chapter 2 Individual attributes and their effects on job perfoemance

主题二__人格差异（The theme of the two __ personalitydifferences）The second chapter is personalityI. definition of personalityTwo, personality theoryThree, personality difference and its originFour, personality structureFive, personality difference and job matchingI. personality definitionG.W Allport wrote Personality in 1937, and collected nearly fifty definitions of "personality" from the literature and grouped them into the following categories.1, general definition (Omnibus, definition): in this definition, the personality is considered to be the sum of all the attributes of a person.2, comprehensive definition (egrative, andcoimguratlon, delinltlon): this definition emphasizes that personality is the whole of all aspects of individual attributes.3, the definition of rank (Hierarchicaldd nition): a personality trait is divided into several levels or grades,usually at the top of the integration or leadership role.4, the definition of adaptability (Definition In terms of austthent), this definition emphasizes the personality in the adaptation function.5, the definition of the individual (DCfithtiofl ill tCfffiS StlllCt1V8ll6SS Of shirt): this class pay more attention to the uniqueness of the individual, the difference between personal and others; each individual is out of the ordinary.(Definition In terms of essence the person of the): this kind of definition emphasizes that personality is the representative behavior pattern of individual. He is not just different from others, but that he has his own characteristics and is what he is personally.7. Definition (iosocial)The average person identifies his personality with the exception of everyone else, and emphasizes only the value of his social stimulus. Allport quite disagreed with it because it only noticed the impression of a person's outward appearance, only noticed the influence of personality on others, and neglected its own internal organization. In contrast, Allport tends to refer to the concept of biophysical (conceptions), which means that no matter what a person thinks about others, someone still has his own personality.The definition of Allport: personality is the dynamic organization of a person's internal psychological andphysiological system, which determines the unique adaptation of the person to his environment. It determines all the thoughts and actions of the person. (Allport)In others, the book defines personality as a stable process of behavior and interpersonal processes that originate within individuals.Two, personality theoryOn the personality, there is not an accepted concept, for convenience, we have a lot of personality theory into six general types: psychoanalytic schools, schools of humanistic qualities, genre, behavioral / social learning and cognitive school schools. In explaining individual differences in personality, each school emphasizes a different emphasis. Although they differ in their opinions about behavior, in order to understand human personality, they can be thought of in these six schools in a complementary pattern.Why are some people more aggressive than others? For such behavior,Which genre is the most convincing of the six schools?1. psychoanalytic theoryThe act of interpreting usually without conscious process. The classic psychoanalytic explanation for aggression is that everyone has an unconscious instinct to die - a desire for self destruction. However, a person with a healthy personality willnot be self destructive, so the impulse will turn outward and be expressed in an attack on others or on the outside. Later psychologists explained that aggression occurs when people are trying to achieve their goals. A person who experiences great setbacks, such as those who have repeatedly failed to achieve his goals, may have relatively persistent attacks.2. personality theory of idiosyncratic school1, pay attention to individual differences in the stability of aggressive behavior. A research team many years ago had been measured the attack characteristics of 8 year olds, they ask questions like pupils in several primary school, such as "who is the most love, my child push? "(Huesmann, Eron, Yarmel, 1987).22 years later, the researchers interviewed the men who were now 30 years old. They found that people who were considered aggressive in elementary school were also prone to aggressive behavior when they grew up. Those who like to push and hold other children often suffer spousal abuse and violent crimes when they grow up.3., the personality psychology of the biological schoolPersonality psychologists in the genre are also relatively interested in stable aggressive behavior. They believe that genetic predisposition is one of the reasons for the stability of aggression. Now there is evidence that some people are naturally more love than others (RllChtof, FulkCf, N68lC attack, Ni8S, EySCflCk, 1986). Although to confirm what is born, which is the child grow up to learn, it is always very difficult, but indeed, some people are born with aggressive quality, coupledwith the education environment, and later became aggressive adult. There are some physiological variables, Rugao pill hormone may also have an effect on the number of attacks (DILallaGottesman, 1991).The personality psychology of the 4. humanism schools1, human nature is good.2, when certain factors impede the process of natural growth, there will be problems.3, the solution is to provide a warm and respectful environment for the growth of people.Human psychologist Carle Rodgers said: "all living things in the world have the needs and functions of self development and self-improvement.".5. behaviorism and social learning theory1. The key to explaining behavior is that rewarding behavior repeats itself. (behaviorism)2, or, when people see a behavior rewarded, they learn to do that. (Social Learning Theory)6. cognitive psychology1, cognitive psychologists believe that how people respond to situations depends on how people interpret them.A comparison of the schools of personality theoryAlthough each theory tends to emphasize a different part of personality, each theorist describes the nature of his personality,It is necessary to discuss several important issues in depth. Generally speaking, all six school theorists illustrate these issues in the following way.1. genetic influences on the environmentPeople are born after grow up for his personality and sowed the seeds, or with no genetic predisposition, every healthy babies are like other children, may become a great philanthropist, a criminal or a mental illness? There are countless differences between the two points of view. But most personality psychologists have raised the question of how much personality is the result of genetic predisposition, and how much of it is the result of environmental influences There is a great deal of disagreement over the issue. Many schools of biology and idiosyncratic theorists firmly believe that we have largely ignored the role of genetic predispositions. To a lesser extent, psychoanalytic theorists also emphasize innate needs and ways of acting, albeit unconsciously. However, humanism, behaviorism and social learning theory and cognitive theorists argue that heredity has little or no effect on personality.To some extent, the answer to this question is only empirical. More and more studies have found the influence of some geneticfactors on personality development.2. does consciousness determine behavior or unconscious decision behavior?To what extent can people understand the causes of their behavior? Siegmund Floyd believes that many people's behavior is affected by unconscious power control, B.F. Skinner, a tremendous impact on the behavior of the theorists, the unconscious is defined as people are not aware of what he thinks, people tend to think of themselves as their own reasons for understanding, and it is not aware of. By contrast, trait theorists and cognitive theorists rely on self-report data to develop their theory and research. They assume that people can understand and report their level of social anxiety, and how they organize information in their minds.However, on this issue, all schools do not take an absolute attitude. Trait theorists often talk about behavioral genetic factors like biological psychologists, and cognitive behavioral therapists acknowledge that people are not aware of the cognitive processes that lead to their problems. Humanistic theorists usually adopt eclecticism in this issue. They admit that no one knows themselves better than they do, but they also think that many people are not sure why they do that.The conclusion of 3. free willTo what extent can we determine our own destiny, and to what extent are we determined by the external forces that dominate us? This is an old problem in psychology that originates fromphilosophy and theology. At one extreme, we can see the behaviorist / Social School of what is known as the radical behaviorist. The most direct one in this question is probably Skinner, who believes that our actions are not freely chosen; it is a direct result of the environmental stimuli we face. Skinner says freedom is nothing but a myth. The school of psychoanalytic theorists generally do not take absolute positions on this issue,But they emphasize innate needs and unconscious mechanisms that make human behavior largely impossible to control themselves. At the other extreme are humanistic theorists who examine individual choice and responsibility more and see them as the basis of mental health. Humanistic therapists often encourage their patients to realize that they have more direct responsibility for the direction of their lives than the society makes them believe.Although this journal and title are still unclear, idiosyncratic theorists, biological schools and cognitive school theorists are probably among the other genres. Trait theorists and biological school theorists are more emphasis on genetic quality, the genetic quality of development is limited to a specific range. But none of these scholars would think that personality is totally taken up and inherited. Similarly, cognitive therapists often encourage their patients to think about how they have caused problems for themselves, and teach them how to avoid the difficulties they face in the future.Figure L - the position of the six schools of L on three theoretical issuesSix summary1. personality psychology has received different attention in the population. There is no accepted concept about personality. In this book, we define personality as a stable way of behavior and interpersonal processes that originate within individuals.2., for convenience, we classify a large number of personality theories into six general types: psychoanalytic schools, idiosyncratic schools, humanistic schools, behaviorism / social learning schools and cognitive schools. In explaining individual differences in personality, each school emphasizes a different emphasis. Although they differ in their opinions about behavior, in order to understand human personality, they can be thought of in these six schools in a complementary pattern.3. in recent years, personality psychologists have become increasingly aware of the need to take into account the culture of a person. In this book, most of the research results mentioned above are from the United States such individualism culture. But these findings do not always generalize to collectivist culture, the study found.4., to better understand human personality, in addition to theoretical research, but also need more things. Therefore, we will examine, each school is how to be applied in real life, how to carry out various schools of personality assessment, will also introduce some related research and application problems, and some problems are derived from the theory of.Key termsPersonality is a stable way of behavior and its interpersonal processes derived from the individual.Individualism culture emphasizes the individual needs, value personal achievement culture.Collectivist culture emphasizes the culture of individuals belonging to larger groups, such as families, clans, and nations.Now let's move back to the question ahead: why do some people show a steady attack?It should be clear now: there is no easy answer to this question. Six personality schools have different interpretations, which is true? There is the possibility that only one interpretation is correct and that future studies should confirm the theory. But the second possibility is that the six schools say that for the part, six (or more) different causes lead to aggressive behavior. There are third possibilities. The six explanations do not contradict each other, except that the emphasis is different. Aggressive boys show hostility as a trait of aggression, which is relatively stable in different situations and times (trait theory). But it's also possible that the boy interpreted the vague events as threats (Cognitive Explanations), because they used to be beaten in the past (behaviorism and social studies). The boy may be born with tendency to threats to attack the (biological genre), but ifthey live in a frustration environment (psychoanalytic schools), or living in a basic needs can be met in the family (humanism school), they will be able to overcome their own attack nature. The key is that each explanation provides a starting point for understanding the behavior of the attack. But how to explain the attack, to explain, and which steps to take depends on which school we stand in.Three, personality differences and the root of Minnesota research achievementsAt the end of 1986, the Minnesota team completed a major collection of data. At present, a total of 44 personality traits were found to be of considerable consistency between separate foster twins. The paper also includes 331 pairs of twins reared together with 217 pairs of identical twins and 114 pairs of fraternal twins.Conclusion:1, the trait with the highest heritability is the traditional, the trait of being willing to comply with authority, with a heritability of 0.60.2, among these traits, the only trait that exhibits a higher heritability is social competence, including traits such as overconfidence, leadership, motivation, and being attracted to attention.3, there is a strange high genetic component - consistency, for 0.55--, is an aesthetic ability, such as listening to symphonyconcerts.4, there is no genetic basis: that is, social affection and the trait of love. The heritability of this trait is 0.29Coincidentally, the standard of genetic significance was somewhat arbitrarily delineated. If you are gentle and loving, you may come from a warm and loving family. But remember, if a trait has a high heritability, that is, higher than 0.60, many people may still have this trait because of environmental influences rather than their genetic makeup.5, there are other noteworthy figures. Among the five categories of test stress, aggression, aggression, control, conservatism, and concentration, the twin pairs of separate twins were slightly more consistent than identical twins. The paper does not explain this oddity, and the Minnesota panel does not care.6, there is no trait with a heritability of 0, and the heritability of most traits ranges from 0.45 to 0.60.At the end of the essay, a modest generalization of the surprising findings of the Minnesota group was made: "therefore, personality differences are more due to genetic differences than environmental differences.". "The paper also asserts that a common family environment can have a negligible effect on personality. Social kissing is the only trait that has been shown to be largely influenced by the family environment.The study of personality in Minnesota has not gone through along period of preservation before publication. The results of the study are listed in the New York Times in the December 2, 1986 science. The 11 characteristics are examined, and the heritability of each trait is given.1, the trait with the highest heritability is social competence (0.61)2, conservative (0.60).Heritability of five traits ranges from 0.50 to 0.60:3. Stress response,4, concentration,5, exclusive,6, health7, avoid harm.Heritability of the three traits ranged from 0.40 to 0.50:8, aggressive,9, sense of achievement10, control.11, in the end is the social pro, the revised heritability rateof 0.33, barely beyond the significant level.A pair of gentle and loving twins must have arrived in Minneapolis, thus increasing the heritability they had previously derived.12, IQ has a high heritability of 0.70Four, personality structure1. MBTI personality theory and personality measurement2. AB personality3. 16PF4. Edward personality preferences5. Big Five personality6. TA interaction theory7. Enneagram8., Freud's personality theoryFive, personality difference and job matching(I) capacityAbility (ability) reflects the individual's likelihood ofcompleting various tasks in a particular job. This is a present assessment of what an individual can do. A person's overall abilities can be divided into two broad categories: mental and physical abilities.Mental ability (intellectual, ability) is the ability to engage in mental activity. IQ tests are used to determine the overall mental ability of a person. In addition, the college entrance examination subjects such as SAT and ACT, the postgraduate entrance examination such as GMAT (postgraduate entrance examination of business school), LSAT (Postgraduate Entrance Examination Research Institute), MCAT (postgraduate entrance examination of Medical College), also belong to this type of test. Generally speaking, there are 7 dimensions in mental ability, namely, arithmetic, speech comprehension, perceptual speed, inductive inference, deductive reasoning, spatial visual perception, and memory. As shown in table 1. Different jobs require employees to use different mental abilities. For jobs that require information processing, a high level of overall intelligence and verbal ability is a necessary guarantee for successful completion of the job. Of course, high IQ is not a prerequisite for all jobs. In fact, in many jobs, employees behave very regularly and have little opportunity to make a difference. Right now,High IQ and job performance can be said to be irrelevant. However, a rigorous summary of the report points out that no matter what level of work, in speech.Test scores in arithmetic, spatial, and perceptual abilities are effective predictors of job proficiency. Therefore,measuring specific dimensions of intelligence tests is important for predicting job performance.Business executives in the use of mental ability test "selection, promotion, training and other personnel decisions, the main problems encountered are: the test of some ethnic groups have held special beliefs and adverse effects. There is evidence that, in general, in speech, arithmetic, and spatial ability tests, scores for certain minority groups are lower than for whites.Table 1 dimensions of mental abilitiesdimensiondescribeWorking examplearithmeticThe ability to perform arithmetic quickly and accuratelyAccountant: calculate sales tax in a series of itemsSpeech understandingUnderstand the ability to read and hear, and the relationship between wordsPlant managers: implement enterprise policiesPerception speedThe ability to quickly and accurately identify visual similarities and differencesFire Investigator: evidence and clues to identify arson responsibilityInductive reasoningThe ability to identify the logical consequences of a problem and to solve the problemMarket researcher: forecast the market demand of a product for a period of timeDeductive reasoningThe ability to use logic to assess an argument's valueSupervisor: make a choice among two different recommendations offered by the employeeSpatial visual perceptionThe ability to visualize the shape of an object when it changes its spatial positionInterior decorator: redecorating the OfficeMemoryThe ability to maintain and recall past experiencesSalesperson: recall the name of the customerPhysique abilityPsychological ability plays an important role in complex tasks requiring information processing. Similarly, for those less skilled and standardized work, the physical ability (physic. 18bility) is very important to the success of the job. For example, the success of some tasks requires endurance, finger flexibility, leg strength, and other related abilities, so that employees' physical ability levels need to be identified in management.The researchers surveyed hundreds of different job requirements and finally identified 9 basic abilities in physical activity work. As shown in Table 2, these are listed in the table. There is a degree of difference between individuals in each ability. What's more, the correlation between these abilities is very low. It is not difficult to understand that a person's high score in one ability does not mean a higher score in another ability. If managers are able to determine the extent to which each job requires each of these 9 competencies, and ensure that employees who do this work have this level of competence, they will definitely improve their performance.Table 29 basic physical abilitiesForce factorOneDynamic strength: the ability to repeat or continuously use muscle forces over a period of time2. trunk strength: the ability to use muscles of the trunk (especially the abdominal muscles) to achieve a certain muscular strength3. static power: the ability to block the forces of an external object4. explosive power: the ability to produce maximum energy in one or a series of burstsFlexibility factor5. breadth of flexibility: the ability to move the trunk and back muscles as far as possible6. dynamic flexibility: ability to perform rapid and repetitive joint movementsOther factors7. physical coordination: the ability to coordinate each other in different parts of the body8. balance: the ability to maintain body balance when threatened by external forces9. stamina: the ability to maintain maximum continuity when required for extended effort(two) temperament -- the 9 dimension of Thomas and Chess's temperamentTemperament is innate and genetic in personality.From a familiar environment into an unfamiliar environment, it is a matter of identifying people's temperament. Thomas and Chess identified 9 dimensions of temperament differences (ThomaChess, 1977). They believe that temperament changes in 9 dimensions of activity level, adaptability, initiative or withdrawal, distraction, intensity, emotion, persistence, rhythm, and response threshold (see chart below).The 9 dimensions are as follows three temperament types (ThomasChess, 1977). The first is the children of parenting style. In the new situation, they are more active rather than backward. They are adaptable and usually have positive emotions. The teacher wants the students to be like this. But there are also some students in the classroom who are called "difficult" students. Instead of taking the initiative, the children face new situations, typically difficult students who adapt to the environment more slowly and are often tense and passiveSeven。

1.Globalization is considered as a process of increasing involvment in international businessoperations.经济学视角中的全球化表现为不断增加的国际商务往来过程。

2.Macroculture:The term macroculture implies losing ethnic differences and forming onelarge society.宏观文化意味着种族差异的消失和一个大社会的形成。

3.Melting pot means a sociocultural assimilation of people of different backgrounds andnationlities.熔炉:不同背景和国籍的人们之间的社会文化的同化。

4.Microcultures:cultures within cultures微观文化：文化中的文化5.Intercultural communication refers to communication between people whose cultureperceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.跨文化交际:指拥有不同文化认知和符号体系的人文之间进行的交际。

Chapter 16.Culture is a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs,values,and norms,which affectthe behavior of a relatively large group of people.文化是习得的一套关于信仰，价值观，规范的公认的解释，这些信仰，价值观，规范对相当大人类群体的行为产生影响。

THE GREAT APPENDIX【系辞上】SECTION IChapter I. 1. Heaven is lofty and honourable; earth is low. (Their symbols), Kh ien and Khwăn, (with their respective meanings), were determined (in accordance with this).天尊地卑，乾坤定矣。

Things low and high appear displayed in a similar relation. The (upper and lower trigrams, and the relative position of individual lines, as) noble and mean, had their places assigned accordingly.卑高以陈，贵贱位矣。

Movement and rest are the regular qualities (of their respective subjects). Hence comes the definite distinction (of the several lines) as the strong and the weak.动静有常，刚柔断矣。

(Affairs) are arranged together according to their tendencies, and things are divided according to their classes. Hence were produced (the interpretations in the Yî, concerning) what is good [or lucky] and evil [or unlucky].方以类聚，物以群分，吉凶生矣。

社会⼯作专业英语讲义Introduction to social work and social welfareChapter2Social work values and ethicsChapter3Empowerment and human diversityChapter4The process of generalist practiceChapter5Practice settingsChapter6An overview of social welfare and social work history Chapter7Policy and policy advocacyChapter8Poverty problemsChapter9Social work and social services for children and families Chapter10Social work and social services for older adultsChapter11Social work and social services for people with disabilities Chapter12Social work and social services in health careChapter13Social work and social services in mental healthChapter14Social work and substance use, abuse, and dependence Chapter15Social work and social services for youth and in the schools Chapter16Social work and social services in the criminal justice systemIntroduction to social work and social welfareCase AKeywords: adopt, family service, paperwork, family life planningCase B:Keywords: group session and group work; mental health; self-help group; mutual-help group Case C:Keywords: Sexual Assault, match, funding-raisingWhat is Social work?Social work is the professional activity of help individuals, groups, or communities enhance or restore their capacity for social functioning and creating societal conditions favorable to this goal. Social work practice consists of the professional application of social work values, principles, and techniques to one or more of the following ends:Helping people obtain tangible servicesProviding counseling and psychotherapy with individuals, families and groups. Helping communities or groups provide or improve social and health services Participating in relevant legislative processesFive themes:Social work concerns helping individuals, groups, or communities.Social work entails a solid foundation of values and principles.A firm basis of techniques and skills provides directions.Social works need to link people to recourses or advocate for service development for clients.Social workers participate legislative process to promote positive social changes.What is social welfare?Social welfare is a nation's system of programs, benefits, and services that help people meet those social, economic, educational, and health needs that are fundamental to the maintenance of society.Two Dimensions:What people get from society (programs, benefits and services?)How well their needs (social, economic, educational, and health) are being met How are social welfare and social work related?Debates on social welfare:Individual responsibility: you get you deserveSociety responsibilityWho should assume responsibility for people's social welfare?Residual, institutional, and developmental perspectives on social welfare.1. Residual ModelSocial welfare benefit and service should be supplied only when people fail to provide adequately for themselves.Blame the victim (fault and failure)For instance: social assistanceFamilies in need receive limited and temporary financial assistance until they can get back on their feet.2. Institutional modelPeople have a right to get benefit and service.For instance: public education, fire and police protectionEvery one can get these services.3. Developmental modelThis approach seeks to identify social interventions that have a positive impact on economic development.(1) Invest in education, nutrition and health care(2) In vest in physical facilities(3) help people in need engage in productive employment and self-employment.Political ideology: conservatives, liberalism and radicalismConservatism is the philosophy that individuals are responsible for themselves, government should provide minimal interference in people's lives, and change is generally unnecessary.Liberalism is the philosophy that government should be involved in the social, political and economic structure so that all people's rights and privileges are protected in the name of social justice.Radicalism is the philosophy that the social and political system as it stands is not structurally capable of truly providing social justice. The fundamental changes are necessary in the basic social and political structure to achieve truly fair and equal treatment.Fields of practice in social workWork with people in needs (children, youth, old people, the disable etc.)Work with some occupationThe continuum of social work careersDegree in social workBSW: prepare for the entry-level social workMSW: receive more specialized trainingDSW: teach at the college level or conduct researchSocial work builds on many disciplinespsychologysociologypolitical scienceeconomicsbiologypsychiatrycouncilcultural anthropologysocial workSocial workers demonstrate competenciesCompetencies are measurable practice behaviors that are comprised ofsufficient knowledge, skills, and values" and have the goal of practicing effective social work.Competency 1: identification as a professional social workerCompetency 2: the application of social work ethical principles to guide practice Competency 3: the application of critical thinking to inform professional judgmentsCompetency 4: engagement of diversity in practiceCompetency 5: the advancement of human rights and social economic justice. Competency 6: engagement in research-informed practiceEvidence-based practiceCompetency 7: application of knowledge of human behavior and the social environmentCompetency 8: engagement in policy proactive to advance social and economic well-beingCompetency 9: responsiveness to contexts that shape practiceCompetency 10: engagement, assessment, intervention, and evaluation with individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities.Chapter 2 social work values and ethics1. Value and ethicsSocial worker is value-based profession.What is value?Value involves what you do and do not consider important and worthwhile, and also involve judgments and decisions about relative worth.What is Ethics?Ethics involve principles that specify what is good and what is bad. They clarify what should and should not be done Difference between value and ethics:Value determine what beliefs are appropriate. Ethics address what to do with or how to apply those beliefs to do the right thing.The importance of ethics2. Value and ethics for social workersSix core values for social workers:(1) Service(2) Social justice(3) Dignity and worth of the person(4) Importance of human relationships(5) Integrity(6) CompetenceSocial workers' ethical responsibilities to clients:(1) Self-determinationPractitioners should nurture and support client self-extermination ：each individual's right to make his or her own decisions.(2)Privacy and confidentiality(3) Conflict of interest and Dual relationshipsThe clients' best interests must be protected to the maximum extent possible.(4) Sexual relationshipSocial workers’ Ethical responsibilities to colleagues(1) Respect(2) Referral for servicesSocial Workers’ Ethical responsibilities in Practice settingsSocial workers' ethical responsibilities as professionalscompetenceagainst discriminationhonestnot solicit clients for the purpose of personal gainsSocial workers' ethical responsibilities to the social work profession.IntegrityResearchEvaluationSocial workers' ethical responsibilities to the broader society(1) Advocate for people's welfare(2) Ensure fair and equal access to resources and opportunities.(3) Respect cultural diversity.(4) Prevent discrimination against or exploiting peopleTranslation exercisesSocial workers must uphold client privacy and confidentiality. Privacy is the condition of being free from unauthorized observation or intrusion.We have established that confidentiality is the ethical principle that workers should not share information provided by a client or about a client unless they have the client's explicit permission to do so. There is more to confidentiality than may be immediately apparent.Confidentiality means more that not revealing information about clients to others. It also involves not asking for more information than is necessary, as well as informing clients about the limitations of confidentiality within the agency setting. Chapter 3 Empowerment and Human DiversityStereotype!Women are too emotional to make good supervisorsElderly people can't think well.Gay and lesbian people really want to be opposite gender.People with physical disabilities are unemployable.Discrimination, oppression, marginalization, alienation, stereotypes, and prejudiceDiscrimination is the act of treating people differently based on the fact that they belong to some group rather than on merit. Oppression involves putting extreme limitations and constraints on some person, group, or larger system. Marginalization is the condition of having less power and being viewed as less important than others in the society because of belonging to some group or having some characteristic.Alienation, related to marginalization, is the feeling that you don't fit in or aren't treated as well as others in the mainstream of society.A stereotype is a fixed mental picture of member of some specified group based on some attribute or attributes that reflect an overly simplified view of that group, without consideration or appreciation of individual differences.Prejudice is an opinion or prejudgment about an individual, group, or issue that is not based on fact.A major social work value involves the importance of people being treated fairly and equally.Populations-at-risk and social economic justiceDiversity emphasizes the similarity and dissimilarity between numerousgroups in society that have distinguishing characteristics.Populations-at-risk are people at greater risk of deprivation and unfair treatment because they share some identifiable characteristic that places them in diverse group.Factors: gender, age, religion, culture, disability, class, immigration statusSocial and economic justiceEmpowerment and a Strengths perspectiveEmpowerment is the process of increasing personal, interpersonal, or political power so that individuals can take action to improve their life situations.A strengths perspective:1. Every individual, group, family and community has strengths.2. Trauma and abuse, illness and struggle may be injurious but they may also be sources of challenge and opportunity.3. Social workers should assume that they do not know the upper limits of the capacity to grow and change and take individual, group, and community aspirations seriously.4. Social workers best serve clients by collaborating with when.5. Every environment is full of resources.Resiliency: seeking strength amid adversityThe ability of an individual, family, group, community, or organization to recover from adversity and resume functioning even when suffering serious trouble, confusion, or hardship.Resiliency involves two dimensions: risk factors and protective factors.Risk factors involve stressful life events or adverse environmental conditions that increase the vulnerability of individuals or other systems.Protective factors involve buffer, moderate, and protect against those vulnerabilities.Human DiversityRace and EthnicityRace implies a greater genetic determinant, whereas ethnicity often relates to cultural or national heritage.Culture and cultural competenceCulture is the sum total of life patterns passed on from generation to generation within a group of people and includes institutions, language, religious ideals, habits of thinking, and patterns of social and interpersonal relationships. Social workers need to have cultural competence to address the cultural needs of individuals, families, groups, and communities.叮叮⼩⽂库National Origin and immigration statusFour experiences which newcomer faced:Social isolationCultural shockCultural changeGoal-strivingclass or social classpolitical ideologygender, gender identity, and gender expressionSexual orientationHomosexual or heterosexual (bisexual)AgeDisabilityReligion and spiritualityChapter 4: Generalist practiceConcepts in the definition of generalist practice1. Acquiring an eclectic knowledge baseA. systems theoryB. ecological perspectiveC. Curriculum content areas1) Values and ethics2) Diversity3) populations-at-risk and social and economic justice4) Human behavior and the social environment5) Social welfare policy and services6) Social work practice7) Research8) Field educationD. Fields of practice2. Emphasizing client empowerment3. Using professional valuesA. social works code of ethicsB. application of professional values to solve ethical dilemma4. Applying a wide range of skillsA. microB. mezzoC. macro5. T argeting any size systemA. microB. mezzoC. Marco6. Working in an organizational structure7. Using supervision appropriately8. Assuming a wide range of professional roles9. Following the principles of evidence-based practice10. Employing critical thinking skills11. Using a planned-change processA. engagementB. assessmentC. planningD. implementationE. evaluationF. terminationG. follow-upWorking in an organizational structure under supervisionWhat is organizational structureOrganizational structure is the formal or informal manner in which tasks and responsibilities, lines of authority, channels of communication, and dimensions of power are established and coordinated within an organization.What is supervisionSupervision is the process by which a designated supervisor watches over a workers’ performance.A wide range of rolescounseloreducatorbrokercase managermobilizermediatorfacilitatoradvocatesupervisorsmanagers3 skills (technical, people and conceptual)Evidence-based practiceEvidence-based practice is a process in which practitioners make practice decisions in light of the best research evidence available.Tools, models, methods and policies must be validated by research and consequence evaluation also should use scientific research methodsCritical thinking skillsAvoiding the fallacy trap1. Relying on case examples2. being vague3. Being biased or not objective4. Believing that if it’s writ ten down it must be rightasking questionsassessing factasserting a conclusionPlanned-change processPlanned change and problem-solvingStep1 engagementStep2 assessmentStep3 planningStep4 implementationStep5 evaluationStep6 terminationEngagement: social workers begin to establish communication and a relationship with others and orient themselves to the problems.skillsVerbal communication and nonverbal communication (cultural variations) Conveying warmth, empathy, and genuineness Alleviating initial client anxiety and introducing the worker's purpose and roleAssessment: gather and analyze information to provide a concise picture of the client and his or her needs and strengths. skillsLooking beyond individual and examine other factors in their environment Finding strengthsPaying attention human diversityPlanning: what should be doneAlternatives and consequencesimplementation: following the plans to achieve the goalsEvaluation: determine whether a given change effort was worthwhile.termination: the end of the professional social work-client relationship types:Natural, forced, and unplannedskillsAppropriate timingChapter 5: Practice SettingSetting in Social Work Practice: Organizations and Communities ?Organizations are entities made up of people that have rules and structure to achieve specified goals.Social services in the context of social agencies.Social services include the wide range of activities that social workers perform to help people solve problems and improve their personal well-being.A social agency is an organization providing social services that typically employs social workers in addition to office staff, and sometimes volunteers. Forms:Public or private;Nonprofit or proprietary (for profit)Social work practice in the context of communitiesA community is “a number of people who have something in summon with one another that connects them in some way and that distinguishes them from others.Some mutual characteristic, such as "location, interest, identification, culture, and activities"Types:Locality-based community;Non geographic communityThe special circumstances of social work practice in rural communities.Low population densitySocial problems faced by rural residents:poverty, lack of transportation, inadequate child care, unemployment, substandard housing, and insufficient health care and so on.Four special issues for rural social workers:(1)true gene lists(work with different level case systems and use a wide of skills)(2) Interagency cooperation.(3) The importance of understanding the community, knowing its values and developing relationships with rural residents (informal relationship)(4) Emphasizing strengths inherent in rural communities. (Informal supporting system)Urban social workUrban social work is practice within the context of large cities, with their vast array of social problems, exceptional diversity, and potential range of resources. Five problems in urban areas:(1)Social problems occur with greater frequency and therefore are more visible(2) Widespread occurrence of discriminatory behavior.(3) Migration problems.(4) Financial shortfalls or unavailability of resources.(5)Greater amount of psychological stressSkills necessary for urban social work(1) Paying attention to human diversity(2) Understanding their agency environment(3) Seeking resources in the external urban environment(4) Using advocacyMicro practice: social work with individualscounseloreducatorbrokerfacilitatoradvocateMicro/mezzo practice: social work with familiesThe primary purpose of family social work is to help families learn to function more competently while meeting the development and emotional needs of all members.The task of family social workers(1) Be responsive to the styles and values of families from other special populations.(2) Break complex tasks into smaller specific steps.(3) Assess the key skills needed for less stressful family interaction.(4) Explain and model appropriate skills.(5) Assess individual learning styles and ways to teach adults and children(6) Establish homework and other means of ensuring generalization of skills from one setting to another.(7) Promote and reward skill acquisition.(8) Emphasize strategies that help develop the strengths of family members(9) Motivate the family to stay involved even when faced with challenges and setback.The importance of social networks for families.Social network: the structure and number of people and groups with whom you have contact or consider yourself to be in contact.Emotional support, instrumental support, informational support and appraisal supportMezzo practice: social work with groupTreatment groupMacro practice: social work with organizations and communities ?social actionsocial planninglocality developmentMacro skills(1) Agency or public social policies may require change.(2) Entail initiating and conducting projects within agency or community contexts(3) Planning and implementing new social service programs within an agency or community.Chapter 6: An overview of social welfare and social work historyEarly European Approaches to Social WelfareFeudalismLands owner vs. landless serfMedieval hospitalChurchPeople have little mobility, free choice, potential for change.Judeo-Christian thought: "Good deeds, love of one's enemies, and entry into heaven through mercy and charity". England after feudalism's demisePeople gained mobility and independence but lost much of the safety and security the old feudal system had provided. Government regains social control by passing some statute, such as: Keeping people from moving;Forbidding able-bodied people from begging.The English Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601Recipients are categorized into:1. Dependent children2. Impotent poor3. The able-bodied poor1662 Law of settlement established a new principle of social welfare provision: residency requirement.The Speenhamland SystemThe first Minimum income maintenance systemThe English Poor Law reforms of 1834Government would not provide outdoor relief for able-bodied people.Blame the victimU. S. Social welfare History: Early Colonization to the mid-1800s ?Services reflected a mix of public and private collaboration.Government assumed responsibility of administration aid but often called upon local churches for help.Residency requirement was established.Focus on Mental Health and Mental illnessMoral treatment: humane treatment in structured institutional settingsThe Civil War EraFreeman Bureau: the first federal welfare agency1870-1900Two trends:Industrialization;UrbanizationFocus on children: early policiesInstitutional care: almshouse and orphanageFoster careSettlement House, Charity Organization Societies, and Generalist social workSettlement House were places where ministers, students, or humanitarians 'settle' to interact with poor slum dwellers with the purpose of alleviating the condition of capitalism.Characters1. Settle house approach address the problems in the context of environment.2. Emphasize on advocacy3. Emphasize on empowerment of peopleCharity Organization SocietiesFriendly visitorEstablish a base of scientific knowledge and apply it to the helping process Focus on curing individualThe Progressive period: 1900 to 1930The Great Depression and the 1930sThe Great Depression and New DealCash reliefShort-term work relief,Expansion of employmentThe Social Security Act of 1935Social insurance (for old age, disability, death of a breadwinner, unemployment, and work-related injury and sickness) Public Assistance (old people, children and blind people)The 1960s and the War on PovertyMore people of color are in poverty than white people.Public assistance roll were escalating even unemployment decreased.the public welfare amendments of 1962Supportive social service to help welfare recipients to self-supporting.War on povertyHead Start; Volunteers in Service to AmericaA Return to Conservatism in the 1970sConservative extremes in the 1980s and early 1990s.TranslationSocial Workers have difficulties with empowerment strategies because their agencies are part of a social system which routinely devalues certain minority groups. Making equal responses to all people who come to an agency may reduce discrimination. Since negative valuations are so widespread, agencies may unthinkingly implement them. Consequently, we discourage potential clients from using the agency and they do not receive the equal treatment available.Chapter 7: Policy, Policy Analysis, Policy Practice, and Policy Advocacy Social welfare policyPolicy: rules that govern people's lives and dictate expectations for behavior.Social Welfare Policy: Laws and regulations that govern which social welfare programs exist, what categories of clients are served, and who qualifies for a given program.Agency Policy: standards adopted by organizations and programs that provide services.Social Welfare Policy Developmentphase 1Recognizing society's values about what is considered important or worthwhile.Phase 2Identifying problems and needs that require attention.Phase 3Identification of public opinion about an identified problem and people's related needs.Normative orientationphase 4Legislators confronted with a problem or need and swamped with public opinion undertake the complicated formulation of social welfare policy to address the issues.Phase 5Implementation through a social welfare program.Phase 6Social services are delivered by social workers and other staff in the context of social services agencies.Structural components of social welfare programs1. What are people's needs and program goals?I.e. the food stamp program2. What kinds of benefits are provided?Cash and in-kind3. What are the eligibility criteria for the program?Means test4. Who pays for the programs?General tax, state lottery, social security tax; private agency; client5. How is the program administered and run?National, state, or local?Value perspectives and political ideology: effects on social responsibility and social welfare program developmentThe conservative-liberal continuumradicalismresidual and institutional perspectives on social welfare policy and program developmentuniversal versus selective service provisionFive-E ApproachHow effective is the policyHow efficient is the policyIs the policy ethically soundWhat does evaluation of potential alternative policies revealWhat recommendations can be established for positive changes Policy Practice and Policy AdvocacyChapter 8: Social work and services in health careHealth problemsFactors causing health problems:1. Unhealthful lifestyles2. Physical injured3. Enviromental factors4. Poverty5. ContagiousSocial Work Roles in Health Care：medical social workerSocial work roles in direct health care practice1. Hospital, medical clinics and so on(1) Help patients understand and interpret technical medical jargon(2) Offer emotional support(3) Help terminally ill people deal with their feelings and make end-of-life plans.(4) Help patient’s adjust their lives and lifestyles to accommodate to new conditions when they return home after medical treatment(5) Help parents of children who have serious illnesses or disabilities cope with these conditions and respond to children's needs.(6) Serve as brokers who link patients with necessary supportive resources andservices after leaving the medical facility.(7) Help patients make financial arrangements to pay hospital and other medical bills.(8) Provide health education aimed at establishing a healthful lifestyle and preventing illness.2. Public Health Departments and other health care contexts(1) Preventing diseases(2) Prolonging life(3) Promoting health and efficiency through organized community effort3. Managed care settingsTraditional healthy insurance (fee-for-service basis)Assessment to determine whether patients are eligible for benefits and which are most appropriate.Macro Practice in Health care: seeking empowermentAdvocating for health coverage and health care legislation, policies and resourcesHealth Care policy and problems in the macro environmentThe escalating cost of health care1. The rapid acceleration of technological advances has increased the types of services, drugs, and testing available.2. The population is aging.Unequal access to health careNational health insurance vs. contribution-based health insuranceProblems in managed careCapitationCost and health-care outcomeCultural competenceAPI cultural:Filial pietyCollective versus individual decision makingEmphasis on Harmony versus conflictNonverbal communicationsFatalismShame at asking for helpInternational perspectives: AIDS-A Global CrisisAIDS: acquired immune deficiency syndromeHIV: human immunodeficiency virusEmpowerment for people living with AIDS victims vs. People living with AIDS Social work roles and empowerment for people living with AIDS Counseling;Educator;Crisis intervention;Empowerment and reconnection (support system);Family counseling;。

Chapter 2Choosing your teamBig guns, little gunsHow big should the team be?There are several reasons to keep your negotiation team (NT) as small as possible. The first few deal with the expense and difficulties that arise when your NT must operate overseas. Flights, ground transport, meals, hotels, communication, conference centers, taxes, and cargo can make trip for even a small team extremely expensive. Arranging for passports, visas, inoculations, and potential medical care for a large group can easily become unmanageable. Problems and additional expenses may also arise when attempting to deal with various family and business schedules. Finally, for NT’s operating overseas, keeping track of large groups in a foreign country is nightmarish at best-ask any tour guide.The rest of reasons for keeping the NT compact apply to both domestic and overseas assignments. Primarily, communication is a source of strength within any organization and never more so than within the NT. Premeetings, recaps and midmeeting breaks demand that communication be both precise, as major decisions are made in a matter of seconds. The CN must be able to seek the input of the team quickly, and large group are cumbersome.Secondly, as mentioned earlier, presenting a unified front is key. The CN must be able to redirect tactics as counterparts bring new issues to the table. Agreement on tactics become more difficult in direct proportion to group size, even when there’s agreement on strategy. Keeping the NT small enables the CN to make timely adjustments to the negotiating plan and to disseminate that information quickly. Additionally, small teams are more easily able to withstand the “wedges” that counterparts may attempt to drive between members of large teams.Thirdly, the members of the NT have other job duties unrelated to the negotiations. The fewer you pull away from their regular assignments the better. There’s no sense disrupting the company’s core business. As exciting as the international arena is, keep in mind that someone must oversee the old business while others look for new opportunities.Don’t use the assignment as a rewardA very common mistake that executives or CNs make is assigning membership to the NT as a reward for other success unrelated to the task at hand. This is especially true when the team is headed for exotic locales. Many employees see the trip as a minivacation and a way for them to broaden their personal horizons. Even when the NT will be receiving foreign counterparts at the company offices, being a member if the NT is perceived as adding to internal prestige. Some employees even see it as their right by seniority to be a part of the negotiations. Unfortunately, what (and who) succeeds in the domestic market doesn’t always play well internationally. Wise CNs must keep in mind that the blustering Vice President of sales and marketing isn’t going to impress the reserved Japanese; nor will the brilliant, but reticent, chief engineer be able to withstand the verbal onslaught of the impatient Americans.There can be a great deal of “fallout” when a staff member fails to be selected for the NT. The best way to avoid it is to make it clear that only talents very specific to the success of the NT are being considered. Technical, cultural, linguistic, social, and travel skills should be compiled in checklist form (not dissimilar to that for the CN) and circulated among potential team members. Inclusion on the NT should be based on this profile alone, and CNs will find they have much better grounds for defending their personnel choices when approached by determined, but unsuitable, staffmembers. This is especially true when other executives and managers assume they’re going to be part of the NT. As a way of preserving morale among those left off of the NT roster, some CNs make the deferrees part of the prenegotiation strategy planning process.A balance of skills and strengthsIt’s unlikely that any single team member will embody all of the talents necessary to achieve the company’s strategy. The CN must choose a cross-section of technical skills and personal attributes that will create a compact and efficient team. One team member’s weakness must be offset by another’s strength. Technical prowess must be a accompanied by the ability to communicate and apply that prowess. Putting a team together is similar to assembling a jigsaw puzzle: there’s no success unless all of the pieces fit.A common practice among experienced travelers when packing for trips is to never put anything in the suitcase that has “only one use”; the same applies to choosing NT members. A specialist candidate is eschewed in favor of the generalist unless the technical expertise is absolutely crucial to the effort. If the CN must include these “one trick ponies,” every attempt should be made to make them a part of the wider strategy and tactics discussions. If that’s unsuccessful, these specialist members should be cautioned to advise in private during negotiations and to avoid direct involvement.Painting the “big picture”Although many technical types will disagree, it’s much easier to impart technical knowledge to a good communicator than it is to do the reverse. Members of the NT must be chosen for their ability to effectively execute the company’s strategy and to quickly respond to the tactics of counterparts. This is accomplished only through good communications skills. Scientific and financial technical skills will take a back seat, especially during initial negotiations, as the “big picture” is discussed. Details will be left until much later in the process. Many business cultures prefer to have the details tended to after the contract is signed.Bringing massive technical data to the negotiating table may only slow down the deal-making process.NOTE: Much “expertise can be carried in file or laptop form, in case it should be needed during discussions.Tasks Both Large and smallMajor decisions are made every day during negotiations, but not all of the work is momentous. Some companies and consultant CNs make the mistake of including only “big guns” on the team. This causes problems, as no one relishes doing the necessary but tedious (and decidedly unglamorous ) work that keeps negotiations running smoothly—getting copies, typing policy changes, taking notes, arranging dinners, and so on .Including a few junior managers or administrators in the ranks of the NT for the sole purpose of controlling logistics is a wise move. This is particularly helpful if these members have experience working or traveling in the target market. Should the finances or domestic needs of the company preclude this option, these administrative duties should be assigned to specific members of the team, and it should be made clear that these duties are as important as any of the ,more “spot light”tasks. As is true in other areas of business, what happens behind the scenes determines success on the stage.Home Team Versus VisitorsThe respective sizes of the NT is usually determined by the group that’s visiting.This is particularly true if the visiting team is in the position of . “buying” from the home team or receiving group. The visiting group should forward a list of its members, stipulating the job title and responsibility of each. The receiving group should assemble their NT to correspond to the visiting team.It’s true that the receiving team has the psychological advantage of operating from their home turf, but they should resist the urge to overwhelm their visitors with an imposingly large NT. Since these resources can be called upon at any time, it’s best to see if they, re needed before arraying them. The ability to successfully exploit the discomfort of counterparts is very much related to one’s culture and requirements for a “success”. Some visitors may be in awe of your facilities and staff while others may consider it a visitors may be in awe of your is generally better when making initial contact.“Observer” TrainingCompanies that regularly pursue international trade and investment like to use negotiation as an ongoing training tool by purposely including less experienced members on the team. This allows them to gain experience that can be put to use in future international negotiations. It’s best to make it clear to these junior team members exactly why they’re being included in the NT so that they’re keen to gain as much experience as possible, get “bloodied” by their own mistakes, and learn from those of other team members .It’s also an ideal way for the company to see how their future CNs handle new and difficult situations. Many executives will attest to the fact that the “rising stars from the home office often become confused and ill-at-ease when put into the crucible of international negotiations and travel. Conversely, the mediocre manager may flourish in the new international environment.Those Who Can’“CUT IT”A common question in business when determining whether someone will be a success is , “Can they cut the muster?” (Sorry, folks, it isn’t mustard.) During the Middle Ages, the muster in question was the final pattern cut from cloth by journeymen to be used by the master tailor. Cut improperly, the pattern will never work, and valuable cloth will be ruined. International negotiations have a similar one-chance-is-all-you-get sense of finality. The NT acts as the journeymen and the CN is the master tailor preparing to stitch together a successful negotiation. Below are some types of people to avoid because they won’t be able “to cut it.”WHINERSEmployees who constantly complain, even under good conditions, are going to find travel and the stress of negotiations intolerable. These types love to bring up problems but never offer solutions. Every company has them, but successful negotiating teams don’t.CONNIVERSUnity is paramount for negotiations and people who like to work their own agenda or jockey for position will only undermine the team’s effort. These types are generally keen strategies and they may be useful in planning. However, under no circumstances should they ever take an active role in negotiations.HOTHOUSE FLOWERSMore competent than whiners, these “high maintenance”types can only excel under ideal circumstances. They never complain but are easily set back by the slightest deviation form the norm. Unfortunately, negotiations and overseas travel are rarely conducive to ideal anything. Sometimes, the NT must operate when materials and equipment are lost, or work in environmentsin which electricity is some trials reserved for special occasions. Technically astute or not, these “flowers” won’t travel well. If they must be used, do so only when negotiations are on home turf. An overseas team needs those that can adapt to any environment.BIGOTSNegotiations are a zero-sun game based on finding common ground amid very real and distinct differences. Adding racial, cultural, or class bigotry will only obscure an already complex state of affairs. Bigots (of any ilk) tend to communicate their prejudices more than they realize, and it’s not the kind of communication that leads to a successful deal.The frailRegardless of where the team originated, the world outside of the domestic market is filled with sights, sounds, smells, and tastes that pummel the visitor. Part of the success of the NT will be in its ability to assimilate as quickly as possible into the environment of their target market. The hygienic and culinary habits of counterparts and their culture may not meet the standards of the NT’s domestic scene. Members who can’t quickly and adequately adjust to new environments will only be a burden to the whole team, thus disrupting strategies and assignments. Like the CN, the team must be robust.Overseas? Domestic? One core team?Optimally, once a team is assembled, it should be used for both overseas and domestic negotiations related to international business. (Specialists may be added for individual negotiations.) This is especially true for smaller companies with limited resources. But large companies should not make the mistake of having two separate teams-one for overseas and one for domestic discussions-simply because they can afford the expense. Teams that have operated overseas will understand the stresses and strains being exerted on foreign teams when they come for business visits. This information, used sympathetically or otherwise, can be a key part of the overall strategy and daily tactics. Lastly, using the team for all negotiations will add to its ability to operate as a unit as team members become expert at all aspects of negotiating. They must be able to visit as well as host a negotiation and understand the responsibilities of being on either side of the table.。

新编语⾔学教程第2版第4章答案《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》第⼆版第4章练习题参考答案Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows: NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to theconjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure(or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).第7—13⼩题⼤部分要求画树形图，这⾥省略。