to use English in real life.
2.4.2 Features of Reading Tasks
Skehan made a summary of the general features of a task in his book A cognitive Approach To Language Learning. He thought there are five key characteristics of a task (1995:95)
(1) Meaning is primary;
(2) There is a communicative problem to be solved;
(3) There is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities;
(4) Task completion has some priority;
(5) The assessment of the task is in terms of outcomes.
Similarly we may find that reading tasks have the following characteristics:
(1) It usually aims at a reading purpose that may happen both in their study and everyday life.
(2) The input is mainly in the form of printed or written words.
(3) Reading comprehension is the basis of a reading task.
(4) Task completion comes first. The teacher has to allow students to try every means to finish the task.
(5) The quality of the outcome of a reading task is the key factor when we evaluate students‘ performance during the process of the task completion.
2.4.3 Components of Reading Tasks
Nunan(2000:48)suggests that tasks will have six components. They are goals, input, activities, teacher role, student role and settings. In this study, a reading task consists of goals, reading materials, arrangement and evaluation. The writer tries to illustrate the components of a reading task concretely with the help of Teaching Sample 1 in Chapter 3.2
Then let‘s demonstrate the components one by one based on this example.
1. Goal
On the one hand, the beginning of task design should be the goals that are set out in the syllabus or curriculum guidelines. On the other hand, we also need to take account of the reading objectives in real everyday life. As Nunan(2000:48)said,―Goals provide a point of contact between the tasks and the broader curriculum…A reading program can be designed to provide learners with skills to carry out the hundred and one reading tasks that occur in daily life; from looking up a program in the T.V. guide, to reading the sporting page of the afternoon newspaper. On the other hand, it might be designed to develop the specialized reading skills needed for studying successfully in a second language. Given the importance throughout the world of English as a medium of instruction at the tertiary level, it‘s not surprising that a great deal has been written about these second, specialized reading goals.‖ In teach ing sample 1, students learn to describe a person to their partners and identify the person their partners described. This is likely to happen in real life.
And from the sample lesson, we know there isn‘t only one purpose in a reading task in most
situations and a complex task, which involves a series of activities, may have several goals as well. In addition there is rarely a simple one-to-one relationship between goals and tasks. In this class, we have five kinds of goals that are requested in the new English curriculum. At the same time, some activities are done to achieve the same objective.
The problem is what the goals of a reading task are? Then it‘s necessary for us to discuss why people who learn English as a second language and read English materials in their daily life. Generally speaking, there are three kinds of purposes:
(1) Reading for information
Most people read in order to get some information they need in their ever life. For example, when people want to go abroad, they look for the information and read some materials about the country they will go. However, a lot of people read news in English to know what happening around the world. In English reading classes, students often try to get useful information to do reading tasks.
(2) Reading for study
Both students and some adults also read for their study. Study here has meanings. As for students study means reading to learn a foreign language as well as to improve their reading skills and strategies. However some adults read to help research. Most scientists have to read books written in English to help them know more about what they are studying. In this thesis, we care for both of them.
(3) Reading for fun
Why do many people love reading? The major reason is reading bring happiness. We read jokes, stories, novels, poems, or letters from friends etc. to enjoy ourselves in our spare time.
2. Reading materials
The input of a reading task is usually printed or written in English. In real classes, we often call it reading materials. The problem is where we can get the suitable reading materials.
Of course, the textbook is a main resource. However, in current society, we get information we need easily in many different ways. For example, we may get it from the Internet, a library, magazine s, newspapers, popular songs, and students‘ homework and so on. A good and convenient way is to make the best use of newspapers and the exercises.
3. Arrangement
After making the goals and choosing the reading materials, it is the time to arrange the class. This is a major part in a reading task. In this part, it includes activities, forms of how to complete tasks, settings, teaching procedures, teacher‘s role and students‘ role. Let‘s have a discussion in details.
(1) Activities
Nunan said (2000:59) that activities specify what learners will actually do with the input, which forms the point of departure for the learning task. In Teaching Sample 1 of Chapter 4.2, we have 11 activities to finish the tasks and to achieve the teaching purposes. There are different kinds of activities in this lesson, such as writing, guessing games, short speech, match, memory challenge, listening and drawing, telling differences, etc.
(2). Forms
Forms mean how the students finish the task. Students may work in pairs, in groups or do it alone. Forms also mean how students show their outcomes of their tasks. Sometimes they may share their outcome by acting. Sometimes they may make a poster. Sometimes they do a survey and give an oral report or written one. In Teaching Sample 1, students are supposed to write a short article in pre-task phase before class. The outcome is a composition. In Activity 2, Step 1, students show the teacher if they understand by sitting down. However in Activity 4, Step 2, students show us their outcomes by drawing a picture. Forms are usually restricted by available conditions now that the students and the teachers have.
(3) Teaching Procedures
We usually carry out a task-based reading teaching by following certain teaching procedures designed before class by teachers. Teaching procedures tell students and the teacher what activities to do, when and how to do them.
(4) Settings
Settings refer to the following two things in a task-based class. First, how should we decorate the classroom so that students will be more interested and feel more comfortable in learning?
Second, we have to think about the allotment of time. This is very important when we design a lesson. How much time do we need to finish a task? How much time should we spend in pre-reading phase? And how much time should we give to students for their reports? For every procedure, we should think about the matter of time.
(5)Teacher‘s role and students‘ role
English teachers now have realized that the role of teachers and students are quite different and become more complex. What‘s more, it differs in type because of goals, activities, input and some situations. In a task-based reading class, the role of a teacher and students shifts from one to another frequently in a class. Roles of a teacher may be a guide, a host, a monitor, a manager, a facilitator, a partner, a helper or a judge and so on.
Roles of students can perhaps be a speaker, an actor, a listener, a news reporter, a drawer, an interviewer etc. Their roles are the ones that they are likely to be in a real learning or living situation.
4. Evaluation
Why do we need evaluation?
Every time when students finish a task, it‘s necessary for both teachers and students to reflect and evaluate how they perform in a task completion, what they have learned in this class and how much they have mastered. On the other hand, it‘s a good chance for us to learn from failure. We try to find the problems we have had in order to accumulate experiences about how to do the tasks and how to use English better. In this way, we will do better next time.
(1). Contents of Evaluation
Though the evaluation of a reading task is in terms of outcomes, we also take these factors into account:
If the students use English while they do the tasks;
If they use English correctly and fluently;
If they use the new items they have learned in the lesson as well as the old ones;
If they do it in a more creative way;
If everyone has done something for a task completion;
If the report accords with the requests; If they have already mastered what they need to learn;
…
(2) Ways of Evaluation
Of course scores always reveal how well the students learn directly. This is often called terminal assessment. Nevertheless, we often have formative assessment before, in or after a task-based reading class.
Small quizzes, exercises or some games are helpful for teachers to know how students have learned.
Observation is a good way to know the students‘ performance. If possible, take some notes and then give your comments to th e students at the end of the class or sometime when it‘s necessary.
There are other ways supplied by professional educators. Sometimes we may adopt their suggestions, especially when we have difficulties in measuring or testing students‘ reading ability more objectively.
(3)Evaluators
Who gives the evaluation? Teachers are usually the leading role in both formative and terminal evaluations. They organize all kinds of tests or quizzes and correct the test papers and give the marks to show how well the students study in a given period of time. They are also important evaluators to monitor the process of the students‘ learning. Thus they are able to give advice and comments on their further study. Besides teachers, students‘ parents are good evaluators. They have a close relationship with the students who are evaluated. So they may evaluate from different aspects of students‘ study. In addition, we may have an evaluation committee formed by students, teachers and parents. In this way, we may get a more comprehensive evaluation.
2.4.4 Types of Reading Tasks
A reading task is a piece of meaning-focused work involving learners in comprehending, producing and interacting in the target language, and that tasks are categorized according to the goals, input reading materials, activities, arrangement and evaluation.
In fact, tasks have different types according to different criteria. For example:
According to the forms of task completion, there are tasks in class, in groups or solo tasks. There are also opened tasks and closed tasks.
According to the places where the students finish the tasks, we have two types of tasks, in-class tasks and after-class tasks.
According to the time that we need to finish a reading task, there are immediate tasks, short-term tasks and long-term tasks.
According to the ways to get and transfer information, tasks are usually classified by English educators into three kinds: information gap activities, reasoning gap activities and opinion gap activities (qtd. from Li Hua, 2004:18).
These are the ways adopted in this study.
Information-gap activities
There are four kinds of information gaps.