The U.S. Carbon Budget, Contributions from land-use chang.
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中国在环境方面对世界的贡献英语作文全文共3篇示例,供读者参考篇1China's Contributions to the World in Environmental ProtectionAs one of the largest countries in the world in terms of population and land area, China plays a significant role in global efforts to protect the environment and combat climate change. Over the past few decades, China has made remarkable progress in improving its environmental record and has become a leading player in international environmental initiatives. In this essay, we will explore China's contributions to the world in environmental protection.One of the major ways in which China has contributed to the world in environmental protection is through its investments in renewable energy. In recent years, China has emerged as a global leader in the development and deployment of clean energy technologies such as solar, wind, and hydro power. The country has invested heavily in renewable energy infrastructure, and as a result, China now leads the world in renewable energycapacity. This has not only helped reduce China's own carbon emissions but has also helped drive down global emissions, as other countries have followed China's lead in adopting renewable energy technologies.Another area in which China has made significant contributions to the world in environmental protection is in its efforts to combat air pollution. In recent years, China has implemented strict air quality regulations and invested in pollution control technologies to reduce emissions from its industries and transportation sector. As a result, China has seen notable improvements in air quality in its major cities, a trend that has benefited not only Chinese citizens but also residents of neighboring countries who have been affected by China's air pollution. China's success in combating air pollution has set an example for other countries facing similar challenges and has spurred global cooperation in addressing this critical issue.Additionally, China has made important contributions to global efforts to protect biodiversity and conserve natural habitats. The country has established a network of protected areas, including nature reserves, national parks, and wildlife sanctuaries, to safeguard its rich biodiversity. China has also taken proactive measures to combat wildlife trafficking andillegal logging, which threaten endangered species and fragile ecosystems. By protecting its own biodiversity, China has not only preserved its natural heritage but has also contributed to global conservation efforts, as many of the species and habitats in China are of global significance.Furthermore, China has shown leadership in international climate negotiations and has played a pivotal role in advancing the global response to climate change. The country was a key participant in the negotiations that led to the Paris Agreement, a landmark international treaty aimed at limiting global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius. China has committed to ambitious targets for reducing its greenhouse gas emissions and has taken concrete actions to fulfill its pledges, such as phasing out coal-fired power plants and promoting the use of electric vehicles. China's proactive stance on climate change has helped galvanize global action and has inspired other countries to take more ambitious steps to reduce their emissions.In conclusion, China's contributions to the world in environmental protection are significant and far-reaching. Through its investments in renewable energy, efforts to combat air pollution, initiatives to protect biodiversity, and leadership in climate negotiations, China has demonstrated its commitment tosafeguarding the planet for future generations. As one of the world's largest economies and emitters of greenhouse gases, China plays a crucial role in the global effort to address environmental challenges. By continuing to innovate, collaborate, and lead by example, China can help build a more sustainable and resilient world for all.篇2China's Contribution to the World in Environmental AspectsChina, as the most populous country in the world, has been making significant contributions to global environmental protection. With its rapid economic development and industrialization, China has faced challenges in terms of pollution and resource depletion. However, in recent years, the Chinese government has taken strong steps to address these issues and has made remarkable progress in protecting the environment and promoting sustainable development. China's efforts in the environmental sector have not only benefited its own people but also had a positive impact on the world as a whole.One of the key contributions that China has made to the world in environmental aspects is its commitment to reducing carbon emissions and combating climate change. China is theworld's largest emitter of greenhouse gases, but it has taken significant steps to reduce its carbon footprint. In 2020, China announced a commitment to peak its carbon emissions by 2030 and achieve carbon neutrality by 2060. This pledge is a significant contribution to global efforts to address climate change and has been welcomed by the international community.Furthermore, China has been investing heavily in renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, in order to reduce its reliance on fossil fuels. China is now the world's largest producer of solar panels and wind turbines, and its investments in renewable energy have helped to drive down the cost of clean energy technologies around the world. By promoting the use of renewable energy, China is helping to reduce global carbon emissions and combat climate change.In addition to its efforts to combat climate change, China has also taken steps to protect its natural environment and preserve its biodiversity. China has implemented a number of conservation programs to protect its endangered species and ecosystems, such as the giant panda and the Tibetan antelope. China has also established a network of national parks and nature reserves to protect its natural heritage and promote sustainable tourism.China has also made significant progress in addressing air and water pollution. The Chinese government has implemented strict regulations to reduce air pollution, such as limiting the use of coal and promoting the use of clean energy technologies. China has also invested in wastewater treatment plants and sewage systems to improve water quality and protect its rivers and lakes. These efforts have led to a significant improvement in China's air and water quality and have had a positive impact on the health and well-being of its citizens.In conclusion, China has made significant contributions to the world in environmental aspects through its efforts to reduce carbon emissions, promote renewable energy, protect biodiversity, and combat pollution. China's commitment to environmental protection and sustainable development is not only benefiting its own people but also contributing to global efforts to address climate change and protect the natural environment. China's proactive approach to environmental issues serves as a model for other countries to follow and demonstrates the importance of international cooperation in achieving a more sustainable and environmentally friendly future.篇3China is playing an increasingly significant role in the global effort to protect the environment and combat climate change. With its massive population and rapid economic growth, China has become one of the world's largest consumers of energy and resources, but it is also making significant contributions to global environmental conservation and sustainability.One of the key ways China is contributing to the world's environmental efforts is through its commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. China has set ambitious targets for reducing its carbon emissions and increasing the share of renewable energy in its energy mix. In recent years, China has been the largest investor in renewable energy sources such as solar and wind power, and it has made significant progress in increasing the use of clean energy in its transportation and industrial sectors.Another important way China is contributing to global environmental protection is through its investments in environmental technology and innovation. Chinese companies are leading the way in developing new technologies for reducing pollution, improving energy efficiency, and creating sustainable products and infrastructure. China is also home to some of theworld's largest manufacturers of solar panels, wind turbines, electric vehicles, and other environmentally friendly products.Furthermore, China is working closely with other countries and international organizations to address global environmental challenges. China has ratified the Paris Agreement and has pledged to reduce its carbon intensity and achieve peak carbon emissions by 2030. China is also a key player in international efforts to protect endangered species, combat illegal wildlife trade, and preserve biodiversity.In addition to its efforts to reduce carbon emissions and promote sustainable technologies, China is also taking steps to improve its own environmental management and protect its natural resources. The Chinese government has implemented strict regulations on air and water pollution, reforestation programs, and initiatives to promote sustainable agriculture and land use. China has also made significant investments in environmental education and public awareness campaigns to promote environmental conservation among its citizens.Overall, China's contributions to global environmental protection are significant and growing. As the world's most populous country and one of its largest economies, China has the potential to make a substantial impact on globalenvironmental sustainability. By taking proactive measures to reduce its carbon emissions, promote renewable energy sources, invest in environmental technology, and protect its natural resources, China is setting an example for other countries to follow in the fight against climate change and environmental degradation.。
专题届新高考英语第一轮复习模拟调研金考卷四原卷版第一部分听力(共两节,满分30 分)第一节(共5小题;每小题分,满分分)听下面5段对话。
每段对话后有一个小题,从题中所给的A、B、C三个选项中选出最佳选项,并标在试卷的相应位置。
听完每段对话后,你都有10秒钟的时间来回答有关小题和阅读下一小题。
每段对话仅读一遍。
1. What are the speakers doing?A. Looking after Dad.B. Buying a jacket.C. Holding a party.2. Who is the man probably?A. The house owner.B. The repairman.C. The tutor.3. What’s wrong with the man?A. He breaks a drum.B. He feels unwell.C. He forgets to take his medicine.4. What did the man do yesterday?A. Finished reading a book.B. Had dinner with the woman.C. Gave a speech.5. How would the woman like to go home?A. By bus.B. By subway.C. By taxi.第二节(共15小题;每小题分,满分分)听下面5段对话或独白。
每段对话或独白后有几个小题,从题中所给的A、B、C三个选项中选出最佳选项,并标在试卷的相应位置。
听每段对话或独白前,你将有时间阅读各个小题,每小题5秒钟;听完后,各小题将给出5秒钟的作答时间。
每段对话或独白读两遍。
听第6段材料,回答第6、7题。
6. Why does the woman gain weight?A. She eats too much.B. She feels stressed.C. She is at the age of getting fat.7. What will the man do to lose weight?A. Go to a yoga class.B. Join a jogging club.C. Go running every day.听第7段材料,回答第8、9题。
2024年合肥市高三第一次教学质量检测英 语(考试时间:120分钟满分:150分)注意事项:1. 答卷前,务必将自己的姓名和座位号填写在答题卡和试卷上。
2. 回答选择题时,选出每小题答案后,用铅笔把答题卡上对应题目的答案标号涂黑。
如需改动,务必擦净后再选涂其它答案标号。
回答非选择题时,将答案写在答题卡上。
写在本试卷上无效。
3. 考试结束后,将本试卷和答题卡一并交回。
第一部分听力(共两节,满分30分)第一节(共5小题;每小题1.5分,满分7.5分)听下面5段对话。
每段对话后有一个小题,从题中所给的A、B、C三个选项中选出最佳选项。
听完每段对话后,你都有10秒钟的时间来回答有关小题和阅读下一小题。
每段对话仅读一遍。
1.How will the woman go to the airport?A. By bus.B. By subway.C. By taxi.2.What is the probable relationship between the speakers?A. Classmates.B. Teacher and student.C. Fellow workers.3.Why does the man make the phone call?A. To confirm a plan.B. To postpone a meeting.C. To reschedule a reservation.4.Where are the speakers?A. In a restaurant.B. At home.C. On the street.5.Why is the woman in the office?A. To prepare documents.B. To wait for a colleague.C. To meet a deadline.第二节(共15小题;每小题1.5分,满分22.5分)听下面5段对话或独白。
选择性必修四Unit 3 Careers and skills词汇练习篇I.单词短语默写1.___________________ n. 薪金,薪水2.___________________ vi. 努力,尽力n. 努力,尝试3.___________________ vt. 获得,赢得4.___________________ vt. 预料;预计5.___________________ adj. 更好的,占优势的n. 级别(或地位、职位)更高的人6.___________________ adj. 分别的,各自的7.___________________ vt. 操作,使运行vi. 运转,工作;经营,营业8.___________________ vt. & vi. 聘用,雇用;租用n. 新雇员;租借9.___________________ adj. 商业的,贸易的;盈利的;商业性的10.___________________ n. 基础工作,准备工作11.___________________ adj. 最著名的,最成功的,第一的n. 首相,总理12.___________________ n. 资格,资历;学历;合格,达到标准13.____________ (__________, _________) vi. & vt. 使改变;使摆动n. 改变;摆动;秋千14.___________________ n. 候选人;应试者;被认定适合者15.___________________ n. 概述;形象;侧面轮廓vt. 概述,写简介16.___________________ adv. 简明地,简练地,简洁地17.___________________ n. 延迟的时间;延期,耽搁vi. & vt. 延期;使拖延18.___________________ vt. 对…作出解释,为…辩解;证明…正确19.___________________ adj. 强有力的,坚决的;坚固的;坚定的n. 商行,公司20.___________________ vt. 抓住,把握;捉住,夺;攻占;没收21.__________________________________________ (全公司或全国的)劳动力22.__________________________________________ 谋生23.__________________________________________ 喜爱24.__________________________________________公务员,公仆25.__________________________________________ 舒适区,放松区26.__________________________________________ 权衡,斟酌27.__________________________________________ 让…处于危险之中28.__________________________________________ 调查工作,研究工作29.__________________________________________ 立即行动起来,马上大干起来30.__________________________________________ 全力以赴Ⅱ词汇填空1.The ____________(reception) attended to the needs of all the participants and received applause.2.I began my career as an IT _______________(consult).3.Emphasis is laid on the necessity that all the objectives __________(attain) should be taken into consideration before starting a new project.4.Make a __________(month) budget to get a clear picture of your finances.5.If you rank in the top two in the race, you’ll get the ______________(qualify) to compete in the next round.6.It is __________(anticipate) that sales will rise sharply next year.7.Firefighters do a job that sometimes requires them to put their lives ______ the line.8.__________(apply) who can work independently are preferred in this occupation.9.Pleasant music is often played to make students __________(refresh) and relaxed for a while.10.The room is so small that I have to ____________(temporary) put my books on the floor.11.I delayed __________(answer) your letter because I had been away for a week.12.He __________(firm) believes that education is key to a country’s development.13.It can _____________(infer) that social support is an important factor in academic motivation.14.What __________(criterion) are used to evaluate the qualifications of candidates.15.Whatever our career is, we call make contributions to society ___________(respective).Ⅲ用所给短语的适当形式填空1.It cannot be questioned that the new method ___________________ to the old one.2.The mother looks worried outside the operating room, whose son is ___________________.3.The couple did various jobs ___________________, in spite of many difficulties.4.Schools _____________________ responding to the initiative of preventing short-sightedness among teenagers recently.5.Just call to place your order three or more days ___________________ departure.6.The system will mark the room as occupied ______________________ a customer’s stay.7.The child was told ___________________ being rude to his uncle.8.Don’t worry about your exam. Just __________________________ and do what you can.9.The guest team was beginning____________________________ in the game after the time-out.10.It is undeniable that people tend _____________________________ women in the workplace.Ⅳ课文内容填空(每空不超过3个单词)Through the work we do, our goals can 1.____________(attain) and our dreams achieved. All of us have had dreams of one kind or 2.____________ and work often enables us to pursue those dreams. Henry David Thoreau said, “... if one advances confidently in the 3.____________(direct) of his dreams, and endeavors 4.__________(live) the life which he has imagined, he will meet with a success unexpected 5.______ common hours.” Yang Liwei, for example, 6.____________(drive) by his passion for flying, 7.____________(become) a pilot and then China’s first astronaut in space. Wherever our interests may lie and 8.____________ our career choices might be, work allows us the opportunity 9.____________(engage) in something we are fond of, and consequently, it can give us a great sense of achievement and 10.____________(satisfy).选择性必修四Unit 3 Careers and skills答案:I单词短语默写1. salary2. endeavour3. attain4. anticipate5. superior6. respective7. operate 8. hire 9. commercial 10. groundwork 11. premier 12. qualification 13. swing, swung, swung 14. candidate 15. profile 16. concisely 17. delay18.justify 19. firm 20. seize 21. labour force 22. earn a living 23. be fond of24. public servant 25. comfort zone 26. weigh up 27. put sth on the line28. detective work 29. swing into action 30. put one’s best foot forwardⅡ词汇填空1. receptionist(s)2. consultant3. attainable/to be attained4. monthly5. qualification6. anticipated7. on8. Applicants9. refreshed 10. temporarily 11. answering 12. firmly 13. be inferred 14. criteria 15. respectivelyⅢ用所给短语的适当形式填空1. is superior to2. being operated on3. to make a living4. have swung into action5. prior to6. for the duration of7. to apologize for8. put your best foot forward9. to gain the upper hand 10. to have prejudice againstⅣ课文内容填空1. be attained2. another3. direction4. to live5. in6. driven7. became8. whatever9. to be engaged/to engage 10. satisfaction。
关于保护树木的英语作文100词左右全文共6篇示例,供读者参考篇1The Vital Importance of Protecting Our TreesAs students, we often take the trees around us for granted. We walk past them every day, barely giving them a second glance. However, these towering giants play a crucial role in our lives and the well-being of our planet. It's time we recognized their invaluable contributions and took action to protect them.Trees are the lungs of our planet, constantly working to purify the air we breathe. Through the process of photosynthesis, they absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen, helping to mitigate the effects of climate change. In urban areas, where air pollution is a significant concern, trees act as natural air filters, trapping particulate matter and other harmful pollutants.Beyond their air-purifying abilities, trees also play a vital role in maintaining the delicate balance of our ecosystems. They provide shelter and food for countless species of birds, insects, and small mammals, contributing to biodiversity. Their roots help prevent soil erosion, while their branches offer shade andcooler temperatures, creating micro-climates that support a wide range of plant and animal life.Trees are not only essential for the environment but also for our physical and mental well-being. Studies have shown that spending time in nature, surrounded by trees, can lower blood pressure, reduce stress levels, and improve overall mood. Trees in urban areas provide much-needed green spaces, offering respite from the concrete jungle and opportunities for recreation and relaxation.Despite their immense value, our trees are under constant threat. Deforestation, urban development, and climate change are just a few of the challenges they face. As students, we have a responsibility to raise awareness about these issues and advocate for the protection of our trees.One way we can make a difference is by participating in tree-planting initiatives. Many organizations and local governments offer programs where volunteers can help plant new trees in their communities. By getting our hands dirty and contributing to reforestation efforts, we can directly combat the effects of deforestation and help create a greener, more sustainable future.Another way to protect trees is by educating ourselves and others about their importance. We can organize awareness campaigns, create informative presentations, or even incorporate tree-related topics into our class projects and assignments. By spreading knowledge about the vital role trees play in our lives, we can inspire others to take action and make more eco-friendly choices.Additionally, we can support organizations and initiatives dedicated to tree conservation and forest management. Many non-profit groups work tirelessly to protect endangered tree species, restore degraded forests, and advocate for sustainable forestry practices. By volunteering our time or making financial contributions, we can directly support these efforts and ensure that our trees continue to thrive for generations to come.In conclusion, trees are a fundamental part of our planet's ecosystem and play a crucial role in sustaining life as we know it. As students, we have a unique opportunity to lead the charge in protecting these invaluable resources. By raising awareness, participating in tree-planting initiatives, and supporting conservation efforts, we can make a tangible difference in preserving our trees and ensuring a greener, healthier future for all.篇2Trees: The Unsung Heroes of Our PlanetAs a student, I've always had a deep appreciation for trees. They stand tall and majestic, providing us with so much more than just shade and beauty. Trees are the unsung heroes of our planet, and it's high time we recognize their vital role in sustaining life as we know it.From the moment we take our first breath, trees are there for us, silently working their magic. They are nature's air purifiers, absorbing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen in a continuous cycle that keeps our atmosphere breathable. Without trees, we would be gasping for air, quite literally. Their leaves act as tiny factories, harnessing the power of sunlight to convert carbon dioxide into the oxygen that sustains all aerobic life forms.But trees do so much more than just provide us with the air we breathe. They are the anchors of entire ecosystems, supporting a vast array of wildlife. Their branches provide homes for countless species of birds and small mammals, while their trunks offer shelter and nourishment to innumerable insects and fungi. Trees are the cornerstone of biodiversity, creating intricate networks of life that extend far beyond what meets the eye.As if their role in sustaining life wasn't impressive enough, trees also play a crucial part in regulating our climate. They act as natural carbon sinks, absorbing and storing vast amounts of carbon dioxide, thereby mitigating the effects of greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, their ability to cool the air through evapotranspiration helps to counteract the urban heat island effect, making our cities more livable.Yet, despite their immense value, we humans have treated trees with alarming disregard. Deforestation, urban sprawl, and unsustainable logging practices have decimated forests across the globe, threatening not only the trees themselves but also the countless species that depend on them for survival.It's time for us to change our ways and become the guardians of these ancient and majestic beings. We must recognize that protecting trees is not just an environmental issue; it's a matter of preserving the very foundation of life on Earth.As students, we have a unique opportunity to be part of the solution. We can educate ourselves and others about the importance of trees, advocate for policies that promote sustainable forestry practices, and participate in tree-planting initiatives that help restore what has been lost.Imagine a world where cities are adorned with lush, green canopies, where urban forests provide havens for wildlife and respite for our weary souls. Imagine a world where our actions have not only preserved but actively nurtured the growth of these majestic beings, ensuring that future generations can bask in their beauty and breathe in the life-giving oxygen they provide.It all starts with a single seed, a single act of reverence for the trees that have sustained us for millennia. Let us embrace our role as stewards of the earth and make a solemn vow to protect and nurture these giants of nature, for they are truly the unsung heroes of our planet.篇3The Importance of Protecting Trees: A Call to ActionAs a student passionate about environmental conservation, I cannot emphasize enough the crucial role trees play in sustaining life on our planet. These towering giants, with their extensive root systems and sprawling canopies, are not merely decorative elements in our landscapes but are vital components of a healthy ecosystem. It is our responsibility to protect andpreserve these natural wonders for the sake of present and future generations.Trees are the lungs of our world, quietly performing the invaluable task of converting carbon dioxide into the oxygen we breathe. Through the process of photosynthesis, they absorb harmful greenhouse gases and release life-sustaining oxygen, purifying the air we breathe. In an era when climate change and air pollution pose significant threats, the preservation of trees becomes paramount in mitigating these challenges.Moreover, trees play a crucial role in maintaining the delicate balance of our ecosystems. They provide habitat for countless species of wildlife, from the smallest insects to majestic birds and mammals. Their branches serve as nesting sites, their trunks offer shelter, and their foliage provides food and protection. Without trees, entire ecosystems would collapse, leading to catastrophic biodiversity loss.Trees are also nature's guardians against soil erosion and flooding. Their extensive root systems anchor the soil, preventing it from being washed away by wind or water. During heavy rainfalls, trees act as natural sponges, absorbing excess water and slowing down the flow of floodwaters. This vitalfunction not only protects our communities but also preserves the integrity of our agricultural lands, ensuring food security.Beyond their environmental benefits, trees also contribute to our mental and physical well-being. Studies have shown that spending time in green spaces, surrounded by trees, can reduce stress levels, lower blood pressure, and improve overall mood. Trees provide shade and coolness on hot summer days, making outdoor activities more enjoyable and reducing the urban heat island effect in densely populated areas.Despite the myriad benefits trees offer, deforestation and urbanization continue to pose serious threats to their existence. It is disheartening to witness vast swaths of forests being cleared for agricultural or commercial purposes, leaving behind barren landscapes and displaced wildlife. Furthermore, the rapid expansion of cities and suburbs often prioritizes development over the preservation of green spaces, leading to the loss of countless trees.As students and citizens of this planet, we must take action to protect and preserve these invaluable resources. We can start by educating ourselves and others about the importance of trees and the consequences of their loss. Participating in tree-planting initiatives, advocating for responsible urban planning, andsupporting organizations dedicated to forest conservation are all tangible steps we can take.Furthermore, we must hold our leaders and policymakers accountable, demanding stricter regulations and enforcement to prevent illegal logging and deforestation. We should also encourage sustainable forestry practices, ensuring that any tree harvesting is balanced with responsible replanting efforts.In conclusion, trees are not just scenic elements in our landscapes but essential components of a healthy planet. They provide us with clean air, protect our ecosystems, guard against soil erosion and flooding, and contribute to our overallwell-being. It is our collective responsibility to safeguard these natural wonders for the sake of current and future generations. By raising awareness, taking action, and advocating for responsible policies, we can ensure that our planet remains a lush, green haven for all life to thrive. Let us embrace the call to protect trees and secure a sustainable future for ourselves and the countless species that depend on them.篇4Trees are vital for our planet's well-being. They provide us with oxygen, shelter wildlife, and help combat climate change byabsorbing carbon dioxide. However, deforestation is a major threat, with millions of acres of forests being cleared every year for agriculture, urban development, and other purposes.As students, we can play a crucial role in protecting trees. We can raise awareness about the importance of trees through school campaigns, social media, and community events. We can also participate in tree-planting drives and support organizations working towards reforestation. Small actions, such as reducing paper usage and recycling, can also make a significant difference. By working together, we can ensure a greener and more sustainable future for our planet.篇5Trees: The Unsung Heroes of Our PlanetAs a student deeply concerned about the environment, I cannot stress enough the importance of protecting trees - the towering, leafy guardians of our planet. These remarkable beings play a vital role in sustaining life as we know it, yet their significance often goes unnoticed amidst the hustle and bustle of our modern world.Let's start with the most obvious benefit: trees are the lungs of our planet. Through the process of photosynthesis, theyabsorb carbon dioxide, a potent greenhouse gas, and release life-sustaining oxygen into the atmosphere. In an era where climate change looms large, the role of trees in mitigating the effects of rising carbon levels cannot be overstated.But their contributions extend far beyond just air purification. Trees act as natural air conditioners, providing cooling shade and regulating temperatures in urban areas. As cities continue to expand and concrete jungles replace natural landscapes, the presence of trees becomes increasingly crucial for maintaining livable environments.Moreover, trees are indispensable for preserving biodiversity. They provide habitats for countless species of animals, birds, and insects, creating intricate ecosystems that contribute to the delicate balance of nature. Deforestation, driven by human activities such as urbanization and unsustainable agricultural practices, poses a grave threat to these precious ecosystems, putting countless species at risk of extinction.From an economic standpoint, trees offer numerous benefits that are often overlooked. They can increase property values, attract tourism, and even reduce energy costs by providing natural insulation for buildings. Additionally, many communities rely on the sustainable harvesting of tree products for theirlivelihoods, making the preservation of forests a matter of socioeconomic importance.Personally, I find solace and inspiration in the presence of trees. Their majestic beauty and the rustling of their leaves have a calming effect on the soul, reminding us of the simple yet profound wonders of nature. In a world increasingly dominated by technology and artificial structures, trees serve as a grounding force, connecting us to the natural world and reminding us of our roots.As students and future leaders, it is our responsibility to champion the cause of tree conservation. We must educate ourselves and others about the immense value of these silent giants and advocate for policies that promote sustainable forestry practices and urban greening initiatives.Let us imagine a future where cities are not concrete jungles but verdant oases, where the air is clean, and the sounds of nature coexist harmoniously with the rhythms of modern life. This vision can become a reality if we collectively embrace the importance of protecting trees and make it a priority in our personal and collective decision-making.In the words of the famous naturalist John Muir, "The clearest way into the Universe is through a forest wilderness." Letus heed his wisdom and ensure that the forests of our planet continue to thrive, for they are not merely collections of trees but vibrant ecosystems that sustain life itself.篇6Trees: The Overlooked Guardians of Our PlanetAs a student, I've been taught about the importance of trees from a young age. We all know they produce the oxygen we breathe and provide shade on a hot summer day. But the role trees play in sustaining life on Earth goes far beyond these basic functions. Trees are the unsung heroes, tirelessly working to protect our planet, yet often taken for granted or overlooked altogether.The first thing that comes to mind when thinking about trees is their ability to absorb carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that contributes significantly to climate change. Through the process of photosynthesis, trees take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen, effectively cleaning the air we breathe. A single mature tree can absorb an astonishing 48 pounds of carbon dioxide per year, making forests some of the most efficient carbon sinks on the planet.But trees do more than just clean the air – they also help regulate temperatures and mitigate the effects of global warming. The shade provided by trees can cool urban areas by as much as 10 degrees Fahrenheit, reducing the need forenergy-intensive air conditioning and lowering greenhouse gas emissions. Trees also help to prevent soil erosion and flooding by anchoring the soil with their roots and absorbing excess water during heavy rainfall.In addition to their environmental benefits, trees play a vital role in supporting biodiversity. Forests provide habitats for countless species of plants and animals, many of which are found nowhere else on Earth. The loss of these habitats due to deforestation is a leading cause of species extinction, with an estimated 28,000 species going extinct each year due to habitat loss.Despite their importance, forests around the world are under constant threat from human activities such as logging, urbanization, and agriculture. It is estimated that we are losing around 18.7 million acres of forest each year, an area roughly the size of Panama. This deforestation not only destroys habitats and contributes to climate change but also has dire consequences forthe indigenous communities who rely on these forests for their livelihoods.As a student, I believe it is our responsibility to raise awareness about the importance of trees and take action to protect them. There are many ways we can contribute, such as supporting organizations that work to protect forests, reducing our consumption of paper and wood products, and even planting trees in our local communities.One of the most inspiring examples of tree conservation is the story of the Chipko movement in India. In the 1970s, a group of women in the Himalayan region of Uttarakhand embraced trees to prevent loggers from cutting them down. Theirnon-violent protest not only saved the trees but also sparked a nationwide movement for forest conservation and empowerment of rural communities.Similarly, in Kenya, the Green Belt Movement, founded by the late Nobel laureate Wangari Maathai, has planted over 51 million trees since its inception in 1977. The movement not only aimed to combat deforestation but also to empower women and promote sustainable development.These examples show that even small actions can have a significant impact when it comes to protecting our forests. Asstudents, we have the power to shape the future and ensure that our planet remains habitable for generations to come.In conclusion, trees are not just a source of oxygen or a place to hang a swing – they are the guardians of our planet, working tirelessly to mitigate the effects of climate change, support biodiversity, and sustain life as we know it. It is our responsibility to protect and preserve these invaluable resources, for they are not only essential for our survival but also for the survival of countless other species that call this planet home.。
高二英语气候经济学视角单选题20题1. “Carbon footprint” refers to the amount of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases that are emitted as a result of an individual's or organization's activities. What is the main way to reduce one's carbon footprint?A. Increase energy consumption.B. Use more fossil fuels.C. Drive more often.D. Conserve energy.答案:D。
“carbon footprint”是碳足迹,即个体或组织活动产生的二氧化碳等温室气体排放量。
减少碳足迹的主要方法是节约能源,A 选项增加能源消耗会增加碳足迹;B 选项使用更多化石燃料也会增加碳足迹;C 选项经常开车同样会增加碳足迹。
只有D 选项节约能源能减少碳足迹。
2. “Renewable energy” is energy that comes from natural resources that are replenished at a faster rate than they are consumed. Which of the following is NOT a renewable energy source?A. Solar power.B. Wind power.C. Nuclear power.D. Hydro power.答案:C。
“renewable energy”是可再生能源,来自于自然且消耗速度比补充速度慢。
太阳能、风能、水能都是可再生能源,而核能不是可再生能源,因为核燃料是有限的且不可再生。
有关中国科学一个方面贡献的英语作文全文共3篇示例,供读者参考篇1China has a rich history of scientific contributions that have had a significant impact on the global scientific community. From ancient innovations in agriculture and medicine to modern advancements in technology and space exploration, Chinese scientists have continually pushed the boundaries of what is possible. In this essay, we will explore one aspect of China's scientific contributions – its advancements in renewable energy.In recent years, China has emerged as a global leader in the development and implementation of renewable energy technologies. The country has invested heavily in wind, solar, and hydropower projects, and is now the world's largest producer of renewable energy. This has not only helped to reduce China's carbon footprint, but has also paved the way for a more sustainable future for the entire planet.One of the key drivers of China's success in renewable energy has been its commitment to research and innovation. Chinese scientists have been at the forefront of developing newtechnologies and improving existing ones, leading to more efficient and cost-effective renewable energy solutions. For example, Chinese researchers have made significant advancements in solar panel technology, increasing efficiency and reducing costs to make solar power more accessible to a larger audience.In addition to research and innovation, China has also focused on government policies and incentives to promote the adoption of renewable energy. The country has implemented feed-in tariffs, tax breaks, and subsidies to encourage investment in renewable energy projects, and has set ambitious targets for the expansion of renewable energy capacity. These policies have created a favorable environment for the growth of the renewable energy industry in China, attracting both domestic and foreign investment.Furthermore, China has also become a leader in the production of renewable energy technologies. The country is home to some of the world's largest manufacturers of solar panels, wind turbines, and battery storage systems. This has not only created thousands of jobs in the renewable energy sector, but has also helped to drive down the cost of renewable energy technologies worldwide.Overall, China's contributions to renewable energy have been instrumental in the global fight against climate change. By investing in research and innovation, implementing supportive policies, and fostering a thriving renewable energy industry, China has shown the world that a sustainable future is not only possible, but within reach. As other countries look to follow China's example, the impact of these scientific contributions will only continue to grow.篇2Chinese Science ContributionChina has made significant contributions to the field of science throughout history. From ancient inventions to modern technological advancements, Chinese scientists have played a crucial role in shaping the world of science. In this essay, we will discuss one aspect of Chinese science that has made a major impact on the global community.One of the most well-known contributions of Chinese science is the invention of gunpowder. This explosive material was first developed in China during the Tang dynasty in the 9th century. Gunpowder was initially used for military purposes, such as in fireworks and in warfare. However, its impact extended farbeyond the battlefield. The invention of gunpowder revolutionized the field of chemistry, leading to the development of new explosive materials and propellants. It also played a crucial role in the development of firearms, which forever changed the nature of warfare.Another important contribution of Chinese science is the invention of paper. Paper was first invented in China during the Han dynasty in the 2nd century BC. Before the invention of paper, people in China wrote on bamboo strips or silk. The invention of paper revolutionized the way information was recorded and transmitted. It allowed for the mass production of books, which helped to spread knowledge and literacy. The invention of paper also had a significant impact on the development of printing technology, leading to the creation of woodblock printing and movable type printing.In addition to gunpowder and paper, Chinese scientists have also made significant contributions to the fields of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. Chinese astronomers were among the first in the world to record observations of comets, supernovae, and solar eclipses. They also developed a calendar system based on the movements of the moon and the sun. Chinese mathematicians made important advances in algebra,geometry, and trigonometry. Chinese medicine is one of the oldest and most well-developed systems of medicine in the world, with a long history of empirical research and clinical practice.In recent years, China has emerged as a global leader in scientific research and innovation. Chinese scientists have made significant contributions to a wide range of fields, including artificial intelligence, genomics, space exploration, and renewable energy. China is now home to some of the world's largest and most advanced scientific institutions, such as the Chinese Academy of Sciences and Tsinghua University.In conclusion, Chinese science has made significant contributions to the advancement of human knowledge and technology. From ancient inventions like gunpowder and paper to modern breakthroughs in artificial intelligence and genomics, Chinese scientists have played a crucial role in shaping the world of science. As China continues to invest in scientific research and education, we can expect to see even more groundbreaking discoveries and innovations in the years to come.篇3Title: Contributions of Chinese Science in the Modern WorldIntroductionChinese science has a rich history that dates back thousands of years. From the invention of paper and the compass to the advancements in astronomy and medicine, Chinese scientists have made significant contributions to the world. In this essay, we will explore some of the key areas in which Chinese science has played a crucial role in shaping the modern world.1. MedicineChinese medicine has a history that spans over 2,000 years and is still widely practiced today. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is based on the belief that the body is a holistic system, and disease is caused by an imbalance of Yin and Yang energies. The use of herbal medicine, acupuncture, and other natural remedies have been effective in treating a wide range of illnesses and conditions.In recent years, TCM has gained popularity in the West, with many people seeking alternative treatments and therapies. Chinese scientists have also made significant advancements in the field of modern medicine, with research in areas such as stem cell therapy, gene editing, and personalized medicine.2. MathematicsThe Chinese have a long history of mathematical achievements, with the invention of the abacus dating back to ancient times. Chinese mathematicians have made significant contributions to number theory, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. The concept of zero, as well as the decimal system, were both developed in China and spread to the West through trade and cultural exchange.Today, Chinese mathematicians are at the forefront of research in areas such as cryptography, data analysis, and artificial intelligence. Chinese scientists have also made key contributions to the field of quantum computing, with breakthroughs in quantum algorithms and quantum cryptography.3. AstronomyChinese astronomers have been observing the stars and planets for thousands of years, with records dating back to the Shang Dynasty in the 14th century BC. Chinese scientists have made important discoveries in the fields of celestial mechanics, astrophysics, and cosmology. The Chinese were the first to observe solar and lunar eclipses, and they developed a calendar based on the movements of the sun and moon.In the modern era, Chinese scientists have made significant advancements in space exploration, with manned missions to the moon and Mars. China has also launched satellites for communication, weather forecasting, and scientific research. Chinese astronomers continue to make important contributions to our understanding of the universe, with research in areas such as dark matter, gravitational waves, and black holes.ConclusionIn conclusion, Chinese science has played a crucial role in shaping the modern world. From medicine to mathematics to astronomy, Chinese scientists have made significant contributions to human knowledge and understanding. As China continues to invest in scientific research and innovation, we can expect even greater advancements in the years to come. Chinese science will undoubtedly continue to have a profound impact on the future of humanity.。
高一英语暑假精品课(译林版2020必修第一册)unit4单词短语预习1.初步掌握必修一第四单元的重点词汇和短语2.能够运用该单元的词汇或短语正确做题Unit 4 Looking good,feeling good一、词汇讲解和拓展1.be concerned about/for...关心……;挂念……be concerned with/in...与……有关;参与;牵涉到as/so far as...be concerned就……而言concern n.[U]担心;忧虑;[C]关心的人(或事)show/express concern about/for...对……表示关心/担心concerning prep.有关;涉及【注意】形容词concerned作前置定语时,意为“关心的,挂念的,担心的”;作后置定语时,意为“相关的;有关的”。
例如: a concerned look“关切的神情”; the authorities concerned“有关当局”。
例句:She hasn’t been seen for four days and there is concern for her safety.她已四天不见踪影,大家对她的安全很担心。
The report expressed concern over continuing high unemployment.报告表达了对失业率居高不下的忧虑。
He asked several questions concerning the future of the company.他问了几个有关公司前途的问题。
As far as I am concerned, doing what I like is the most important thing.就我而言,做我喜欢做的事情是最重要的事。
2. side effect 副作用come into/take effect生效;见效have an effect on/upon对……产生影响bring/carry/put...into effect实施;使……生效/起作用be of no effect无效果的例句:The recommendations will soon be put into effect.这些建议即将付诸实施。
2010年12月英语四级考试真题Questions 47 to 56 are based on the following passage.What determines the kind of person you are? What factors make you more or less bold, intelligent, or able to read a map? All of these are influenced by theinteraction of your genes and the environment in which you were 47 . The studyof how genes and environment interact to influence 48 activity is known as behavioral genetics. Behavioral genetics has made important 49 to the biological revolution, providing information about the extent to which biology influences mind, brain and behavior.Any research that suggests that 50 to perform certain behaviors are basedin biology is controversial. Who wants to be told that there are limitations to what you can 51 based on something that is beyond your control, such as your genes? It is easy to accept that genes control physical characteristics such as sex, race and eye color. But can genes also determine whether people will get divorced, how 52 they are, or what career they are likely to choose? A concern of psychological scientists is the 53 to which all of these characteristics are influenced by nature and nurture(养育), by genetic makeup and the environment. Increasingly, science 54 that genes lay the groundwork for many human traits. From this perspective, people are born 55 like undeveloped photographs: The image is already captured, but the way it 56 appears can vary based on the development process. However, the basic picture is there from the beginning.上作答。
小学上册英语第二单元期中试卷英语试题一、综合题(本题有50小题,每小题1分,共100分.每小题不选、错误,均不给分)1 I have a ___ (funny) joke to tell.2 What is the name of the famous painting by Leonardo da Vinci?A. The Starry NightB. The Last SupperC. The Girl with a Pearl EarringD. Mona Lisa答案: D3 The chemical symbol for samarium is ____.4 What is the capital of Russia?A. MoscowB. St. PetersburgC. VladivostokD. Novosibirsk5 My favorite toy is a ______ (玩具名). It is very ______ (形容词). I play with it every day. Sometimes, I take it to the ______ (地方).6 Which animal is known as "man's best friend"?A. CatB. DogC. BirdD. Fish答案: B. Dog7 I like to ___ (have) fun in the snow.8 The __________ can affect the growth of plants and animals.9 A __________ is the young stage of a butterfly.10 We enjoy _____ (kayaking) on the lake.11 What do you call a place where you can see art?A. LibraryB. GalleryC. TheaterD. Park12 What is 15 + 15?A. 25B. 30C. 35D. 4013 A _____ (植物影响力) extends beyond just aesthetics; it touches lives.14 The chipmunk is quick to _______ food.15 将图片对应的单词涂色,并将单词抄写在四线三格内。
Einstein condensate gave rise to superradi-ance based on coherent external motion.The extremely low threshold in light intensity (ϳ1mW/cm 2for our conditions)should be taken into account in BEC experiments that use optical probing and manipulation with off-resonant light.The simultaneous superra-diant emission of light and atoms emphasizes the symmetry between atom lasers and opti-cal lasers.References and Notes1.M.H.Anderson,J.R.Ensher,M.R.Matthews,C.E.Wieman,E.A.Cornell,Science 269,198(1995);K.B.Davis et al.,Phys.Rev.Lett.75,3969(1995);C.C.Bradley,C.A.Sackett,R.G.Hulet,ibid.78,985(1997);D.G.Fried et al.,ibid.81,3811(1998).2.M.R.Andrews et al.,Science 275,637(1997);D.S.Hall,M.R.Matthews,C.E.Wieman,E.A.Cornell,Phys.Rev.Lett.81,1543(1998);B.P.Anderson and M.A.Kasevich,Science 282,1686(1998).3.J.Stenger et al.,Phys.Rev.Lett.82,4569(1999).4.M.G.Moore and P.Meystre,Phys.Rev.A 59,R1754(1999).5.N.E.Rehler and J.H.Eberly,ibid.3,1735(1971).6.R.H.Dicke,in Proceedings of the Third International Congress on Quantum Electronics ,P.Grivet and N.Bloembergen,Eds.(Columbia Univ.Press,New York,1964),pp.35–54.7.M.-O.Mewes et al.,Phys.Rev.Lett.77,416(1996).8.One can emphasize the symmetry of the atomic and optical fields by describing the process in the moving frame of the excited atoms that have absorbed one laser photon.Because the total momentum is zero in this frame,photons and atoms are emitted into opposite directions,preferentially along the long axis of the elongated cloud.Transforming back into the laboratory frame results in preferential emission of light still along the long axis but of atoms at 45°.9.H.-J.Miesner et al.,Science ,279,1005(1998).10.The probability for reabsorption of scattered lightwas less than 3%and could be neglected.Optical amplification is accounted for by treating all the atoms as a single quantum mechanical system.11.N.Skribanowitz,I.P.Herman,J.C.MacGillivray,M.S.Feld,Phys.Rev.Lett.30,309(1973);R.Bonifacio and L.A.Lugiato,Phys.Rev.A 11,1507(1975);Q.H.F.Vrehen and H.M.Gibbs,in Topics in Current Physics 27,R.Bonifacio,Ed.(Springer-Verlag,Berlin,1982),pp.111–147;M.Gross and S.Haroche,Phys.Rep.93,301(1982).12.R.H.Dicke,Phys.Rev.93,99(1954).13.In (3),the recoiling atoms propagated perpendicularto the long axis of the condensate.The “finite size”contribution to the Doppler broadening was there-fore twice that of the present geometry.14.Elastic collisions at a maximum rate of ϳ2kHz donot contribute substantially to L j ,although they re-duce the number of atoms in the superradiant peak by ϳ50%.15.Stimulated Raman scattering and four-wave mixing be-tween matter waves [see L.Deng et al.,Nature 398,218(1999)]may couple the different recoil modes and further affect the momentum distribution.w and N.P.Bigelow,Phys.Rev.A 58,4791(1998).17.This is called the coherent atomic recoil laser.See R.Bonifacio and L.De Salvo,Nucl.Instrum.Methods Phys.Res.A 341,360(1994);M.G.Moore and P.Meystre,Phys.Rev.A 58,3248(1998);P.R.Berman,ibid.59,585(1999);M.G.Moore,O.Zobay,P.Meystre,/abs/cond-mat/9902293.18.M.Olshanii,Y.Castin,J.Dalibard,in Proceedings ofthe XII Conference on Laser Spectroscopy ,M.Ingus-cio,M.Allegrini,A.Sasso,Eds.(World Scientific,New York,1995),pp.7–12;H.M.Wiseman and M.J.Collett,Phys.Lett.A 202,246(1995);U.Janicke and M.Wilkens,in Topics on Ultracold Atoms and BEC 7,K.Burnett,Ed.(Optical Society of America,Washing-ton,DC,1997),pp.38–47.19.We thank C.E.Kuklewicz for experimental assistance,D.A.Kokorowski for critical reading of the manu-script,and H.M.Gibbs,P.Meystre,J.H.Eberly,E.M.Wright,and M.S.Feld for helpful discussions.This work was supported by the Office of Naval Research,NSF,Joint Services Electronics Program (Army Re-search Office),NASA,and the David and Lucile Pack-ard Foundation.A.P.C acknowledges support from NSF,D.M.S.-K.from the Joint Services Electronics Program Graduate Fellowship Program,and J.S.from the Alexander von Humboldt–Foundation.27April 1999;accepted 28June 1999The U.S.Carbon Budget:Contributions from Land-UseChangeR.A.Houghton,*J.L.Hackler,wrenceThe rates at which lands in the United States were cleared for agriculture,abandoned,harvested for wood,and burned were reconstructed from historical data for the period 1700–1990and used in a terrestrial carbon model to calculate annual changes in the amount of carbon stored in terrestrial eco-systems,including wood products.Changes in land use released 27Ϯ6peta-grams of carbon to the atmosphere before 1945and accumulated 2Ϯ2petagrams of carbon after 1945,largely as a result of fire suppression and forest growth on abandoned farmlands.During the 1980s,the net flux of carbon attributable to land management offset 10to 30percent of U.S.fossil fuel emissions.The rate at which carbon is accumulating in terrestrial ecosystems in the United States is uncertain,as are the mechanisms responsible for the current sink.Estimates based on mea-sured changes in wood volumes (forest in-ventories)(1–3)range between 0.079and 0.280petagrams of carbon per year (Pg C year Ϫ1).An estimate,based on atmospheric and oceanic data and models,and including southern Canada,calculated a sink of 1.7Ϯ0.5Pg C year Ϫ1(4).Neither of these ap-proaches identifies the mechanisms responsi-ble for the sink (5).In contrast,although the changes in carbon associated with land-use change do not define the total net flux of carbon between land and atmosphere,they represent the portion of the flux that can be attributed to direct human activity,and it is this portion that is addressed by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and by the Kyoto Protocol.In this report,we estimate the annual flux of carbon in the United States attributable to changes in land use.Our approach is based on two types of information:rates of land-use change and changes per hectare in carbon that follow a change in land use.We considered the con-version of natural ecosystems to croplands (cultivated)and pastures (not cultivated),the abandonment of croplands and pastures,har-vest of industrial wood and fuel wood,and fire management,that is,the area annuallyburned by wildfires.Rates of agricultural clearing and abandonment and rates of wood harvest were obtained directly from the U.S.Department of Agriculture (USDA)for the period since 1945(6)and largely from the U.S.Bureau of Census (7)for the period between 1700and 1945.Areas burned each year were obtained from wildfire statistics of the U.S.Forest Service (8)for the period after 1930and from pre-European burning rates (9)modified by settlement and logging prac-tices for the years 1700–1930(10).A more detailed description of the data,sources,and assumptions can be found elsewhere (11,12).We divided the United States into seven geographic regions (each region including two to five natural ecosystems)for a total of 13different ecosystems,not including crop-lands and pastures.The areas and carbon stocks of ecosystems in 1700were deter-mined from both natural areas (13)and cur-rent ecosystems (14).The fractions of vege-tation left alive,killed,and burned as a result of human activity and fire were defined for each type of land use and ecosystem.The efficiency of industrial wood harvest in-creased through time,so that more wood was removed per hectare and less left as slash (dead vegetation)(15,16).Rates of forest growth after harvest,fire,and agricultural abandonment and rates of decay of organic matter for each ecosystem were obtained from the ecological literature (17).Changes in soil carbon included only the losses that resulted from cultivation and the reaccumu-lations that followed abandonment of culti-vated land.These per hectare rates of carbon loss and accumulation after changes in landWoods Hole Research Center,Post Office Box 296,Woods Hole,MA 02543,USA.*To whom correspondence should be addressed.E-mail:rhoughton@23JULY 1999VOL 285SCIENCE 574 o n D e c e m b e r 15, 2015w w w .s c i e n c e m a g .o r g D o w n l o a d e d f r o muse were used in a bookkeeping model (18)to calculate annual changes in carbon for each type of ecosystem,land use,and region.The areas of forest burned each year,together with the total area of forest in each region and the rate of forest growth,constrained the average biomass that could be burned per hectare in a region’s forests (19).According to our analysis,changes in land use released about 25Pg C to the atmosphere over the period 1700–1990,largely from the conversion of forests to agricultural lands and from cultivation of prairie soils (Fig.1).The net release,overall,included a net uptake of 2.4Pg C after 1945as both the area and biomass of forests increased in response to fire suppression,reduced harvest of fuel wood,and the abandonment of farms.It also included an uptake in eastern forests,largely offset by releases of carbon from western regions where rates of industrial wood har-vest increased.The net flux resulted from accumulations of carbon in regrowing vegetation and,to a lesser extent,soils and from releases of car-bon from burning and decay (Fig.2).Before European settlement,fires accounted for the largest sources (immediate burning and de-layed decay)and sinks of carbon,although the net flux from fire was nearly zero as long as rates of burning were about constant.As wood harvest and agricultural clearing in-creased in the 18th century,emissions from fire,soil,and wood products increased,but annual accumulations also increased as the areas of forests recovering from fire and har-vesting increased.Replacement of wood fu-els with fossil fuels midway through the 19th century began to reduce the emissions from fuel wood harvesting,and fire suppression after 1930further reduced the areas burned.Despite the recovery of forests in the east,increasing rates of industrial wood harvests in the west and south increased the generationof slash and wood products and hence emis-sions of carbon.The largest annual accumu-lations of carbon occurred in the 1950s and 1960s.By the 1970s,as a result of aging (slower growing)forests and a resurgence of fuel wood use,the net flux from land-use change was close to zero.The errors resulting from uncertainties in rates of land-use change,from aggregated estimates of biomass,growth,and decay,and from simplifying assumptions in the structure of the model may be estimated by comparing the results of successive analyses (Fig.3).For the three analyses in which changes in land use are reasonably well documented,esti-mates of the long-term (1700–1990)carbon flux range between 24and 30Pg C.For shorter intervals,the errors are larger.The difference between our estimate that includes fire and an earlier estimate for North America that did not include fire (18)is as large as 0.2Pg C year Ϫ1before 1900.A comparison of our estimates with and without fire shows that including fire and fire suppression changed estimates of flux by as much as 0.05Pg C year Ϫ1.Surprisingly,fire reduced the estimated emissions during the 1800s.The reduction occurred because the biomass of forests cleared for agriculture was less if fire was included in the analysis.The errors are estimated to be less than Ϯ0.1Pg C year Ϫ1in recent decades (20).The analysis that shows a large sink for carbon beginning in 1920is based on generous assumptions about woody encroachment (21)and early fire exclusion (22).Although detailed site-specific data document these processes,the aerial extent and the historical pattern of the changes are unknown.The curve represents an upper lim-it for the sink strength of U.S.ecosystems.Most other estimates of flux available for comparison pertain to the 1980s and 1990s.Our analysis for the 1980s shows an average annual accumulation of 0.037Pg C (Fig.4).This net uptake results from the uptake of carbon by growing vegetation (0.280Pg C year Ϫ1)and emissions from the decay of wood products (0.104Pg C year Ϫ1)and slash (0.091Pg C year Ϫ1),some of which had accumulated before 1980.The uptake of 0.280Pg C year Ϫ1occurred on 200ϫ106ha of recovering forest and woodlands (about 65%of the U.S.forest areas).The average rate of growth (1.4Mg C ha Ϫ1year Ϫ1)was low,indicating that many of the forests and woodlands were aging and their rates of growth were declining.For comparison,net annual uptake in a 55-to 75-year-oldNewFig.1(Left ).Annual net sources and sinks of carbon resulting from different types of land use in the United States.Fig.2(Right ).Annual lossesand accumulations of carbon in different terrestrial pools as a result of land management in the UnitedStates.Table 1.Average annual changes in the amount of carbon held in forests and wood products during the 1980s (petagrams of carbon per year).Positive values indicate an accumulation on land.MethodForest inventory(2)Forest inventory(3)Land-use change (this study)Trees and understory vegetation0.0980.0630.020Wood products (37)Ϫ0.0720.0270.027Woody debris and forest floor 0.0210.016Ϫ0.012Soils (38)0.15500.002Net accumulation0.2020.1060.037 SCIENCE VOL 28523JULY 1999575England forest varied between1.4and2.8 Mg C haϪ1yearϪ1(23).The rate of carbon accumulation attributed to land-use change in our study is somewhat less than that determined from direct measure-ment of wood volumes in forests(forest inven-tories)(24)(Table1).Despite the relatively high variability of estimated changes for soil carbon and wood products,the absolute differ-ences between analyses based on forest inven-tories areϽ0.2Pg C yearϪ1,about the error estimated for our analysis.The approaches based on land-use change and on forest inventories are largely indepen-dent,and differences in their results may suggest the importance of management in determining the accumulation of carbon in forests(25).Carbon accumulations in our analysis are calculated by applying growth rates to forest areas previously harvested. Carbon accumulations obtained from forest inventories,on the other hand,are based on measured rates of growth,which include both recovery from earlier harvests and other fac-tors.If CO2fertilization,climatic change,orN deposition were responsible for an en-hanced rate of growth,for example,one would expect analyses based on forest inven-tories to show higher rates of growth(and a greater rate of carbon accumulation)than the analysis based on land-use change(in which rates of growth were held constant over time) (26).This difference in accumulation rates is observed.The growth attributable to recovery from previous harvests accounts for only20 to30%of the growth measured(Table1). The other70to80%may be attributable to other factors.Remarkably,the uptake of car-bon calculated recently with a process model including variations in temperature,precipi-tation,and increased CO2accounts for therest of the difference(0.078Pg C yearϪ1) (27).The agreement is fortuitous given the errors associated with the estimates,but it suggests that both changes in land use and the responses of ecosystems to environmental changes are important in explaining the up-take of carbon observed in U.S.forests duringthe1980s.The estimates of uptake of carbon fromdirect measurements of forest growth andfrom changes in land use are both consider-ably lower than the annual sink of1.7Ϯ0.5Pg C yearϪ1inferred from atmospheric dataand models(4).That estimate includes Ca-nadian lands south of51°N,so the sink forthe United States alone is presumably less.Some of the difference may also be explainedby the time periods included in the analyses.Our estimate and those based on forest inven-tories were for the1980s.The analysis basedon atmospheric data and models was basedon a shorter interval,1988–1992,that includ-ed the eruption of Mt.Pinatubo and anoma-lously low growth rates of atmospheric CO2.Thus,the large sink may have been transient.Other estimates of a terrestrial carbon sink innorthern mid-latitudes,based on analyses ofatmospheric gradients in CO2,13CO2,andO2,vary between2and3.5Pg C yearϪ1(28)and suggest a U.S.sink of0.3to0.5Pg CyearϪ1if the sink is assumed to be distributedevenly over northern lands(29).The accumulations of carbon estimatedfrom forest inventories and land-use changemay be low.The analyses do not consider alllands.Forest inventories,in addressing onlyforests,ignore70%of the land surface,andnatural ecosystems not directly harvested,cleared,or burned were ignored in our anal-ysis.Could such ecosystems be accumulatingsubstantial carbon?It seems unlikely.Thetotal area of these unmanaged lands was only220ϫ106ha(24%of the land area of theUnited States)in our analysis,too small toaccount for much of the difference between0.2Pg C yearϪ1(from land-use change orforest inventories)andϳ1Pg C yearϪ1[from(4)].The sink would have to average3.6MgC haϪ1yearϪ1or85%of the averagenetFig.3.Annual netfluxof carbon in the Unit-ed States as a result ofchanges in landuse.Fig.4.The amount of carbon in terrestrialcarbon pools of the United States in1990(petagrams of carbon),changes in these pools(petagrams of carbon per year),and exchangesbetween these pools and the atmosphere dur-ing the1980s(petagrams of carbon per year).Table2.Average annual emissions(ϩ)and accumulations(Ϫ)of carbon(petagrams of carbon per year)during the1980s from forestry and changes in land use.Changes in soil carbon are included in cultivationand abandonment of croplands.Wood products are included in the emissions from harvests.Emissions fromburning and decayAccumulations inrecovering ecosystems NetfluxCroplands0.092Ϫ0.0900.002Pastures0.025Ϫ0.0250Wildfires0.081Ϫ0.144Ϫ0.063Industrial harvests0.094Ϫ0.0670.027Fuel wood harvests0.022Ϫ0.025Ϫ0.003Subtotal0.314Ϫ0.348Ϫ0.037Woody encroachmentϪ0.122Continued“thickening”of western pine woodlandsfrom earlyfire suppressionϪ0.052Recent gains in soilcarbon from changingagricultural practicesϪ0.138TotalϪ0.35023JULY1999VOL285SCIENCE 576primary production of terrestrial ecosystems in the contiguous United States(27).Further-more,forest inventories include the accumu-lation of carbon in unmanaged as well as managed forests,thus reducing further the area not considered in either analysis.Perhaps forest soils,which are not measured in forest inventories,are accumulating carbon. We have already noted the large uncertainty in estimates of change in soil carbon(Table1).In our analysis,we included the accumulation of carbon in soils recovering from abandoned ag-riculture but not the possible loss(and subse-quent recovery)of carbon in forest soils affect-ed by logging.Although some studies have reported such a loss,the data are not consistent (30).Furthermore,a recent analysis of soils in a 55-to75-year-old New England forest found that soils accounted for only7to15%of the net sink measured for the stand(31).If the estimate is representative,the accumulation of carbon in forest soils is intermediate between those cal-culated from forest inventories(2,3)(Table1).The evidence is more compelling that car-bon is accumulating in agricultural soils as a result of changes in management,but our book-keeping model did not consider these changes. We calculated that the net loss of soil organic carbon from cultivation and abandonment ac-counted for about23%of the long-term net flux attributable to land-use change.Each hectare cultivated lost about25%of its initial carbon to a depth of1m,and during the1980s,soils were a net sink of0.002Pg C yearϪ1as a result of agricultural abandonment(Fig.4).However, increased crop productivity since1960and, more recently,conservation tillage and the Conservation Reserve Program are likely to have increased further the storage of carbon in agricultural ing the estimates of Doni-gian et al.(32),we calculated an additional rate of accumulation of0.107Pg C yearϪ1for the 1980s.Adding conservation tillage(33)and the Conservation Reserve Program(34)increased the estimated sink in managed soils to0.138Pg C yearϪ1(Table2).We also estimated the amount of carbon that might have accumulated as a result of woody encroachment in nonforest ecosys-tems(21)and the“thickening”of western pine forests that began with fire suppression initiated before systematic collection of data on wildfires(22).All of these processes to-gether(changes in agricultural soils,woody encroachment,and early fire suppression) give an upper estimate for carbon sequestra-tion of0.35Pg C yearϪ1for the entire United States(Table2).Two of the largest sinks (woody encroachment and early fire suppres-sion)are also the most uncertain,whereas the sinks best documented(from changes in ag-ricultural areas and wood harvests)are small. It is quite possible that the total terrestrial sink during the1980s averaged only0.15Pg C yearϪ1,and thus it is difficult for us to imagine that an additional sink three to tentimes larger(4)has been overlooked.A pos-sible increase in the carbon buried in sedi-ments as a result of human-induced erosion(35)might increase the terrestrial carbon sinkfurther,but the magnitude of carbon burialthrough erosion is unknown.In contrast tothese terrestrial carbon sinks attributable tomanagement of the landscape,the annual re-lease from fossil fuels in the United Statesaveraged1.230Pg C yearϪ1during the1980sand was1.447Pg C in1996(36).Manage-ment of terrestrial ecosystems appears tohave offset only10to30%of the carbonreleased from fossil fuels.Notes and References1.R.A.Birdsey,A.J.Plantinga,L.S.Heath,For.Ecol.Manage.58,33(1993).2.R.A.Birdsey and L.S.Heath,in Productivity ofAmerica’s Forest and Climatic Change,General Tech-nical Report RM-GTR-271,L.A.Joyce,Eds.(U.S.De-partment of Agriculture,Forest Service,Rocky Moun-tain Forest and Range Experiment Station,Fort Col-lins,CO,1995),pp.56–70.3.D.P.Turner,G.J.Koerper,M.E.Harmon,J.J.Lee,Ecol.Appl.5,421(1995).4.S.Fan et al.,Science282,442(1998).5.The exception to this statement is the ability offorest inventory data to identify the importance ofpast disturbances to current rates of growth[W.A.Kurz and M.J.Apps,Ecol.Appl.9,526(1999)].6.Major Land Uses1945–1992,Stock#89003(USDA,Economic Research Service,Washington,DC,1996).7.Historical Statistics of the United States from ColonialTimes to1970(U.S.Bureau of the Census,Washing-ton,DC,1977).8.Forest Service Cooperative Fire Protection ProgramWildfire Statistics1926–1990(USDA,ern-ment Printing Office,Washington,DC,1926–1990).9.H.A.Mooney et al.,Eds.,Proceedings of the Confer-ence:Fire Regimes and Ecosystem Properties,USDAForest Service General Technical Report WO-26(USDA,U.S.Forest Service,Washington,DC,1981).10.S.J.Pyne,Fire in America:A Cultural History ofWildland and Rural Fire(Princeton University Press,Princeton,NJ,1982;reprinted by the University ofWashington Press,Seattle,WA,1997);Introductionto Wildland Fire:Fire Management in the UnitedStates(Wiley,New York,1984).11.R.A.Houghton and J.L.Hackler,Global Ecol.Bio-geogr.,in press.12.,wrence,ibid.,in press.13.Current(1990)areas,together with changes in landuse between1700and1990,determined the starting(1700)areas for each ecosystem[R.G.Bailey,De-scription of the Ecoregions of the United States,Mis-cellaneous Publication Number1391(USDA,ForestService,Washington,DC,ed.2,1995)].14.R.A.Birdsey,Carbon Storage and Accumulation in theUnited States Forest Ecosystems,Forest Service Gen-eral Technical Report WO-59(USDA,Washington,DC,1992);S.Brown,P.Schroeder,R.Birdsey,For.Ecol.Manage.96,37(1997);P.Schroeder,S.Brown,J.Mo,R.Birdsey,C.Cieszewski,For.Sci.43,424(1997);IGBP1-km land cover classification database(generated by the U.S.Geological Survey,the Univer-sity of Nebraska–Lincoln,and the European Commis-sion’s Joint Research Centre),available at http:///landdaac/glcc/glcc.html.15.M.E.Harmon,S.L.Garman,W.K.Ferrell,Ecol.Appl.6,641(1996);I.K.Wernick,P.E.Waggoner,J.H.Ausubel,J.Ind.Ecol.1,125(1998).16.Harvested wood products decayed at rates of1yearϪ1,0.1yearϪ1,and0.01yearϪ1,correspondingto burned material(including fuel wood),paper,andlumber,respectively.17.Slash generated during harvests decayed exponen-tially at rates that varied between0.02and0.06yearϪ1.Regrowth ranged between0.3and3.0Mg ChaϪ1yearϪ1depending on the type of forest and itsage[G.L.Ajtay,P.Ketner,P.Duvigneaud,in TheGlobal Carbon Cycle,B.Bolin,E.T.Degens,S.Kempe,P.Ketner,Eds.(Wiley,New York,1979),pp.129–182;D.E.Reichle,Ed.,Dynamic Properties of ForestEcosystems(Cambridge Univ.Press,New York,1981);J.S.Olson,J.A.Watts,L.J.Allison,TR004(U.S.Department of Energy,Washington,DC,1983)].18.R.A.Houghton and J.L.Hackler,ORNL/CDIAC-79,NDP-050(Oak Ridge National Laboratory,Oak Ridge,TN,1995).19.The areas of forest burned each year were too largeto allow recovery of biomass if thefires were as-sumed to be stand-replacing(high mortality)fires.We used the combination of burned areas,total areasof forest,and regrowth rates to define a burningcycle in which the same(young)forests were burnedrepeatedly and older,high-biomass forests wereburned only when rates of burning increased.Thecycle is consistent with the observation that recentlyburned forests are more likely to burn than matureforests[G.G.Whitney,From Coastal Wilderness toFruited Plain.A History of Environmental Change inTemperate North America from1500to the Present(Cambridge Univ.Press,Cambridge,1994)]and withthe fact that certain low-biomass ecosystems(savan-nas and woodlands)burn more frequently than denseforests(9,10).When rates of burning decreasedthroughfire suppression,our analysis allowed young,repeatedly burned forests to escape from the burncycle and accumulate carbon.Although the burningcycle underestimates gross emissions and accumula-tions of carbon(12),it captures the netflux of carbonassociated with changes in burning,that is,the netreleases of carbon from increased rates of burningand the net accumulations from decreased rates.20.The annualflux of carbon calculated by the book-keeping model is most sensitive to the rates ofland-use conversion and to the biomass of ecosys-tems converted.The errors(and netfluxes)fromwood harvest andfires are smaller than those asso-ciated with land conversion because the emissionsfrom harvest andfires are offset by the accumula-tions of carbon in recovering forests.The bookkeep-ing analysis is least sensitive to rates of decay andgrowth.For example,if rates of regrowth are over-estimated,the uptake per hectare will be too high,but fewer hectares will be regrowing(forests dis-turbed earlier will have regrown and will no longer beaccumulating carbon).If rates of growth are under-estimated,rates of accumulation per hectare will betoo low,but more hectares will be recovering.On theother hand,if rates of regrowth per hectare havesystematically increased over the290-year period ofanalysis,as they might have through CO2fertiliza-tion,the errors in the estimatedflux will be larger,especially toward the early years,because most dataon rates of growth have been obtained in recentdecades of research[see(26)].21.Assuming thatfire exclusion and grazing in westerngrasslands and savannas resulted in woody encroach-ment[R.T.Coupland,J.Ecol.49,135(1961);W.S.Phillips and H.L.Shantz,Vegetational Changes in theNorthern Great Plains,Agricultural Experiment Sta-tion Report214(College of Agriculture,University ofArizona,Tucson,AZ,1963);J.W.Burkhardt andW.W.Tisdale,Ecology57,472(1976);S.H.Sharrowand H.A.Wright,J.Range Manage.30,266(1977);D.R.Streng and P.A.Harcombe,Am.Midl.Nat.108,278(1982);S.Archer,Am.Nat.134,545(1989);H.D.Grover and H.B.Musick,Clim.Change17,305(1990);J.N.Mast,T.T.Veblen,M.E.Hodgson,For.Ecol.Manage.93,181(1997);P.A Knapp and P.T.Soule,Global Change Biol.4,347(1998)]on220ϫ106ha[the area neither forested nor cultivated(12)],we estimated that woody encroachment might haveaccumulated as much0.122Pg C yearϪ1in the1980s.The rate is an upper limit.Loss of soil carbonin the replacement of grasslands with shrubs mayoffset completely the increased woody biomass insome ecosystems[W.H.Schlesinger and A.M.Pil-manis,Biogeochemistry42,169(1998)].22.We assumed that the elimination offire before1926[and thus not captured by(8)]in many pine ecosys-tems of the west[R.Guyette and E.A.McGinnes, SCIENCE VOL28523JULY1999577。