From Peter Smid,CNC Programming Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide to Practical CNC Programming, Second Edition, Industrial Press, Inc. 200 Madison Avenue, New York, 2003.
CHAPTER 6: PROGRAMMING PLANNING
The development of any CNC program begins with a very carefully planned process. Such a process starts with the engineering drawing of the required part. Before the part is machined, several steps have to considered and carefully evaluated. The more effort is put into the planning stage of the program, the better results may be expected at the end.
STEPS IN PROGRAM PLANNING
The steps required in program planning are decided by the nature of the work. There is no formula for all the jobs, but some basic steps should be considered:
* Initial information / Machine tools features
* Part complexity
* Manual programming / computerized programming
* Typical programming procedure
* Part drawing / Engineering data
* Methods sheet / Materials specifications
* Machining sequence
* Tooling selection
* Part setup
* Technological decisions
* Work sketch and calculations
* Quality considerations in CNC programming
The steps in the list are suggestions only a guideline. They are quite flexible and should always be adapted for each job and to the specific conditions of the work.
INITIAL INFORMATION
Most drawings define only the shape and size of the completed part and normally do not specify data about the initial blank material. For programming, a good knowledge of the material is an essential start - mainly in terms of its size, type, shape, condition, hardness, etc. The drawing
and material data are the primary information about the part. At this point, CNC program can be planned. The objective of such a plan is to use the initial information and establish the most efficient method of machining, with all related consideration – mainly part accuracy, productivity, safety and convenience.
The initial part information is not limited to the drawing and the material data, it also includes conditions not covered in the drawing, such as pro- and post- machining, grinding allowances, assembly features, requirements for hardening, next machine setup, and others. Collecting all this information provides enough material to start planning the CNC program.
MACHINE TOOLS FEATURES
No amount of initial information is useful if the CNC machine is not suitable for the job. During program planning, programmer concentrates on a particular machine tool, using a particular CNC system. Each part has to be setup in a fixture, the CNC machine has to be large enough to handle the size of the part, the part should not be heavier than the maximum weight allowed. The control system must be capable to provide the needed tool path, and so on. In the most cases, the CNC equipment is already available in the shop. Very few companies go and buy a new CNC machine just to suit a particular job. Such cases are rather rare and happen on if they make economic sense.
* Machine Type and Size
The most important considerations in program planning are the type and the size of the CNC machine, particularly its work space or work area. Other features, equally important, are the machine power rating, spindle speed and feed rate range, number of tool stations, tool changing system, available accessories, etc. Typically, small CNC machines have higher spindle speeds and lower power rating, large machines have lower spindle speeds available, but their power rating is higher.
* Control System
The control system is the heart of a CNC machine. Being familiar with all the standard and optional features available on the control is a must. This knowledge allows the use of a variety of advanced programming methods, such as the machining cycles, subprograms, macros and other timesaving features of a modern CNC system.
A programmer does not have to physically run a CNC machine. Yet, the programs will become better and more creative with good understanding of the machine and its control system. Program development reflects programmer’s knowledge of the CNC machine operation.
One of the main concerns in program planning should be the operator’s perception of the program. To a large degree, such a perception is quite subjective, in the sense that different operators will express their personal preferences. On the other hand, every operator appreciates an err-free, concise, well-documented and professionally prepared part program, consistently and one after another. A poorly designed program is disliked by any operator, regardless of personal preferences.
PART COMPLEXITY
At the time the drawing, material and the available CNC equipment are evaluated, the complexity of the programming task becomes much clearer. How difficult is to program the part manually? What are the capabilities of the machines? What are the costs? Many questions have to be answered before starting the program.
Simple programming jobs may be assigned to a less experienced programmer of the CNC
operator. It makes sense from the management perspective and it is also a good way to gain experience.
Difficult or complex jobs will benefit from a computerized programming system. Technologies such as Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) have been a strong part of the manufacturing process for many years. The cost of a CAD/CAM system is only a fraction of what it used to be only a few years ago. Even small shops now find that the benefits offered by modern technology are too significant to be ignored. Several programming systems are available various computers and can handle any job. For a typical machine shop, a Windows based programming software can be very beneficial. A typical example of this kind of application is the very popular and powerful MasterCAM, form CNC Software, Inc. Tolland. CT. There are several others.
MANUAL PROGRAMMING
Manual programming (without a computer) has the most common method of preparing a part program for many years. The latest CNC controls make manual programming much easier than ever before by using fixed or repetitive machining cycles, variable type programming, graphic tool motion simulation, standard mathematical input and other timesaving features. In manual programming, all calculations are done by hand –with the aid of a pocket calculator –no computer programming is used. Programmed data can be transferred to the CNC machine via a cable, using an inexpensive desktop or a laptop computer. This process is faster and more reliable than other methods. Short programs can also be entered manually, by keyboard entry, directly at the machine. A punched tape used to be the popular media of the past but has virtually disappeared from machine shops.
* Disadvantages
There are some disadvantages associated with manual programming. Perhaps the most common is the length of time required to actually develop a fully functioning CNC program. The manual calculation, verification and other related activities in manual programming are very time consuming. Other disadvantages, also very high on the list, are a large percentage of errors, a lack of tool path verification, the difficulty is making changes to a program, and many others.
* Advantages
On the positive side, manual part programming does have quite a few unmatched qualities. Manual programming is so intense that it requires the total involvement of the CNC programmer and yet offers virtually unlimited freedom in the development of the program structure. Programming manually does have some disadvantages, but it teaches a tight discipline and organization in program development. It forces the programmer to understand programming techniques to the last detail. In fact, many useful skill learned in manual programming are directly applied to CAD/CAM programming. Programmer has to know what is happening at all times and why it is happening. Very important is the in-depth understanding of every detail during the program development.
Contrary to many beliefs, a thorough knowledge of manual programming methods is absolutely essential for efficient management of CAD/CAM programming.
CAD/CAM AND CNC
The need for important improved efficiency and accuracy in CNC programming has been the major reason for development of a variety of methods that use a computer to prepare part programs. Computer assisted CNC programming has been around for many years. First, in the
form of language based programming, such as APT?or Compact Ⅱ?. Since the late 1970’s, CAD/CAM has played a significant role by adding the visual aspect to the programming process. The acronym CAD/CAM means Computer Aided Design and Computer Aided Manufacturing. The first three letters (CAD) cover the area of engineering design and drafting. The second three letters (CAM), covers the area of computerize manufacturing, where CNC programming is only a small part. The whole subject of CAD/CAM covers much more than just design, drafting and programming. It is a part of modern technology also known as CIM –Computer Integrated Manufacturing.
In the area of numerical control, computers have played a major role for a long time. Machine controls have become more sophisticated, incorporating the latest techniques of data processing, storage, tool path graphics, machining cycles, etc. Programs can now be prepared with the use of inexpensive computers, using graphical interface. Cost is no longer an issue。even small machine shops can afford a programming system in house. These systems are also popular because of their flexibility. A typical computerized programming system does not have to be dedicated only to programming –all related tasks, often done by the programmer, can be implemented on the same computer, for example, cutting tool inventory management, database of part programs, material information sheet, setup sheets and tooling sheets, etc. The same computer could also be used for uploading and downloading CNC programs.
* Integration
The keyword in the acronym CIM is –integration. It means putting all the elements of manufacturing together and work with them as a single unit and more efficiently. The main idea behind a successful integration is to avoid duplication. One of the most important rules of using a CAD/CAM computer software is: Never Do Anything Twice!
When a drawing is made in a CAD software (such as AutoCAD), then done again in a CAM software (such as MasterCAM), there is a duplication. Duplication breeds errors. In order to avoid duplication, most of the CAD system incorporate a transfer method of the design to the selected CAM system to be use for CNC programming. Typical transfers are achieved through special DXF or IGES files. The DXF stands for Data Exchange Files or Drawing Exchange Files, and the IGES abbreviation is a short form of Initial Graphics Exchange Specification files. Once the geometry is transferred form the CAD system to the CAM system, only the tool path related process is needed. Using a post processor (special kind of formatter), the computer software will prepare a part program, ready to be loaded directly to the CNC machine.
* Future of Manual Programming
It may seem that the manual programming is on the decline. In terms of actual use, this is probably true. However, it is necessary to keep in perspective that any computerized technology is based on the already well established methods of manual programming. Manual programming for CNC machines serves as the source of the new technology – it is the very elementary concept on which the computerized programming is based. This knowledge base opens the door for development of more powerful hardware and software applications.
The manual programming may be use somewhat less frequently today and eventually will be used even less – but knowing it well – really understanding it – is and always will be the key to control the power of CAM software. Even computers cannot do everything. There are some special programming projects that a CAM software, regardless of the price, may handle to an absolute satisfaction. If the control system can handle it, manual programming is the way to the
ultimate control over such a project, when any other methods may not be suitable.
Even with a well customized and organized computerized programming system, how can the generated program output be exactly as intended? How can the CNC operator change any part of the program on the machine, without knowing its rules and structure? Successful use of computerized programming requires understanding of manual programming methods.
TYPICAL PROGRAMMING PROCEDURE
Planning of a CNC program is no different than any other planning。it must be approached in a logical and methodical way. The first decisions relate to what tasks have to be done and what goals have to be reached. The other decisions relate to how to achieve the set goals in an efficient and safe manner. Such a progressive method not only isolates individual problems as they develop, it also forces their solution before the next step can be taken.
The following items form a fairly common and logical sequence of tasks done in CNC programming. The items are only in a suggested order, offered for further evaluation. This order may be changed to reflect special conditions or working habits. Some items may be missing or redundant:
1.Study of initial information (drawing and methods)
2.Material stock (blank) evaluation
3.Machine tool specifications
4.Control system features
5.Sequence of machining operations
6.Tooling selection and arrangement of cutting tools
7.Set of the part
8.Technological data (speed, feed rates, etc.)
9.Determination of the tool path
10.Working sketches and mathematical calculations
11.Program writing and preparation for transfer to CNC
12.Program testing and debugging
13.Program documentation
There is only one goal in CNC program planning and that is the completion of all instructions in the form of a program that will result in an error- free, safe and efficient CNC machining. The suggested procedures may require some changes – for example, should the tooling be selected before or after the part setup is determined? Can the manual part programming methods be used efficiently? Can the manual part programming methods be used efficiently? Are the working sketches necessary? Do not be afraid to modify any so called ideal procedure – either temporarily, for a given job, or permanently, to reflect a particular CNC programming style. Remember, there are no ideal procedures.
第六章：制定编程计划
编写任何CNC程序都必须经过周密计划后开始。这个过程的起点就是所需工件的工程图。在实施工件加工之前一些步骤必须仔细考虑和评估。在程序的计划阶段付出的努力越多，最后预期的结果可能就越好。
制定编程计划的步骤
具体采用哪些步骤要根据实际的工作条件而定，没有国定的程式。但还是有一些基本的步骤可供参考：
●初始信息、机床的加工特性
●工件的复杂程度
●手工编程、电脑编程
●典型的编程工艺
●工件图纸、工程数据
●处理表、材料规格
●加工工序
●刀具选择
●工件的夹装
●技术要求
●工程草图和计算
●编程要达到的质量要求
这些建议只是提供了一点基本的方向。具体的应用变化很多，必须根据对应的加工和工作特定的条件灵活的调整。
初始信息
大多数工程图只是定义了零件的形状和尺寸，一般不标明最初毛坯料的数据。对于编程来说，基本的起点是对原材料的掌握，诸如尺寸、形状、硬度、加工性能等等。对于工件来说最主要的信息就是工程图和原材料数据，在这基础上程序才得于建立。这个计划的目的就是利用最初的信息去建立最高效的加工方法，要考虑到所有的相关事项——主要是工件的精度、生产率、安全性和方便性。
最初的工件信息并不限于零件图的材料信息，它还包括一些没有涵盖在零件图中的内容，比如前加工和后加工、磨削余量、装配特点、硬化要求、下一步加工准备以及其他信息。
收集所有的信息给开始给CNC编程制定计划供了充足的材料。
机床加工特性
如果CNC不能适合某个作业的话再多的初始信息也没有用。在计划编程阶段程序员精力都集中在特定的CNC系统相应的机床刀具上。所有的工件都必须在固定在夹具上，CNC 机床的加工极限要大于工件尺寸，工件的重量不能超出容许的范围。控制系统必须可以提供所需的走刀路线，诸如此类。在通常的情况下，CNC设备已经在工厂设置好了，很少有公司为了适应某个特殊的作业而购置新的CNC机床，这种情况非常罕见，除非这样做符合经济意义。
●机床的型号和尺寸
给编程制定计划时最重要的考虑是机床的型号和尺寸，尤其是它的加工空间或是加工区域。其它特性也非常重要诸如机床的功率等级、主轴速度和进给范围、刀库的数量、换刀系统、配件等等。通常小型CNC主轴转速高功率小，而大型机床功率等级高主轴转速则偏低。
●控制系统
控制系统是CNC机床的心脏。必须熟悉所有控制器的规范功能和可选功能。有了这些知识，就可以使用各种高级编程方法，比如加工循环、子程序、宏和现代CNC系统其它节约时间的功能。
尽管编程人员不必实际操作CNC机床，然而熟悉机床及其控制系统有助于使编程更合理更具有创造性。程序反映出了编程员对CNC机床运行知识的理解程度。
在编制计划时有一点也很重要，那就是机床操作人员对程序的看法。在很大程度上，他们的观点相当的主观，不同的操作员个人的偏好不同。但另一方面，每个作业员都喜欢没有错误、简练、文档完备以及专业的零件加工程序。排除个人偏好，没有人喜欢一个设计有缺陷的程序。
零件复杂程度
对工件图、材料和可用的CNC设备进行评估之后，编程工作的复杂程度就变得十分清楚。在开始编程之前还要考虑清楚零件手工编程的难度有多大？机床是否适合？成本是多少？
简单的编程任务可以分配给初具经验的程序员或者是操作员。这是符合经管理念的，也可以帮助他们获得经验。
困难或复杂的作业得益于计算机编程系统。计算机辅助设计（CAD）、计算机辅助加工（CAM）在很多年前就成为了生产工序的重要部分。CAD/CAM系统的成本也降到几年前的一小部分。即便是小车间也发现现代技术带来的巨大优势不容忽视。有几种编程系统在不同计算机上都可以使用，可以处理任何作业。对于常见的加工车间，一个基于Windows的编程系统非常有益。典型的应用软件诸如使用广泛功能强大的MasterCAM，还有很多其它软件。
手工编程
很多年前零件加工程序最常用的编程方法就是手工编程。新型的CNC控制器可以提供固定循环、多种类型的编程、刀具运动的图型模拟、规范的数学输入以及其它节省时间的特性，这使得手工编程比以前简单了许多。手工编程时所有的计算都是通过便携式计算器不用计算机而手工完成的。通过电缆，程序数据可以从便宜的台式机或笔记本电脑传送到CNC 机床上。比较而言这种方法速度快而且可靠。更简短的程序可以通过机床的键盘直接输入。穿孔纸带是过去常用介质，目前基本上从机加工车间消失了。
●缺点
手工编程有一些缺点。或许最突出的就是编制一个完整功能CNC程序消耗的时间量过于庞大。手工计算、核对等等工作都很费时间。其它的缺点也是很明显，诸如错误率高、不
能进行刀路检查、程序的修改也是相当不便。
●优点
从有利的一面看，手工编程也有不少不可比拟的优点。手工编程如此紧凑，需要程序员全身心的投入，而且确实提供了建立程序结构无限的自由空间。程序的手工编制肯定会有弊端，但对于养成良好的编程习惯和提高程序结构组织能力非常有益。它迫使程序员了解每个编程的技术细节。实际上好多在手工编程中学到的技能都可以直接应用到CAD/CAM的编程中。每时每刻程序员必须知道都发生了什么，为什么会发生。对每个细节深度的理解，这对于编程非常重要。
相比其它，对于手工编程技术的熟知在CAD/CAM编程和经管中是绝对重要的基础。
CAD/CAM 和CNC
对于改善CNC编程效率和正确率的重视，正是基于这个原因引入计算机采用各种方法来制定零件加工程序。用计算机辅助CNC编程已经好几年了。最初都是基于语句的编程，例如APT?和Compact Ⅱ?。自从七十年代，CAD/CAM引入了可视化编程具有重要的意义。缩略语CAD是指计算机辅助设计，CAM是指计算机辅助加工。CAD涵盖了工程设计和绘图。CAM涵盖了计算机自动化加工，CNC编程只是其中的一小部分。整个CAD/CAM不仅仅包含了设计、绘图和编程，它已经成为现代科技CIM（计算机集成化加工）的一部分。
在数控领域，计算机成为主角已有很长时间。机加工控制结合了最新的数据处理技术、存储、刀路图形、加工循环等等，因而变得很复杂。程序可以在并不昂贵的使用图形界面的计算机上准备好。成本不再是个问题，即使是小的机加工车间也负担得起这样一个编程系统。系统也因为其灵活的功能得到广泛的应用。一个典型的编程系统不仅仅只有编程功能，几乎所有的相关工作都可以在同一台计算机上完成，比如说刀具目录的经管、零件程序的存档、材料信息表、安装表和工具表等。同台计算机还可以完成CNC程序的上传和下载。
●集成化
缩略语CIM中的关键词是Integration集成化。它意味着把所有的加工元素整合成一体，从而可以产生更高的效率。集成化的原理是避免重复工作。使用CAD/CAM软件重要原则之一就是“一件事不能做两次”。
假如一个零件图是用CAD软件（例如AutoCAD）完成的，然后又在CAM软件上（例如MasterCAM）重新建立，这就有了重复。重复会产生错误。为了避免这种重复，绝大多数的CAD系统融合了将设计图的转换成CAM系统编程图的功能。典型的转换是DXF和IGES 格式之间的转换。DXF含义是数据交换格式文件或是图形交换文件、IGES是原始图形交换规格文件的缩略语。当几何图从CAD传送到CAM系统时，只有刀具路线是需要的。计算机软件会生成一个零件加工程序，用于下载到CNC机床中。
●手工编程的未来
手工编程好像看起来用得越来越少。从实际使用情况来看，或许也是这样。尽管如此，应该意识到所有的电脑化编程技术都是基于成熟的手工编程技巧。最基本的概念就是手工编程是电脑化编程的基础，是CNC机床各种新技术的源泉。为各种功能更强大的硬件和应用软件的发展提供了可能。
即使是合理化个性化的计算机编程系统，如何才能保证生成的程序如预期的正确？如何才能保证不熟悉编程方法和程序结构的操作员，可以任意地修改机床上的程序？成功的使用电脑化编程离不开对各种手工编程方法的熟悉。
典型的编程流程
给CNC编程做计划和其它计划并没有什么不同，它必须以合乎逻辑的系统方法进行。第一步要决定要完成怎样的工程、要达成怎样的目标。另外还要决定要达到预期的目标采用什么合理的方法。这种循序渐进的方法不仅可以将工作分离成一个个独立的问题，而且还迫
使在进行下一步骤之前，每一个问题都得到解决。
下面的条款列出了CNC编程时一个十分常见的逻辑顺序。这只是一个推荐顺序，实际应用时还需要进一步评估。这种顺序针对具体的情况和工作习惯而改变，一些条款可能会省略，一些可能会重叠。
1.初始信息的研究（图纸和方法）
2.原材料（毛坯件）的评估
3.机床的加工特性
4.控制系统的特点
5.机加工的顺序
6.刀具选择和编排
7.工件夹装
8.参数设定（速度、进给等等）
9.刀路设定
10.工件草图和数学计算
11.程序的编程和传输
12.程序的测试和调整
13.程序的文档化
制定CNC编程计划唯一的目的就是使得生成的程序指令没有错误、安全和高效的指导CNC加工。推荐顺序可能要作相应的调整，比如刀具的选择能否安排在工件夹装之后？零件的手工编程能否有效的使用？工程草图是否真的需要？不要害怕改变所谓的理想流程，为了特定的作业零时或永久的改变，而去参考一个特定的CNC编程风格。记住，没有一成不变的所谓的理想流程。
FINANCIAL INNOV ATION Like other industries, the financial industry is in business to earn profits by selling its products. If a soap company perceives that there is a need in the marketplace for a laundry detergent with fabric softener, it develops a product to fit the need .Similarly, in order to maximize their profits, financial institutions develop new products to satisfy their own needs as well as those of their customers; in other words, innovation-which can be extremely beneficial to the economy-is driven by the desire to get (or stay) rich. This view of the innovation process leads to the following simple analysis: A chance in the financial institutions for innovations that are likely to be profitable. Starting in the 1960s, individuals and financial institutions operating in financial markets were confronted with drastic changes in the economic environment: Inflation and interest rates climbed sharply and became hard to predict, a situation that changed demand conditions in financial markets. Computer technology advanced rapidly, which changed supply conditions. In addition, financial regulations became especially inconvenient. Banking institution discovers many old ways of doing business being able to not have earned money again; they provide the masses finance with service and financial products sale neither well. Many financial intermediary is discovered they have no way to raise having arrived at a fund, but these self that will not a suspense of business right away with original tradition finance implement. For existing under new economy environment, research and development puts up banking institution be obliged to being able to satisfy customer need moreover the new product being able to gain a profit of and serving, this process is called financial engineering. In their case, necessity was the mother of innovation. Our discussion of why financial innovation occurs suggests that there are three basic types of financial innovations: Escapism to responding to needing condition change, to the small advantages supplying with condition change and to controlling. We have had one now understandable that banking institution is innovative for instance the cause institutions, let’s look at examples of how financial institutions in their search for profits have produced financial innovations of the three basic types. 1
Household Register Under Supervision of the Ministry of Public Security of P. R. C. ANNOUNCEMENTS 1.Household register has the legal validity that certifies the attorney ship of a citizen and the
relationship of family members, and it is the main reference for the censor and checkup of domiciliary register which is undertaking by the household registration authority. When the functionary of household registration authority censor and verify the household register, the householder and members of this family shall take the initiative in presenting the household register. 2.The householder shall take the household register in safekeeping; the household register is prohibited to be altered, transferred and leased. When the household register is lost, the household registration authority should be informed. 3.The right for registering the household register shall be performed by the household registration authority; any other unit and individual shall not make any records on the booklet. 4.The member of this family shall go to the household registration authority for transacting the declaration and registration, applying bring with the booklet, in case of the increase and decrease of the members and the alteration of registration items. 5.In case of that the whole family moves out of the residency, the household register shall be turned in and cancelled. Record of Dwelling Address Alteration
陶瓷 ceramics 合成纤维 synthetic fibre 电化学腐蚀 electrochemical corrosion 车架 automotive chassis 悬架 suspension 转向器 redirector 变速器 speed changer 板料冲压 sheet metal parts 孔加工 spot facing machining 车间 workshop 工程技术人员 engineer 气动夹紧 pneuma lock 数学模型 mathematical model 画法几何 descriptive geometry 机械制图 Mechanical drawing 投影 projection 视图 view 剖视图 profile chart 标准件 standard component 零件图 part drawing 装配图 assembly drawing 尺寸标注 size marking
技术要求 technical requirements 刚度 rigidity 内力 internal force 位移 displacement 截面 section 疲劳极限 fatigue limit 断裂 fracture 塑性变形 plastic distortion 脆性材料 brittleness material 刚度准则 rigidity criterion 垫圈 washer 垫片 spacer 直齿圆柱齿轮 straight toothed spur gear 斜齿圆柱齿轮 helical-spur gear 直齿锥齿轮 straight bevel gear 运动简图 kinematic sketch 齿轮齿条 pinion and rack 蜗杆蜗轮 worm and worm gear 虚约束 passive constraint 曲柄 crank 摇杆 racker 凸轮 cams
Lesson 1 力学的基本概念 1、词汇： statics [st?tiks] 静力学；dynamics动力学；constraint约束；magnetic [m?ɡ＇netik]有磁性的；external [eks＇t?:nl] 外面的, 外部的；meshing啮合；follower从动件；magnitude [＇m?ɡnitju:d] 大小；intensity强度，应力；non-coincident [k?u＇insid?nt]不重合；parallel [＇p?r?lel]平行；intuitive 直观的；substance物质；proportional [pr?＇p?:??n?l]比例的；resist抵抗，对抗；celestial [si＇lestj?l]天空的；product乘积；particle质点；elastic [i＇l?stik]弹性；deformed变形的；strain拉力；uniform全都相同的；velocity[vi＇l?siti]速度；scalar[＇skeil?]标量；vector[＇vekt?]矢量；displacement代替；momentum [m?u＇ment?m]动量； 2、词组 make up of由……组成；if not要不，不然；even through即使，纵然； Lesson 2 力和力的作用效果 1、词汇： machine 机器；mechanism机构；movable活动的；given 规定的，给定的，已知的；perform执行；application 施用；produce引起，导致；stress压力；applied施加的；individual单独的；muscular [＇m?skjul?]]力臂；gravity[ɡr?vti]重力；stretch伸展，拉紧，延伸；tensile[tensail]拉力；tension张力，拉力；squeeze挤；compressive 有压力的，压缩的；torsional扭转的；torque转矩；twist扭，转动；molecule [m likju:l]分子的；slide滑动; 滑行；slip滑，溜；one another 互相；shear剪切；independently独立地，自立地；beam梁；compress压；revolve (使)旋转；exert [iɡ＇z?:t]用力，尽力，运用，发挥，施加；principle原则, 原理，准则，规范；spin使…旋转；screw螺丝钉；thread螺纹； 2、词组 a number of 许多；deal with 涉及，处理；result from由什么引起；prevent from阻止，防止；tends to 朝某个方向；in combination结合；fly apart飞散； 3、译文： 任何机器或机构的研究表明每一种机构都是由许多可动的零件组成。这些零件从规定的运动转变到期望的运动。另一方面，这些机器完成工作。当由施力引起的运动时，机器就开始工作了。所以，力和机器的研究涉及在一个物体上的力和力的作用效果。 力是推力或者拉力。力的作用效果要么是改变物体的形状或者运动，要么阻止其他的力发生改变。每一种
英文翻译 机械设计 一台完整机器的设计是一个复杂的过程。机械设计是一项创造性的工作。设计工程师不仅在工作上要有创造性，还必须在机械制图、运动学、工程材料、材料力学和机械制造工艺学等方面具有深厚的基础知识。 Machine Design The complete design of a machine is a complex process. The machine design is a creative work. Project engineer not only must have the creativity in the work, but also must in aspect and so on mechanical drawing, kinematics, engineerig material, materials mechanics and machine manufacture technology has the deep elementary knowledge. 任何产品在设计时第一步就是选择产品每个部分的构成材料。许多的材料被今天的设计师所使用。对产品的功能，它的外观、材料的成本、制造的成本作出必要的选择是十分重要的。对材料的特性必须事先作出仔细的评估。 One of the first steps in the design of any product is to select the material from which each part is to be made. Numerous materials are available to today's designers. The function of the product, its appearance, the cost of the material, and the cost of fabrication are important in making a selection. A careful evaluation of the properties of a. material must be made prior to any calculations. 仔细精确的计算是必要的，以确保设计的有效性。在任何失败的情况下，最好知道在最初设计中有有缺陷的部件。计算（图纸尺寸）检查是非常重要的。一个小数点的位置放错，就可以导致一个本可以完成的项目失败。设计工作的各个方面都应该检查和复查。 Careful calculations are necessary to ensure the validity of a design. In case of any part failures, it is desirable to know what was done in originally designing the defective components. The checking of calculations (and drawing dimensions) is of utmost importance. The misplacement of one decimal point can ruin an otherwise acceptable project. All aspects of design work should be checked and rechecked. 计算机是一种工具，它能够帮助机械设计师减轻繁琐的计算，并对现有数据提供进一步的分析。互动系统基于计算机的能力，已经使计算机辅助设计（CAD）和计算机辅助制造（CAM）成为了可能。心理学家经常谈论如何使人们适应他们所操作的机器。设计人员的基本职责是努力使机器来适应人们。这并不是一项容易的工作，因为实际上并不存在着一个对所有人来说都是最优的操作范围和操作
外文翻译 英文原文 Belt Conveying Systems Development of driving system Among the methods of material conveying employed，belt conveyors play a very important part in the reliable carrying of material over long distances at competitive cost．Conveyor systems have become larger and more complex and drive systems have also been going through a process of evolution and will continue to do so．Nowadays，bigger belts require more power and have brought the need for larger individual drives as well as multiple drives such as 3 drives of 750 kW for one belt(this is the case for the conveyor drives in Chengzhuang Mine)．The ability to control drive acceleration torque is critical to belt conveyors’performance．An efficient drive system should be able to provide smooth，soft starts while maintaining belt tensions within the specified safe limits．For load sharing on multiple drives．torque and speed control are also important considerations in the drive system’s design. Due to the advances in conveyor drive control technology，at present many more reliable．Cost-effective and performance-driven conveyor drive systems covering a wide range of power are available for customers’ choices[1]. 1 Analysis on conveyor drive technologies 1．1 Direct drives Full-voltage starters．With a full-voltage starter design，the conveyor head shaft is direct-coupled to the motor through the gear drive．Direct full-voltage starters are adequate for relatively low-power, simple-profile conveyors．With direct fu11-voltage starters．no control is provided for various conveyor loads and．depending on the ratio between fu11-and no-1oad power requirements，empty starting times can be three or four times faster than full load．The maintenance-free starting system is simple，low-cost and very reliable．However, they cannot control starting torque and maximum stall torque；therefore．they are
个人资料 name 姓名 alias 别名 pen name 笔名 date of birth 出生日期 birth date 出生日期 born 出生于 birth place 出生地点 age 年龄 native place 籍贯 province 省 city 市 autonomous region 自治区prefecture 专区 county 县 nationality 民族，国籍citizenship 国籍 duel citizenship 双重国籍address 地址 current address 目前地址present address 目前地址permanent address 永久地址postal code 邮政编码 home phone 住宅电话 office phone 办公电话business phone 办公电话Tel.电话 sex 性别 male 男
female 女 height 身高 weight 体重 marital status 婚姻状况family status 家庭状况married 已婚 single/unmarried 未婚divorced 离异 separated 分居 number of children 子女人数none 无 street 街 lane 胡同，巷 road 路 district 区 house number 门牌 health 健康状况 health condition 健康状况blood type 血型 short-sighted 近视 far-sighted 远视 color-blind 色盲 ID card No.身份证号码 date of availability 可到职时间available 可到职membership 会员，资格president 会长 vice-president 副会长director 理事 standing director 常务理事
第一章：应力与应变 1.That branch of scientific analysis which motions, times and forces is called mechanics and is made up of two parts, statics and dynamics. 研究位移、时间和力运动乘力是科学分析法的一个分歧，被称作力学，力学由两大部分组成，静力学和动力学。 2.For example, if the force operating on a sleeve bearing becomes too high, it will squeeze out the oil film and cause metal-to-metal contact, overheating and rapid failure of the bearing. 例如：如果止推轴承上的作用力过大的话，会挤出油膜，引起金属和金属之间的相互接触，轴承将过热而迅速失效。 3.Our intuitive concept of force includes such ideas as place of application, direction, and magnitude, and these are called the characteristics of a force. 力的直观概念包括力的作用点、大小、方向，这些被称为力的三要素。 4.All bodies are either elastic or plastic and will be deformed if acted upon by forces. When the deformation of such bodies is small, they are frequently assumed to be rigid, i.e., incapable of deformation, in order to simplify the analysis. 所有的物体既可以是弹性的也可以是塑性的，如果受到力的作用就产生变形。当变形很小的时候它们被假设成刚体，也就是不产生变形。 5.The rigid-body assumption cannot be used in internal stresses and strains due to the applied forces to be analyzed. Thus we consider the
目录 Housing Consumption and Economic Growth in China (2) 住房消费和经济增长在中国 (10) 摘要 (10) 关键词: (10) 一、介绍 (11) 二、方法 (11) c .固定式测试 (12) d .协整检验 (12) E大肠误差修正模型(ECM)[6] (13) f.格兰杰因果关系检验 (13) 三、应用程序和结果 (14) a .数据和变量 (14) b .固定式测试 (14) e系列是平稳序列 (14) d .误差修正模型 (14) 四、结论 (15) 引用 (15)
Housing Consumption and Economic Growth in China Wang XJ (Wang Xijun) School of Economics & Management, Weifang University of China, xjwang69@https://www.doczj.com/doc/886673618.html, Abstract: Consumption is a very important part in social reproduction, and its driving effect on social economic growth always plays the leading role. Housing is the basic living material which is essential for people?s life; housing consumption is the important material condition for the labor force reproduction. This study, based on China?s statistical data from 1985 to 2007,by employing co-integration theory, Granger causality test and error correction model (ECM),respectively investigates the relationship between consumption, housing consumption and economic growth. The empirical result denotes that there exists bilateral Granger causality relationship between consumption and economic growth. For a long period, there exists long term stable equilibrium relationship between GDP, consumption, and housing consumption; consumption and housing consumption both promote the growth of GDP. Housing consumption?s contribution to the growth of GDP is obviously higher than consumption. For a short period, consumption spurs the growth of GDP more than housing consumption. Keywords:Housing consumption; Economic growth; Co-integration ; ECM; Granger causality test I. INTRODUCTION Consumption is a very important part in social reproduction, and its driving
机械术语英文翻译 阿基米德蜗杆Archimedes worm 安全系数safety factor; factor of safety安全载荷safe load 凹面、凹度concavity扳手wrench 板簧flat leaf spring 半圆键woodruff key 变形deformation摆杆oscillating bar 摆动从动件oscillating follower 摆动从动件凸轮机构cam with oscillating follower 摆动导杆机构oscillating guide-bar mechanism 摆线齿轮cycloidal gear摆线齿形cycloidal tooth profile 摆线运动规律cycloidal motion 摆线针轮cycloidal-pin wheel包角angle of contact 保持架cage背对背安装丨back-to-back arrangement 背锥back cone ；normal cone 背锥角back angle背锥距back cone distance比例尺scale 热容specific heat capacity 闭式链closed kinematic chain闭链机构closed chain mechanism 臂部arm 变频器frequency converters变频调速frequency control of motor speed 变速speed change 变速齿轮change gear ; change wheel变位齿轮modified gear变位系数modification coefficient 标准齿轮standard gear标准直齿轮standard spur gear 表面质量系数superficial mass factor 表面传热系数surface coefficient of heat transfer 表面粗糙度surface roughness 并联式组合combination in parallel并联机构parallel mechanism 并联组合机构parallel combined mechanism并行工程concurrent engineering 并行设计concurred design, CD不平衡相位phase angle of unbalance 不平衡imbalance (or unbalance)不平衡量amount of unbalance 不完全齿轮机构intermittent gearing波发生器wave generator 波数number of waves补偿compensation 参数化设计parameterization design, PD残余应力residual stress 操纵及控制装置operation control device槽轮Geneva wheel 槽轮机构Geneva mechanism ；Maltese cross槽数Geneva numerate 槽凸轮groove cam侧隙backlash 差动轮系differential gear train差动螺旋机构differential screw mechanism 差速器differential常用机构conventional mechanism; mechanism in common use 车床lathe承载量系数bearing capacity factor 承载能力bearing capacity成对安装paired mounting 尺寸系列dimension series齿槽tooth space 齿槽宽spacewidth齿侧间隙backlash 齿顶高addendum齿顶圆addendum circle 齿根高dedendum齿根圆dedendum circle 齿厚tooth thickness齿距circular pitch 齿宽face width齿廓tooth profile 齿廓曲线tooth curve齿轮gear 齿轮变速箱speed-changing gear boxes齿轮齿条机构pinion and rack 齿轮插刀pinion cutter; pinion-shaped shaper cutter齿轮滚刀hob ,hobbing cutter 齿轮机构gear齿轮轮坯blank 齿轮传动系pinion unit齿轮联轴器gear coupling 齿条传动rack gear齿数tooth number 齿数比gear ratio齿条rack 齿条插刀rack cutter; rack-shaped shaper cutter齿形链、无声链silent chain 齿形系数form factor齿式棘轮机构tooth ratchet mechanism 插齿机gear shaper重合点coincident points 重合度contact ratio冲床punch
1.我们可以把钢再次加热到临界温度以下的某一温度，然后在慢慢让其冷却。We can heat the steel again to a temperature below the critical temperature, then cool it slowly. 2.无论任何简单的机床，都是由单一元件即通称为机械零件或部件组成的。However simple, any machine is a combination of individual components generally referred to as machine elements or parts. 3.这些金属不都是好的导体。 All these metals are not good conductors. 4. 在做带电实验的时候，再怎么小心都不为过。 You can't be too careful in performing an experiment. 5.利用发电机可以把机械能转变成电能。 The mechanical energy can be changed back into electrical energy by means of a generator or dynamo. 6.假定电源输入的电压保持不变。 Assume that the voltage input of the power supply remains the same. 7.化石燃料是发电过程中最为频繁使用的能源。 Fossil fuels are most frequently used source daring the power generation process. 8单个机械零件的可靠性成为评估整台机器使用寿命的基本因素。 The individual reliability of machine elements becomes the basis for estimating the overall life 9.说我们生活在一个电子时代，这一点都不夸张。 It's no exaggeration to say that we live in an electronic age. 10.发动机的转速不应超过最大允许值。 Engine revolution should not exceed the maximum permissible. 11.如能从大型核电站获得成本极低的电力，电解氢的竞争能力就会增强。（Electrolytic hydrogen）。 If extremely low-cost power were ever to become available from large nuclear power plants, electrolytic hydrogen would become competitive. 12.电子技术提供了一种新的显示时间的方法。 A new way of displaying time has been given by electronics. 13.远距离输电需要高压，安全用电需要低压。 High voltage is necessary for long transmission line while low voltage for safe use. 14.铝的电阻大约是同等尺寸的铜的1.5倍。 The resistance of aluminum is approximately half again as great as that of copper for the same dimensions = size 15.In fact,it is impossible for no force to be exerted on a body,since in this world everything is subject to the for ce of gravity. 事实上，物体不受外力作用是不可能的，因为在这个世界上任何物体都要受到重力的作用。 16.In a thermal power plant,all the chemical energy is not
机械专业英文翻译 Company number：【WTUT-WT88Y-W8BBGB-BWYTT-19998】
启动轴 starting axle 启动齿轮starting gear 启动棘轮 starting ratchet wheel 复位弹簧 restoring, pull back spring 弹簧座 spring seating 摩擦簧friction spring 推力垫圈 thrust washer 轴挡圈axle bumper ring 下料 filling 切断 cut 滚齿机 gear-hobbing machine 剪料机 material-shearing machine 车床 lathe 拉床 broaching machine 垂直度 verticality, vertical extent 平行度 parallelism同 心度 homocentricity 位置度 position 拉伤 pulling damage 碰伤 bumping damage 缺陷 deficiency 严重缺陷 severe deficiency 摩擦力 friction 扭距 twist 滑动 glide 滚动 roll 打滑 skid 脱不开 can’t seperate 不复位 can’t restore 直径 diameter M值 = 跨棒距 test rod span 公法线 common normal line 弹性 elasticity 频率特性 frequency characteristic 误差 error 响应 response 定位 allocation 机床夹具 jig 动力学 dynamic 运动学 kinematic 静力学 static 分析力学 analyse mechanics 拉伸 pulling 压缩 hitting 机床 machine tool 刀具 cutter 摩擦 friction 联结 link 传动 drive/transmission 轴 shaft 剪切 shear 扭转 twist 弯曲应力 bending stress 三相交流电 three-phase AC 磁路 magnetic circles 变压器 transformer 异步电动机 asynchronous motor 几何形状 geometrical 精度 precision 正弦形的 sinusoid 交流电路 AC circuit 机械加工余量 machining allowance 变形力 deforming force 变形 deformation 电路 circuit 半导体元件 semiconductor element 拉孔 broaching 装配 assembling 加工 machining 液压 hydraulic pressure 切线 tangent 机电一体化 mechanotronics mechanical-electrical integration 稳定性 stability 介质 medium 液压驱动泵 fluid clutch 液压泵 hydraulic pump 阀门 valve 失效 invalidation 强度 intensity 载荷 load 应力 stress 安全系数 safty factor 可靠性 reliability 螺纹 thread 螺旋 helix 键 spline 销 pin 滚动轴承 rolling bearing 滑动轴承 sliding bearing 弹簧 spring 制动器 arrester brake 十字结联轴节 crosshead 联轴器 coupling 链 chain 皮带 strap 精加工 finish machining 粗加工 rough machining 变速箱体 gearbox casing 腐蚀 rust 氧化 oxidation 磨损 wear 耐用度 durability 机械制图 Mechanical drawing 投影 projection 视图 view 剖视图 profile chart 标准件 standard component 零件图 part drawing 装配图 assembly drawing 尺寸标注 size marking 技术要求 technical requirements 刚度 rigidity 内力 internal force 位移 displacement 截面 section 疲劳极限 fatigue limit 断裂 fracture 塑性变形 plastic distortion 脆性材料 brittleness material 刚度准则 rigidity criterion 垫圈 washer 垫片 spacer 直齿圆柱齿轮 straight toothed spur gear 斜齿圆柱齿轮 helical-spur gear 直齿锥齿轮 straight bevel gear 运动简图 kinematic sketch 齿轮齿条 pinion and rack 蜗杆蜗轮 worm and worm gear 虚约束 passive constraint 曲柄 crank 摇杆 racker 凸轮 cams 反馈 feedback 发生器 generator