1. What is lexicology?
Lexico-(语素, meaning ‘word’) Lexicon(词典,字典)
Lexical（(词的,词汇的) Lexicography（(词典编纂) Sociology (社会学) Psychology (心理学)
Lexicology is the study of the structure, usage, origins and meanings of words.
English lexicology studies English words in different aspects and from different angles.
Without grammar we can express little; Without words we can express nothing.
2.Define “word”
A minimal free form of a language; A sound unity; A unit of meaning; A form that can function alone in a sentence.
3. Origin of English Words
Native words 本族词
Borrowed words / loan words 外来词
Latin ，Scandinavian ，French ，Greek ，Spanish, German, Portuguese, Dutch, Arabic, Chinese, Hebrew, Persian, Japanese, Indonesian, Russian
Native words: Anglo-Saxon words
Body parts—hand, foot, arm, eye, bone
Nature—land, field, earth, hill, sun, moon
Time—month, year, day
Animals and plants—horse, sheep, dog, lamb, oak, elm, beech
Adjectives—black, high, wide, long, small
Verbs—drive, ride, shine, choose, fly, see
Auxiliaries—shall, may, will, do, be
Borrowed words P.9
The boy kept interrupting the government man.
Native words on P.5
What features do these words have?
Form the basic stock of English language most frequently used，Denote the commonest things necessary for life，Acquired earliest by children，Denote the most basic things in language Borrowing
cake, knife, crop, ill, husband, Danish
coolie, litchi, dim sum, typhoon, kaolin, loquat, bureau, honor, literature, court French sauna Finnish
hamburger, blitz, zinc German
macaroni, sonata, spaghetti Italian
sultan, roc, harem, sheik, yashmak Arabic
czar, commissar, intelligentsia Russian
geometry, gymnastics, tragedy, myth Greek
genius, memorandum, formula Latin
kimono, judo, Japanese
Review questions
(1)._____ studies the structure, meanings, origins and usage of words.
A. Word formation
B. Lexicology
C. Morphology
(2).There is a logical connection between the sound and meaning of words. This is a ____ view.
A. naturalist
B. conventionalist
C. objective
(3).____ is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.
A. affix
B. phrase
C. word
4. Morphemene
one morpheme nation
two morphemes nation+al
three morphemes inter+nation+al
four morphemes inter+nation+al+ist
5.Word formation: affixation 词缀法
Affix词缀(a form that is attached to a morpheme to modify meaning or function)prefix前缀,suffix后缀)
root词根(the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.)
6. Word and Vocabulary
The general estimate of English vocabulary is over one million words.
John has a good knowledge of Middle English vocabulary.
The vocabulary of Black English proved too difficult for me.
The five-year-old child has acquired a vocabulary of over 2000 words.
This article gives a good introduction of specialized vocabulary of nuclear physics.
V ocabulary
The total number of the words in a language.
All the words used in a particular period.
All the words of a given dialect.
All the words possessed by a person.
All the words of a given discipline.
Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic V ocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇（The common core of the language.）
Rain, snow, fire, water, sun, moon, spring, summer, wind, hill;
Head, foot, hand, face, father, mother, son
Apple, tree, horse, cow, cat, dog, sheep
Come, go, eat, beat, carry, old, young
One, ten, hundred, I, you, who, but, as, till
Characteristics of Basic Word Stock
All national character 全民性，Stability 稳定性，Productivity 能产性，Polysemy 多义性
Do these belong to basic word stock?
（1）Do you know what subject matter jurisdiction is?（subject matter jurisdiction诉讼标的管辖权；事物管辖权）
（2）Due to Habeas Corpus, you and Miss Fontana had a common law marriage, which entitles her to what is legally referred to as equitable division of the assets.（Due to Habeas Corpus 人身保护法, common law marriage习惯法婚姻, 同居婚姻, equitable division of the assets 资产平均分配）
（3）Due to the fact that you retained the residence, Miss Fontana is entitled to full canine property ownership. We’ll enforce that ownership right now.
Nonbasic V ocabulary 非基本词汇
Photoscanning, indigestion, algebra
Terminology 术语（technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas）
Hypo, buster, bargaining chips
Jargon 行话(specialized words used by members of particular arts sciences, trades and professions among themselves)
Dough (money), pot (drug) slang 俚语(sub-standard words)
Can-opener (all-purpose key), dip (pickpocket) argot黑话(jargon of criminals)
Review questions
(1) The word ‘limitless’contains two _____.
A. affixes
B. roots
C. morphemes
(2) Which of the following is not true?
A. A word is the smallest form of language
B. A word is a sound unity.
C.A word has a given meaning.
D.A word can be used freely in a sentence.
(3) According to semanticists, a word is a unit of ______.
A. sounds
B. meaning
C. form
D. function
(4) A word is a _____ that stands for something else in the world.
A. symbol
B. system
C. structure
D. pattern
(5) How many morphemes does this word have? What kind of morpheme?
•misleadingly
7. Affixation 词缀法
Prefixation 前缀法
Negative prefixes表示否定意义的前缀
Prefixes of degree or size (extra,hyper,mini,) 表示程度、大小等意义的前缀
Prefixes of orientation and attitude 表示倾向和态度等意义的前缀(pro, anti)
Locative prefixes表示方位意义的前缀(intra,inter,tele, sub)
Prefixes of time and order 表示时间和顺序意义的前缀(ex, fore, post, pre)
Number prefixes表示数字的前缀(mono,bi,tri,penta,)
Miscillaneous prefixes其他意义的前缀(eco,auto,neo)
Class-changing prefixes 改变词性的前缀（a, en, un, de)
Suffixation 后缀法
Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to roots.
The primary function of suffixes is to change the grammatical function of roots.
Review questions
(1) Turn the following into verbs with -en,-ify, -ize
(Horror, modern, Memory, apology, False, sterile, Length, intense, Beauty, fat Sympathy, memory)
He ____ for interrupting her.
She tried to ____ her room with posters and plants.
A study has been ordered into the feasibility of _____ the airport’s main runway by 200m. However much they _____ with her, they all felt it was her fault.
Soya is excellent food to ___ cattle.
Over $40000 had been spent on _____ the station.
_____ the bottles by immersing them in boiling water for 15 minutes.
If you are employed by a company, you’re one of its _____.
A politician is someone whose job is politics.
The _____ in a discussion are the people who participate in it.
A woman who works as a ______ does the same job as a waiter.
A ____ is someone who earns their living by playing the piano.
If someone examines you, you are the ____ and he/she is the _____.
8.Conversion 转类法
# Noun attribute
•Economy measure 节约措施economic measure 经济措施
•Bankruptcy lawyer处理破产诉讼的律师bankrupt businessman破了产的商人•Riot police 防暴警察riotous police 闹事的警察
•Danger zone 危险区
•Depth charge 深水炸弹
• A department decision 部门作出的决定
•Impulse buying 凭一时的冲动买东西
Bankruptcy lawyer
# Noun to verb, verb to noun
The newspapers headlined his long record of accomplishments.
He was admitted to the university after a three-year wait.
This film is a remake.
# Adjective to noun
–Partial conversion
These books are intended for the deaf and mute.
It is highly important to distinguish between the false and the true
–Complete conversion
Many classics are now available in bookstores.
The police are netting 25 illegals a day in Chicago
They needed to get there within three days. No ifs and buts were accepted. So Tom got the plans and helicoptered to the host city, while David got visaed up in Berlin and went there by Air France. At the airport shop, he was attracted by some celebrity ashtrays and bought one of them .
We can’t stomach such a insult.
Robert Acheson roomed right next to me.
He wolfed down his lunch.
I’m one of his familiars.
Poor innocents!
The engineers ahed and ouched at the new machines.
He Hamleted the chance and then regretted for it.
These shoes were an excellent buy.
They lifted the rifles and hit him in the small of the back.
9.Word Formation: Composition/Compounding
• A process of word-formation by which two or more independent words are put together to make one word.
Cruise missile 巡航导弹Laserbomb 激光炸弹Fox-bat 狐蝠式战斗机(米格-25)
Well-balanced 平衡了的Dog-eat-dog 狗咬狗的Cross-question 盘问
Compound noun
Poorhouse identity crisis Rainbow fox-bat pickpocket Inpatient Compound adjective
Bittersweet lifelong feelgood inborn
One-man (concert) Around-the-moon (flight)
Be-kind-to-animal (campaign) The-end-justifies-the-means (philosophy)
One-family-one-child family planning (policy)
No-one-dared-to-walk-in-the-street (situation)
Compound verb
breast-feed sleepwalk Undertake whitewash Badmouth
10. The development of the English Vocabulary
Historical Review of English V ocabulary
First language used in Britain: Celtic
The Roman Legions(古罗马军团): Latin（55-54BC）
Germanic tribes: Anglo-Saxon (450)
Three periods of the English Language
Old English (450AD—1150AD) when the first Germanic tribes began to settle in England.
•Anglo-Saxon—the Germanic tribes
•Latin –introduction of Christianity at the end of the 6th century.
•Scandinavian –Norwegian and Danish vikings
•5000-6000 words; highly inflected
Middle English (1150—1500) during the Norman Conquest.
•French influenceNorman Conquest 1066
•9000 French words continually flowed into English
•Dutch words entered English with the trade relation.
•English regained position of importance
–Wycliff translation of the Bible (威克利夫)
–Writings of Chaucer and Langland (乔叟、朗兰)
–English gradually came back to schools
Modern English (1450—)
•Early Modern English (1500-1700) 早期现代英语
•Late Modern English (1700-up to now) 后期现代英语
Early Modern English (1500-1700) 早期现代英语
•The Renaissance 文艺复兴—a new upsurge of learning ancient Greek and Roman classics
•1500-1700–over 10,000 new words entered English.
•The Bourgeois Revolution, the Industrial Revolution, colonization–absorb words from all major languages in the world
Late Modern English (1700-up to now) 后期现代英语
•World wars
•Advances in science and technology
•Thousands and thousands of new words have been created through borrowing and word-formation
•New words in all walks of life: politics, economy, commerce, culture, entertainment, education, sports, transportation, mass media
•From synthetic language to analytic language
Growth of Present-day English V ocabulary 当代英语词汇的发展
Reasons for new words: 为什么需要新词
To express new things and new changes
To arouse public attention and interest
Main sources of new words: 新词所属领域
Science and technology
Economic and political changes
Influence of other cultures and languages
New Words
New Words and Changing American Culture 1990, Gozzi:
•45% science and technology terms;
•24% terms related to life-style
•11% social and economic terms
Modes of V ocabulary Development 词汇的发展方式
Creation 创词–formation of new words by using existing materials such as roots, affixes and other elements.
Semantic changes 旧词新义– an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need. Borrowing借词—absorbing words from foreign languages
Reviving archaic or obsolete words古词和废弃词复活
11. Word formation
•Encourage Affixation词缀法Derivation派生法
•Moonlight Compounding 复合法
•to Pocket the money Conversion 转类法
•Motel Blending拼缀法
•Memo (memorandum) Clipping 截短法
•UNESCO Acronymy 首字母拼写法
•Babysit (from babysitter) Backformation逆构法
•Sandwich Proper noun专有名词
Which of the following is a compound?
A.Preschool
B. school master
C. At school
D. schooling
Blending 拼缀法
Brunch—breakfast+lunch Motel—motor+hotel
Botel—boat+hotel Smog—smoke+fog
Four structural types of Blending
Brunch—breakfast+lunch Carbecue—car+barbecue
Medicare—medical +care Sitcom –situational+comedy
Three stylistic types of Blending
•Slang or make-shift words
infanticipating--infant+anticipating
•Words for science and technology
biorhythm—biological+rhythm
lidar—light and radar 激光雷达
•Words used in mass media
dawk—dove and hawk 中间立场的
Back Formation 逆构法
edit—editor caretake—caretaker Peeve—peevish Frivol—frivolous Automate—automation Destruct—destruction Sidle—sidling
Clipping 截短法
Phone—telephone Zoo—zoological garden Copter--helicopter
Fridge—refrigerator Flu—influenza Curtsy—courtesy
Initialism 首字母连接词
VOA WTO YZU CCTV
Acronym 首字母拼音词
NASA AIDS Radar UESCO Laser
12. Motivation 词的理据
1.Onomatopoeic motivation 拟声理据
2.Semantic motivation 语义理据（figurative sense）
3.Morphological motivation 形态理据
4.Etymological motivation 词源理据
Primary onomatopoeia 基本拟声P.60
•The imitation of sound by sound.
•Here the sound is truly “an echo to the sense”.
e.g.Here it comes sparkling,
And there it lies darkling…
Spouting and frisking,…
Secondary Onomatopoeia
•Certain sounds and sound sequences are associated with certain senses in an expressive relationship.
e.g.sn/--breath noise; quick separation or movement; creeping:
sniff, snuff, snore, snort, snip, snap, snatch, snake, snail, sneak, snoop (窥探) Duplicated words or phrases
• A tall clock tick-tocked on the stair.
•He gave the deck a thorough riffle-shuffle and then dealt the cards. 他把牌彻底洗过一遍,然后发牌. Metaphor
•They were allowed to leapfrog the long lines of traders and get immediate appointments with Chinese representatives
•US influence and prestige nosedived in Africa.
•The came up with a plan for drastic pruning of the bloated institution.
Synecdoche 提喻
Sail—ship Hand—man The smiling year—spring A Solomon—a wise man Metonymy 借代
• A watched bottle never boils.
•He never let his heart rule his head.
Analogy 类比
•talkathon (马拉松式谈话或座谈节目)
•telethon (马拉松式电视广播节目)
Color analogy 色彩类比
His short play is in the white list. (批准上演的节目名单)
grey list—非明文查禁但仍属不合法的人或物
grey-collar workers—服务性行业的职工
Number analogy数字类比
The Fourth World (最贫国集团)
The First Family
The three R’s (reading, writing arithmetic)
Space analogy 地点空间类比
•Moonscape—landscape
•Marrain(火星上地形)—terrain
•Earthrise—sunrise
•Spacefaring(航天飞行)--seafaring
反义类比
•Daylighting –白天兼职,晚上主要工作
•Low-rise—低层建筑
•Cold line—冷线
Analogy 近似类比
•Missile gap (美国与苏联在导弹发展上的差距)
Generation gap, development gap，Production gap, credibility gap
•Watergate
13.The Change of Word Meaning
Albatross 信天翁---cause of worries, misfortune
For it is my special albatross to be related to the guy…. (p.88)
Harvest---getting in the crops，crops that you get in
Bench
Every time we go there, he is sitting on a park bench.（A piece of furniture for you to sit on）Here is the list of the full bench of the supreme court. （judges）
He was brought before the bench. （court）
Mary served on the bench and in Congress.Tom got a bench in the Parliament. (seat)
This is a team with the best bench. (substitutes)
They conducted the bench test successfully.（table）
Central signification : furniture
Secondary meaning: judge, seat, substitute ,table
She took her cat to the bench show. 动物展览评比会
Tom’s father worked as a bench scientist for many years. 在实验室工作的科学家
I am tired of being a bench warmer, nor do I want to be a bench jockey. 替补队员；在替补队员席上起哄的棒球队员（为干扰对方运动员或裁判员）
Treacle
1. Pertaining to wild beast.(与野兽有关的。Theriakon Gk. )
https://www.doczj.com/doc/8619141116.html,e this treacle for the snakebite. (<废>解毒剂）
3. There is no treacle for all diseases. (<废>万灵药）
4. Pudding is something made with treacle.(molasses, 糖蜜）
5. Her treacle to the boss was sickening.(flattery 恭维话，过分甜蜜的声音)
Central signification: pertaining to wild best
Secondary meaning: antidote Sovereign remedy syrup, molasses flattery, sugary voice polysemy一词多义
polysemic 多义词(A word with more than one meaning)
Radiation 词义的辐射
A semantic process in which the central meaning stands at the center and the secondary meanings
proceed out of it in every direction like rays.
The meanings are independent of one another, but can all be traced back to the central meaning . Concatenation 连锁联接
A semantic process where each of the later meaning is related to the proceeding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.
Tally—account, keeping account 帐，记账，【体】得分，计分
a running tally 流水账
Can you keep a tally of your own marks?把你自己的得分记下来，好么？
The original meaning: cutting 切割
A cutting of notches to keep an account 在木签上刻痕记账
Bank –bench
Bank—bench, money changer’s table
They had a proper dinner at prices that will not break the bank.
The company went bankrupt.
There were many bankruptcies in the business world last year.
14.Types of Meaning Change 词义变化的方式
The word holiday originally meant holy day; but now the word signifies any day on which we don’t have to work. This is an example of _______.
A. meaning shift
B. widening of meaning
C. narrowing of meaning
D. loss of meaning Generalization, widening of meaning词义的扩展
John is fortunate to have married a woman who is good at economy. (managing the house) Specialization, Narrowing of meaning词义的缩小
Rats and mice and such small deer have been Tom’s food for seven long days (animal). Elevation, ameliaration词义的升格
Minister—servant Constable—stable attendant
Degeneration, Degradation 词义的降格
Silly—innocent, harmless Cunning—knowing, skillful （Towards an unfavorable meaning）Terrific, fantastic, supercolossal, outrageous, horrible, atrocious, dreadful（Weakening of meaning The use of abstract for the concrete or vice versa词的抽象意义和具体意义相互转化Apprehend—take hold of Threat—army, a group of people （Concrete becomes abstract）
He was a tough proposition.他是个难对付的人。（Abstract becomes concrete）
Common words from proper names
Judas （A traitor）
Braille （Writing for the blind）
Pasteurize （巴氏消毒）
Meaning transferenc e词义的转移
hateful
1. 充满仇恨的，有敌意的（subjective）
2. 可恨的，讨厌的(objective)
dreadful—内心感到十分畏惧的；令人畏惧的
15. classification of word meaning
How are these words related?
Vegetable, carnation, flower, plant, lily, rose, tree, shrub, daisy, grass, chrysanthemum
Plant:vegetable, carnation, flower, lily, rose, tree, shrub, daisy, grass, chrysanthemum(PPT 12-4,5) Love, hate (Antonymy 反义关系)
Like, favor, be fond of (Synonymy 同义关系)
Sea, see (Homonymy同音异义)
Apple, fruit, banana (Hyponymy 上下义关系)
16. Semantic Classification of Words --meaning relations between words 词的语义分类Difference in Meaning语义上的差异
The teacher was amazed to find that the laziest student in his class had got a mark of 100 in this important test.
Susan was astounded to learn that her dearest friend has been spreading malicious gossip about her.
The wolf rolled over and played dead to escape capture by the farmer.
They lost no time in fleeing the burning hotel.
Difference in emotional and stylistic coloring 感情色彩和语体色彩上的差异
Penalties for overdue books will be strictly enforced.
You’ve got to pay fines for overdue books.
His grandfather passed away so he hurried back home.
The bastard kicked the bucket shortly after he robbed the villagers.
Difference in collocation and distribution 搭配与分布的差异
He felt he was the happiest man alive.
I have been trying to make lexicography a living subject.
He is the greatest living novelist in England.
They were delighted to find larges schools of fish.
A herd of …a flock of…a pack of …
p.119 Eradicate, keep down; disseminate, spread
P.123 Move, run, turn, roll, whirl, spin
.Full homonym 同形异义
Father (reprovingly): Do you know what happens to liars when they die?
Johnny: Yes, dad, they lie still.
a. They continue to tell lies.
b. They lie motionless.
Homophone同音同形异义
It’s bean soup.
No matter what it has been
.Homograph同音同形异义
I forgot to wind my clock last night.
I hope tomorrow we’ll have a favorable wind.
Sources of Homonymy
Split of polysemy 多义词的词义分化
Flower flour
Converging sound development 音变的会合
I --- ic (old English) eye---eage (old English)
Shortening of words 词语的缩略
pop (popular) disc (discotheque)
Antonymy
A handsome man—an ugly man
A handsome income–- a meager income
Fresh bread--stale bread
Fresh air—stuffy air
Fresh flowers – faded flowers
P.130 exercise II. Draw a diagram to show the meaning relationship between the words.
P.135 exercise VII. Fill in the blanks
17.Idioms 习语
It is raining cats and dogs. 外面下着倾盆大雨。
Children often take off the adults.孩子经常模仿大人。
Time and tide wait for no man.机不可失，时不再来
They are taken good care of from cradle to grave. 他们一生都得到了很好的照顾。Characteristics of Idioms 英语习语的特点
1.Semantic unity 语义的整体性
till the cows come home (forever 永远地)
rain cats and dogs (rain heavily 倾盆大雨)
2.Structural stability 结构的稳定性
by twos and threes (三三两两地，两三个一次地)
In a brown study (deep in thought 沉思) (The structure of an idiom is to a large extent unchangeable)
Classification of idioms习语的分类
（1）Idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语（An idiom nominal in nature functions as a noun in sentences）
Jack of all trades 三脚猫，杂而不精的人white elephant 无用而累赘的东西
（2）Idioms adjectival in nature 形容词性习语
as poor as a church mouse 一贫如洗Beyond the pale 越轨的up in the air 悬而未决的（3）Idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语
Put off 推迟Get away with 逃脱惩罚Put down to 把……归因于
Give sb the bag 解雇某人Make it 做成Chop and change 变化无常
（4）Idioms adverbial in nature 副词性习语
Tooth and nail 竭尽全力地Heart and soul 全心全意地
Through thick and thin 在任何情况下
（5）Sentence idioms 句式习语
A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. 双鸟在林不如一鸟在手。
How are you? 你好吗？Interrogative 疑问句
Never do things by halves. 做事不要半途而废。Imperative 祈使句
That’s the time of day! 原来如此！Exclamative 感叹句
Stylistic Features of Idioms 习语的文体色彩
Idioms are generally informal. Many of them were first created by working people.
In deep water 陷入困境（seaman ）
Kill two birds with one stone 一石二鸟（hunter）
New brooms sweep clean 新官上任三把火（housewife）
Rhetorical features of idioms 习语的修辞特征
1. Phonetic manipulation 语音运用
（1）Alliteration 头韵
might and main 全力chop and change 变化无常
Time and tide wait for no man.机不可失，时不再来
（2）Rhyme
wear and tear 损耗
by hook and by crook 不择手段
2. Lexical manipulation 词汇运用
（1）Reiteration 同义反复
pick and choose 挑挑拣拣hustle and bustle 匆匆忙忙
（2）Repetition 同词重复
by and by 逐渐地; out and out彻头彻尾地
（3）Juxtaposition 反义并列
play fast and loose 行为反复无常，玩弄sooner or later; up and down
3. Figures of speech 修辞手法
（1）Simile 明喻spend money like water
（2）Metaphor 隐喻black sheep 败类new broom
（3）Metonymy 提喻from cradle to grave
（4）Synecdoche 借代fall into good hands 好人
（5）Personification 拟人Failure is the mother of success.
✓Lexicology-- Lexicology is the study of the structure, usage, origins and meanings of words. ✓Naturalists (自然派)—people hold the view that there is a natural connection between the sound and meaning of words
✓Conventionalists (习惯派)—people hold the view that sound-meaning connection is a kind of linguistic social contract.
✓Word--A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.
✓Morphemes(形位, 词素,语素)—the smallest meaningful unit in a language
✓Affixation (词缀法)--The process by which words are formed by adding affixes to a root is called affixation.
✓Motivation (词的理据)--Motivation accounts for the connection between linguistic symbol and its meaning.
✓Polysemy(一词多义)--The phenomenon that a word may have more than one meaning
✓Blending（拼缀法）--The method of forming a word by combining parts of other words.
✓Conversion(转类法)--A method of using words of one part of speech as those of a different part of speech.
《英语词汇学》复习资料1 Ⅰ. Fill in the blanks. Directions: Complete the following statements with proper words. 1.The 1 is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. 2. 2 are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English language. 3.The problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can be dealt with from two different angles: 3 approach and synchronic approach. 4.“Mal-”in “maltreat”is a 4 prefix, while “inter-”in “interstate”is a 5 prefix. 5.Old English is described as a language of full endings, Middle English language of 6 endings, and a language of 7 endings. 6.In modern English, one may find some 8 words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. 7.The word meaning is made up of 9 meaning and 10 meaning, and the later has two components: conceptual meaning and 11 meaning. 8.Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or 12 . 9.13 is thought to be the opposite process of suffixation. 10.14 is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. 11.15 refers to the jargon of criminals. Its use is confined to the sub-cultural groups, and outsiders can hardly understand it. 12.“Pretty”and “handsome”share the same 16 meaning，but differ in 17 meaning. 13.___18___analysis is a process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components which are also known as semantic features.. 14.Radiation and 19 are the two coinages which the development of word meaning follows from monosemy to polysemy. 15.20 deals with the relationship of inclusion, i.e. the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. Ⅱ. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write T for “true”and F for “false”. 1.Homonyms are descendants of different sources whereas a polysemant is a word
Key to chapter 1 1 .What is a word? 1.A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function. 2.In what way are words related to vocabulary? V ocabulary refers to the sum total of all the words in a language. In other words, vocabulary is composed of words and words make up vocabulary. If we compare vocabulary to a family, words are family members. 3.Illustrate the relationship between sound and meaning with examples . Sound is the physical aspect of a word and meaning is what the sound refers to. Sound and meaning are not intrinsically related and their collection is arbitrary and conventional. For example, tree/tri:/ means 树in English because the English-speaking people have agreed to do so just as Chinese people use/shù/ (树) to refer to the same thing. This explains why people of different languages use different sounds to express the same concept. However, in the same languages, the same sound can denote different meanings, e.g. /rait/ can mean right, rite, and write. 4 .Enumerate the causes for the differences between sound and form of english words There are generally four major causes of the differences between sound and form. ⑴ There are more phonemes than letters in English, so there is no way to use one letter to represent one phoneme. ⑵ The stabilization of spelling by printing, which breaks the synchronized change of sound and spelling. ⑶ Influence of the work of scribes, who deliberately changed the spelling of words and ⑷ borrowing, which introduces many words which are against English rules of pronunciation and spelling. 5 .Give examples to show the influence of early scribes on english spelling Early scribes changed the spelling of many words while copying things for others because the original spelling forms in cursive writing were difficult for people to recognize, such as sum, cum, wuman, munk and so on. Later, the letter u with vertical lines was replaced with o, resulting in the current spelling forms like some, come, woman, monk. The changed spelling forms are more distinguishable to readers. 6.What are the characteristics of basic word stock Words of the basic word stock form the common core of the English language. They are the words essential to native speakers’ daily communication. Such words are characterized by all national character, stability, polysemy, productivity and collocability. 7.choose the standard meaning form from the list on the right to match each of the slang words on the left A tart loose woman b. bloke fellow c.gat pistol d. swell great e. chicken coward F .blue fight g. smoky police h full drunk i. dame woman j. beaver girl 8.given the modern equivalents for the following archaic words haply = perhaps albeit= although methinks = it seems to me eke= also bade= bid smooth= truth morn= morning troth= pledge ere= before quoth = said hallowed= holy billow= wave/ the sea 9.Explain neologisms with examples Neologisms refer to newly-coined words or old words with new meanings. For example, euro(欧元), e-book(电子书), SARS(非典), netizen(网民), are newly-coined words. Words like mouse(鼠标),web(网络),space shuttle(航天飞机) etc. are old words which have acquired new meanings. 10.What is the fundamental difference between content and functional words By notion, words fall into content words and functional words. Content words include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals, which have clear notions; whereas functional words are void of notions but are mainly used to connect content words into sentences. Content words are numerous and changing all the time, while functional words are small in number and stable. But functional words have much higher frequency in use than content words. 11.How do you account for the role of native words in english in relation to loan words ? Native words form a small portion of the English vocabulary, but they make up the mainstream of the basic word-stock which belongs to the common core of the English language. Compared with most loan-words, native words are mostly essential to native speakers’ daily communication and enjoy a much higher frequency in actual use.
第一单元英语词汇概说 1.词是语音、形态和意义的统一体，音和形是词的物质外壳，意义是词的物质内容。Word is the combination of pronunciation, morphology and meaning. 2.词是在口语和书面语中能独立、自由使用的并具备完整意义的语言最小单位。 Word is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit that can be used on its own in oral and written language. 3.词汇（vocabulary, lexicon）: collection of words 4.词汇是语言（language）的基本要素（语音、语法、词汇）之一。 Pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary 5.Active vocabulary（积极性词汇）: speaking/writing vocabulary Passive vocabulary（消极性词汇）: reading/guessing vocabulary 6.词汇学（lexicology）: the science of words Lexicology is the branch of linguistics that investigates, describes and theorizes about vocabulary. 作为语言学的一个分支，词汇学对词汇进行调查研究、描述并予以理论化。 第二、三单元英语基本构词法 1.词素（morpheme）是语言中语音和语义的最小结合体。 Morpheme is the minimum unit of meaning. 2.构词法 （1）词缀法（affixation/derivation派生法） Prefixation 前缀法；Suffixation 后缀法 Prefix do not generally change the world-class(词性) of the stem but only modify its meaning. (except “en-”, ”be-”, ”a-”) 三个可以决定词性的前缀 Suffix mainly change the word-class ( except “less”) （2）复合法（compounding或composition）→复合词compound （3）转化法（conversion） 也叫功能转换法（functional shift）或转移法（transmutation） （4）缩略法（abbreviation或shortening） ·截短词clipped words apocope截除词尾，aphaeresis 截除词首 front and back clipping截除首尾，syncope截除词腰 ·首字母缩略词initialisms ·首字母拼音词acronyms ·拼缀词blending e.g. stagflation = stagnation + inflation 注：Acronym differ from initialism in that they are pronouncedas words rather than as sequences of letter. （5）逆生法（back formation） e.g. laser为首字母拼音词，因词尾形似后缀-er，则逆生出动词lase。 （6）拟声法（onomatopoeia） 拟声词onomatopoetic word, imitative word或echo word
Chapter 1 Lexicology 词汇学 Context 语境 Pragmatics 语用学 Phoneme 音素 Morpheme 词素 Semantic fields 语义场 Lexicology: is the study of the vocabulary or lexicon of a given language. Morphology 形态学 Semantics 语义学 Etymology 词源学 Lexicography 词典学 Morphology is the study of the forms of words and their components, is to look at morphemes and their arrangements in word formation. 构词法 Morphemes: the smallest meaningful units which may constitute words or parts of words. 最小的、有意义的构词单位 Semantics: is often defined as the study of meaning. Etymology: is the study of the whole history of words. Lexicography: is closely related to the words in a given language. What is a word? Word：is used traditionally to refer to a sequence of letters bounded by spaces. 以空格为界的字母序列 Word: an uninterruptible unit of structure consisting of one or more morphemes. 由一个或多个词素组成的不可分离的结构单元 Word: is viewed as a minimal free form which can occur in isolation and have meaning but which cannot be analyzed into elements which can occur alone and also have meaning. （除复合词） 最小的、有意义的、可独立存在的、不可分离的语言单位 Major features of words A word is a sound or combination of sounds which we make voluntarily with our vocal equipment. 任意的、发声器官Pitch 音高Juncture 停顿 A word is symbolic and is used to stand for something else. The word is uninterruptible unit A word has to do with its social functional A word may consist of one or more morphemes Words are part of the large communication system we call language. A word occurs typically in the structure of phrases
英语词汇学知识点归纳 英语词汇学是研究词汇的学科，主要研究词汇的形成、发展、构造和使用规律。以下是一些英语词汇学的主要知识点。 1. 词汇分类：英语词汇可以分为原生词汇和派生词汇。原生词汇是指直接来源于英语语言的词汇，而派生词汇则是通过加前缀、后缀或改变词性形成的新词。 2. 词根、前缀和后缀：许多英语单词都有共同的词根，通过添加前缀和后缀，可以构成各种派生词。例如，'un-'是一个常见的前缀，表示否定，如'unhappy'（不快乐）。 3. 同义词和反义词：同义词具有相似的意思，可以在不同的上下文中互换使用，例如'big'和'large'。反义词则是意思相反的词汇，如'hot'和'cold'。 4. 合成词：合成词是由两个或多个独立的词组合而成的词汇。例如，'sunflower'（向日葵）由'sun'（太阳）和'flower'（花）组成。 5. 词源学：词源学研究词汇的起源和演变过程。许多英语单词来自其他语言，如拉丁语、法语和希腊语。了解词源可以帮助我们理解
词汇的含义和用法。 6. 词义的变化：词汇的意义会随时间和语境的变化而变化。一些词汇可能会产生新的意义或失去原有的意义。例如，'mouse'（老鼠）最初是指一种小动物，现在也可以指计算机的输入设备。 7. 词汇的语法功能：词汇在句子中扮演不同的语法角色，如名词、动词、形容词等。了解词汇的语法功能可以帮助我们正确使用它们。 8. 语义关系：词汇之间存在各种语义关系，如同义关系、反义关系、上下位关系等。了解这些关系可以帮助我们扩展词汇量，提高语言表达能力。 9. 词汇的习得和记忆：习得和记忆词汇是学习英语的重要一部分。采用合适的记忆方法，如使用词汇卡片、词汇表等，可以帮助我们更好地掌握词汇。 以上是英语词汇学的一些主要知识点。通过深入学习这些知识，我们可以更好地理解和运用英语词汇。
《英语词汇学》复习资料 Chapter 1 1. Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. 2. There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. . “woman” means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound. — 3. The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors. （At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns） a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language. b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling c）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500 d）. Borrowing of foreign language 4. Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history. ? The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words. of Words—by use frequency，by notion，by origin 1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary. 1. all national character （most important）–natural phenomena most common things and phenomena of the human body and relations world around us names of plants and animals action，size，domain，state ] numerals，pronouns，prep. ，conj. 2. stability – they donate the commonest thing necessary to life，they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow. . arrow，bow，chariot，knight – past electricity，machine，car，plane —— now 3. productivity – they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words，they can form new words with other roots and affixes. . foot –football，footage，footpath，footer 4. polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous. . take to move or carry from one place to another to remove 5. collocability – quite a number of set expressions，idiomatic usages，proverbial saying and others / . heart – a change of heart， a heart of gold Non-basic vocabulary —— 1. terminology – technical terms
1. What is lexicology? Lexico-(语素, meaning ‘word’) Lexicon(词典,字典) Lexical（(词的,词汇的) Lexicography（(词典编纂) Sociology (社会学) Psychology (心理学) Lexicology is the study of the structure, usage, origins and meanings of words. English lexicology studies English words in different aspects and from different angles. Without grammar we can express little; Without words we can express nothing. 2.Define “word” A minimal free form of a language; A sound unity; A unit of meaning; A form that can function alone in a sentence. 3. Origin of English Words Native words 本族词 Borrowed words / loan words 外来词 Latin ，Scandinavian ，French ，Greek ，Spanish, German, Portuguese, Dutch, Arabic, Chinese, Hebrew, Persian, Japanese, Indonesian, Russian Native words: Anglo-Saxon words Body parts—hand, foot, arm, eye, bone Nature—land, field, earth, hill, sun, moon Time—month, year, day Animals and plants—horse, sheep, dog, lamb, oak, elm, beech Adjectives—black, high, wide, long, small Verbs—drive, ride, shine, choose, fly, see Auxiliaries—shall, may, will, do, be Borrowed words P.9 The boy kept interrupting the government man. Native words on P.5 What features do these words have? Form the basic stock of English language most frequently used，Denote the commonest things necessary for life，Acquired earliest by children，Denote the most basic things in language Borrowing cake, knife, crop, ill, husband, Danish coolie, litchi, dim sum, typhoon, kaolin, loquat, bureau, honor, literature, court French sauna Finnish hamburger, blitz, zinc German macaroni, sonata, spaghetti Italian sultan, roc, harem, sheik, yashmak Arabic czar, commissar, intelligentsia Russian geometry, gymnastics, tragedy, myth Greek genius, memorandum, formula Latin kimono, judo, Japanese Review questions (1)._____ studies the structure, meanings, origins and usage of words. A. Word formation B. Lexicology C. Morphology (2).There is a logical connection between the sound and meaning of words. This is a ____ view.
Chapter1 1.word:A word is the smallest unit of spoken written language which has meanings and can stand alone. A word is a minimal free form that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function 2. A word is (1)A minimal free form of a language; (2)a sound unity; (3)a unity of meaning; (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence. 3.1 the physical structure of the word (1)Phonetics is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for the description, classification and transcription. (2)Morphology is the branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and rules by which words are formed. In other words, it identifies the smallest meaningful units in a language which are called morphemes and look into the ways the morphemes are arranged to form words. 2.2 the semantic structure of the word （1）the word is a unit of speech or writng, which serves the purposeful human communication. （2）the word can be perceived as the total of the sounds that comprise it （3）the word , in writing, is seen as a sequence of letters bounded on either side by a blank space. （4）the word, viewed linguistically, possesses its physical structure (form) and semantic structure (meaning). 4.V ocabulary:V ocabulary refers to all the words used in a particular kind of work, business or known to a particular person. 5.V ocabulary and Lexis :Lexi, a mass noun, is defined as the total stick of words in a language. 6.Lexicology: the study of meaning and uses of words 论述对词汇学的理解包括内容： Lexicology is the part of linguistics which studies words. This may include their nature and function as symbols, their meaning, the relationship of their meaning, and the rules of their composition from smaller elements. Lexicology also involves relations between words, which may involve semantics, derivation, usage and sociolinguistic distinctions. Any other issues involved in analyzing the whole lexicon of a languages. Chapter2 1.The development of English vocabulary . The history of English language can be divided into 3 periods: a/ Old English period (449—1100) the former inhabitants, the Celtic, the Germanic tribes called Angles, Saxons and Jutes Anglo-Saxon as Old English, Old English contains 50-60 thousand words, which consists of the basic word stock. *3个重大事件：(1)Teutonic Conquest 乔顿征服(2)Christianity(Latin word)(3)Scandinavian invasion
大家请注意：笔记中大多数是以名词解释的形式出现的，这些是绝对的基础，应该一字不漏的背下来。其实不少简答题也就是几个定义的汇总，再加上个例子就可以拿满分了。区分两个词的区别，主要还是指明其各自的定义。 第一章Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary 1. 词的定义Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. 2.声音与意义的关系There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional.E.g. “woman” means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound. 3.读音与拼写不一致的原因The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors. （At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns） a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language. b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling c）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500 d）. Borrowing of foreign language 4. 词汇的含义Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given displine and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history. The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words. 5.词汇的分类的原则Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion，by origin the English vocabulary consist of words of all kinds. they can be classified by different criteria and for different purpose . words may fall into the word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion , and into native words and borrowed words by origin. 基本词汇的特点 1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary. 1.all national character （most important）– natural phenomena most common things and phenomena of the human body and relations