On the Sources of the Rapid Development of Modern English
Vocabulary
Abstract:Modern English, especially modern English vocabulary, develops very quickly. The sources of the rapid development of Modern English vocabulary are relatively obvious. This paper analyzes these sources from four aspects: the development of native words; the influence of other cultures and languages; the rapid development of modern science and technology; social, economic, and political changes. The four main sources can give us a better understanding of the development of Modern English vocabulary. Studying these sources of the rapid development of Modern English vocabulary is good to English learner.
Keywords:Modern English, vocabulary, development, native words, other culture, science and technology, social changes.
According to the Ethnologue, there are over 1 billion speakers of English as a first or second language as of 1999. English is spoken in a vast number of territories including the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, India, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore and Southern Africa. There is no doubt that Modern English has already been an international language. Though there are so many reasons for Modern English to be the most commonly used language worldwide, one of the most important reasons that can not be denied is that Modern English has been developing so fast, especially Modern English vocabulary. The development of Modern English as well as its vocabulary helps Modern English to settle its position as an international language, while the common use of English around the world contributes a lot to the development of Modern English and especially its vocabulary.
The modern English period extends from 1500 to the present day. We may divide this period into two parts: the early Modern English period and the Late Modern English period. There are four main sources of the rapid development of both the
early Modern English and the Late Modern English: the development of native words; the influence of other cultures and languages; the rapid development of modern science and technology; social, economic, and political changes.
1. The Development of Native Words
The development of native words is one of the sources that contributes a lot to the development of Modern English vocabulary. These native English words are usually the basic words used to express the fundamental concepts dealing with everyday objects and things and have relatively strong stability, but they still have enriched Modern English vocabulary with its polysemic character, collocability and word-forming ability.
Native words often possess more than one meaning because most of them have undergone semantic changes in the course of use and have become polysemous. One example will suffice for illustration. The word take may mean:move or carry from one place to another; to remove or use without permission or by mistake; to seize or capture; to get for oneself; to get hold of (something) with the hands, to be willing to accept; to bear or endure; to need (a stated amount of time); to perform the actions connected with; to test or measure; to write down; to have the intended effect or to work successfully (Longman Dictionary Of Contemporary English).
With strong collocability, native English words can make up of some commonly-used expressions and phrases. For example, we have some phrases consisting of the word eye: an eye for eye---a punishment which hurts the criminal in the same way as he hurt someone else; to be in the public eye---to be often seen in public or on television, or mentioned in newspapers; to catch someone’s eye---(of things) to be noticed or (of people) to draw someone’s attention to oneself; to do someone in the eye---to trick someone; easy on the eyes---(of people) attractive, pretty; have an eye for---to have the ability to see; in the eyes of the law---according to the law; to look someone in the eye---to look straight into someone’s face; to se e eye to eye with---to agree completely; with half an eye---without looking closely.
The word-forming ability of native words is also good for the development of Modern English vocabulary. Many native words can be root words and they can form
a great number of derivatives. The word water, for instance, has brought such derivatives, as watery, watered, waterish, waterless, etc.
In brief, native words have existed for a very long time, for centuries. Though they are not dominant in numbers, they have great influence on Modern English vocabulary. Undoubtedly, the development of native English words is one of the sources of the rapid development of Modern English vocabulary.
2. The Influence of Other Cultures and Languages
The influence of other cultures and languages is also one of important sources of Modern English vocabulary’s rapid development. English has been known as an language which is very compatible with another language. It has been absorbing new elements from other languages all over the world in its history of development.
Early Modern English was in the period of Renaissance. In this period scholars paid much attention to the study of the Latin and Greek classics, so Latin and Greek had a great influence on English. Some Early Modern English words were even borrowed directly from Latin. Latin loan words were mostly connectedly with science and abstract ideas, such as area, chemist, education, emancipate, expectation, exist, function, irony, scientific, and so on. Greek borrowings were mostly literary, technical and scientific words, such as anonymous, astrology, astronomy, arithmetic, comedy, criterion, drama, geometry, lexicon, physics, system, tragedy,etc. In addition, Greek prefixes like anti-, anthropo-, auto-, chrono-, geo-, hemi-, hetero-, hydro-, litho-, phono-, photo- and physio- and suffixes like -gram, -graph, -meter, -phobia, -phone and -scope have now become the main source of neo-classical compounds.
Early Modern English borrowed words directly not only from Latin but also from French, Spanish, Italian and other European languages in the period of Renaissance. French loans have been enriching the English vocabulary for a long time. These French words are connected chiefly with arts, food and fashion, politics and science:machine, moustache, pilot, promenade, rendezvous, vase, and volley were borrowed in the 16th century; ballet, champagne, detail, group, parole, rapport, and sound were borrowed in the 17th century; brochure, critique, liqueur, picnic,police, and regime were borrowed in the 18th century; chauffeur, fiancee, menu, prestige,
renaissance, resume and restaurant were borrowed after 18th century. Borrowings from Italian were particularly dominant in the fields of art and music, such as allegro, andante, concert, concerto, duet, libretto, opera, oratorio, piano, sonata, soprano, tenor, trio and violins. In the field of architecture , there are some words like balcony, dome, grotto and piazza borrowed from Italian. Some words like banana, canyon, cargo, cigar, cocoa, embargo, guerrilla, hurricane, mosquito, potato, vanilla came from Spanish. Other European languages also have made great contributions to the development of Modern English vocabulary. German contributed hamburger, hinterland, kindergarten, nickle, quartz, sauerkraut, wanderlust, and zinc; from Dutch came many nautical terms such as deck, dock, freight, keel, orlop, skipper, sloop and yacht; buffalo, cobra, fetish, joss, junk, pagoda, port and veranda were borrowed from Portuguese; from Russian came ruble, sputnik, stepper, troika and vodka.
It is indeed that European languages have great effects on the development of Modern English vocabulary. However, non-European languages also make a great significance to the expansion of Modern English vocabulary. alcohol, alcove, amber, cotton, gazelle, giraffe, magazine, mosque, minaret, sultan and syrup were borrowed from Arabic; azure, bazaar, caravan, divan, jasmine, khaki, pajama and shawl from Persian; amen, manna, sabbath, Sabra, Satan and seraph were borrowed from Hebrew; bangle, bungalow, coolie, cot, loot, pundit, rajah, and thug from Hindi; gorilla and zebra were borrowed from African. Modern English also borrows words from Chinese and Japanese. Words like paper-tiger, big-pot-rice, four modernizations, dragon-boat festival, jiaozi, kungfu, chopsuey, kowtow, lichi, loquat, yamen were borrowed from Chinese. Kanban, kaizen, karoshi, kimono, rickshaw, samurai were also among the words which Modern English borrowed from Japanese.
There are still many other words which Modern English has borrowed from other languages or cultures. These loan-words are uncountable and contributes a lot to the enlargement of Modern English vocabulary.
3.The Rapid Development of Modern Science and Technology
The rapid development of modern science and technology is the most important source of new words. In the second half of the 20th century, with the rapid
development of science and technology, new inventions emerge in endlessly. Every field needs relevant words to describe new techniques, material and equipment at a certain stage of development. Therefore, new words come out as well as old words are given new meanings.
The development and extensive use of computer science, the birth of the Internet and the popularization of computer have greatly enriched Modern English vocabulary. There are some daily English words relating to computer, such as CPU (Center Processor Unit), mainboard, RAM (random access memory), ROM (Read Only Memory), Hard Disk, monitor, keyboard, etc.
With American astronauts’ successf ul landing on the moon and the development of technology about satellites and outer space, a large number of new words associated with this area come out. These new words are used to describe new things or novel experience. For example, moonwalk is used to described an action of walking on the surface of moon; softlanding means that spacecrafts slow down and land in a relatively safe way. There are still some other new words in this field, such as moonrock, earthrise, command module, black hole, moonflight, moonfall, mooncraft, lunar rover, space shuttle, spacemen, spaceport, space sickness and so on.
Not only modern technology and science of computer and space but also medical science contributes a lot to the development of Modern English vocabulary. The development of science and technology is the driving force of the development of medical science. Therefore, the rapid development of science and technology leads to the boom of medicine. At the same time, researches on medicine and disease prevention have made a great progress. The most distinctive point of these progress is that a large number of new technology, new material and new methods are introduced into this area. There is no doubt that these development and progress directly result in the use of new English words in the medical area. These new words mainly include some technical terms, names of new drugs, newly discovered bacteria and viruses. Some of these new words are very familiar to us, such as hot-scanning, open heart surgery, microcirculation, transsexual operation, clone and so on. However, some medical terminology is very complex for people to spell and write. In the process of
popularization of medical knowledge, many abbreviations of medical terms come out for the convenience of writing and spelling. And these kinds of abbreviations are usually in the form of an acronym. For example, SARS is an acronym of severe acute respiratory syndrome; AIDS is an abbreviation of human immunodeficiency virus; SIDS is an abbreviation of sudden infant death syndrome.
The development of technology also makes a great contribution to the improvement of transportation. Varieties of means of transportation are changing people’s life. The emergence of new means of transportation stimulates the production of new English words. New words like airbus, air-taxi, jet set, ACV(air cushion vehicle), ATV(all terrain vehicle), hovercraft, freight-liner, bullet train in the area of transportation are becoming more and more popular.
Apart from fields of medicine, transportation, space technology and computer science, new English words also come out in other areas like biology, phytochemistry, ecology, biotelemetry, exobiology, genetic engineering, ocean engineering and so on. The present century has witnessed tremendous advances in all these fields of science and technology and this leads to the creation of tens of thousands of new words in the English language. Obviously, these new English words has enriched Modern English vocabulary and are good for the development of Modern English vocabulary. There is no doubt that the rapid development of modern science and technology is one of the most important sources of the development of Modern English vocabulary.
4. Political, economic and social changes
Political, economic and social changes are another important source of new Modern English words. The recent decades have seen considerable political and social ferment. And their influence on the English vocabulary is as great as that of science and technology. So we should not neglect the importance of this source.
Besides hippies and ‘flower’ people, we have yippies, groupies “teen-age girls who are fans of rock n’roll singing groups” and teenyboppers “girls or boys in the early teens who follow the current fashions and fads in clot hing, music, etc”.
The Women’s liberation movement in the U.S. Has brought a great impact on Modern English vocabulary. Words with the element man are regarded especially by
the feminists as “sexist words” or words connoting male chauvinism. Consequently, neologisms such as chairperson, congressperson, spokesperson, mail person, salesperson, newspeople, camera operator are invented. Some people even go so far as to prefer person-eating animal to man-eating animal. We wonder whether we may one day read personcott, person-of-war, ottoi and highthing instead of the well-accepted boycott, man-of-war, ottoman, and highboy.
New social habits and new living conditions necessitate the introduction of new words. Now we are already familiar with pressure cooker, microwave oven, air-conditioner, vacuum cleaner and spin-drier. Sometimes we do not cook at our kitchenette, but go to a supermarket to buy ready-mixed cakes or instant food.
Education is another source of new vocabulary, giving us open classroom“a classroom in which open discussions and individualized activities replaced the traditional subject-centered studies”; open enrollment “ a policy of unrestricted admission to a college or university that permits poor or unprepared students to matriculate”; and computer-assisted- instruction (CAT), grade point average, underachiever, overachiever, and so on.
New entertainment has brought into such new expressions as Sitcoms “situation comedies”, soap opera, simulcast “simultaneous transmission”, guerrilla or street theater“drama or mime usu. performed in an informal setting outdoors as on streets or in parks”, acid rock, hard rock, folk rock and call-in (of a radio program). Sports continued its steady production of vocabulary with new sports such as skateboarding, surfriding, body surf, roller-hockey, skydiving(“ the sport of jumping from an airplane and executing various tumbles and dives before pulling the rip cord of a parachute”) and snowmobiling(“ sport of riding a snowmobile”).
The changes of people’s idea abou t society, life, ethics also have great effects on Modern English vocabulary. New words like flash mob, surrogate mother, dinky, prenup, empty-nester, gay marriage are widely accepted by people. According to the word white-collar, people have invented a series of words like blue-collar, pink-collar and grey-collar. New words like downshifting, ringxiety, staycation, chick lit, Strawberry Generation are more and more popular in recent years.
The rapid development of global economy has added many new elements to Modern English vocabulary. The global economy is developing towards globalization and regional economic integration, thus leading to the production of many new words, such as World Trade Organization, Organization of Petrol Exporting Countries, European Union, and so on. Moreover, world economic crises, currency inflation and the development of industry and commerce have brought so many new words like stagflation, added value tax, revenue sharing, and so on.
After the 9/11 incident in the US, many new terms about terrorism were invented: plane (n→v to use planes as missiles), theo-terrorism (terrorism resulting from religious extremism), talibanize( the takeover of a government by Islamic fundamentalists ), ground zero( the rubble left behind where the twin towers once stood ), Debris surge( massive clouds of dust, glass shards, and papers that swept through lower Manhattan in New York ).
Wars, political scandals, international relations, terrorism, Euro-unification, economic shocks and revolutions, falling walls and rising curtains, technological developments, medicine, space exploration, scientific theory, the New Age, family structure, social stratification and integration, the women’s movement, an aging population, life styles, ethic identity, pop culture, sports, drugs, sexual mores, merchandising, communications, transportation, entertainment, the green revolution, and ecology---these are some of the areas that have been lexically active during the past half-century. The changes and development of these areas have been contributing
a lot to the rapid development of Modern English vocabulary.
5.Conclusion
Modern English vocabulary is developing very fast along with the social changes and progress. It has been enriched in almost every field, such as science, technology, politics, economy ,social life and so on, showing a strong vitality. For English majors, it is very necessary to know the main four sources of rapid development of modern English vocabulary: the development of native words; the influence of other cultures and languages; the rapid development of modern science and technology; social, economic, and political changes. Some knowledge about the
sources of development of Modern English vocabulary can help us have a better understanding of English words, thus doing good to our English learning.
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词汇学论文
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3.3 谚语 谚语是心理，语言与文化的综合产物。英汉中存在具有共同比喻的谚语，如：火上浇油——pour oil in the flame 半斤八两——sin and half dozen 破釜沉舟——burn one's boats 以牙还牙——a tooth for a tooth 但由于两个民族有各自独特的文化背景和各自独特的风俗习惯，思维方式，因此谚语联想，引申和比喻上有很大的不同。例如汉语“拍马屁”取自古人讨好某人时，用手拍主人的马的屁股，说，“好马，好马”，而英语对应的意思是lick one's boots，舔靴子之意，再如：害群之马——black sheep；一箭之遥——at a stone’s throw; 掌上明珠——the apple of one’s eye; 棋逢对手——diamond cuts diamond.这些谚语后都蕴含着各自的文化信息。英语有时从字面上表达一个意思，实际上整体意义完全不同，如pull one’s leg——拉后腿，前者是“戏弄人”的意思，后者是“阻挠或牵制别人的行为”。再如，move heaven and earth 不是天翻地覆的意思，而是竭尽全力的意思。类似的谚语还有很多。 4. 英汉词汇文化内涵差异产生的原因 4.1 构词方法不同 英汉语在构词法上既有共性，又存在一定的差异，具有各自的特殊性。汉英语属于两种差异较大的语言类型,从来源来看,汉语属于汉藏语系,英语属于印欧语系；从类型上讲,汉语属于分析语,英语属于综合分析语；汉语是象形表意文字，英语是表音文字，汉语重意合，而英语重形合,这些都取决于汉英两种民族不同的思维方式和民族心理素质,不同的思维方式和民族心理素质就会产生不同的语言形式,这些自然也会在构词上有所体现。 4.2 思维方式和认知方式不同 总体而言，汉族人的认知方法倾向于感性和具体，而西方人认知方法比较理想和抽象。汉语数词的使用频率远高于英语的数词就可以说明这个问题，如，“五体投地”，“八面埋伏”，“九死一生”，“十全十美”，“三思而行”等等。西方文化是一种重分析性，实证性和逻辑性的认识文化，要求周密，精确和明细
《中文学科论文写作》 一、每一种文体都有自身的写作规范与要求。简述毕业论文写作的总体要求。 毕业论文属于学术论文，从根本上说就必须具备学术性，学术性应是毕业论文区别于其他应用型文章的本质特征。学术论文所应具备的独创性、科学性、理论性在毕业论文中也可以归结为学术性问题。论文是否具有学术性，同论文写作从选题到行文的各个环节均有关系，以下几个环节尤其需要多加注意。首先，研究课题的选择要注意学科意义；其次，内容的表述要注重专业知识的含量；再次，结构的安排应当注重逻辑框架的严整；最后，语言的运用要体现语体特征。毕业论文的学术性问题也是文体规范问题，不具备学术性或者学术性有所欠缺的文章是不合乎毕业论文的文体规范的，因而是不能算作合格的毕业论文。 二、选择的原则，就是衡量课题、决定弃取的标准和根据。简述论文写作过程中选择研究课题的原则。 选择课题，主要考虑两方面的因素。（一）要选择客观上有意义的课题1、要选择具有社会意义的课题。选择具有社会意义的课题，主要是指选题着眼于社会的需要，要以满足社会的需要为出发点。2、要选择具有学术意义的课题。主要是指选题要考虑学科建设和学科发展的需要，选择那些有利于学科的自身完善的课题去研究。（二）要选择主观上有见解的课题1、要选择有能力完成的课题。2、要选择有兴趣的课题。3、要选择有条件完成的课题。总之，选择客观有意义的课题去研究的选题原则，决定了完成论文的客观必要性；选择主观上有见解的课题去研究的选题原则，决定了完成论文的现实可行性。只有同时符合这两条原则的课题才是可选的课题。 三、简述写作计划的作用和开题报告的主要内容。 论文写作计划的作用主要体现在两个方面：第一，进一步明确研究动机，增强工作的目的性。第二，明确工作程序，减少工作的盲目性。大学生和研究生所撰写的开题报告通常包含以下内容 1.题目；2、学科门类及年级；3、指导老师的姓名及职称；4、选题的缘由、目的和意义；5、选题及研究背景；6、课题研究方法、措施与步骤；7、准备情况；8、预期目标；9、大致进度和完成时间。 四、结合教材，简述文艺学研究论文写作的注意事项。 （一）探讨问题时追求与历史性、实践性的适度结合。文艺学学科体系中的文学批评的实践和文学史的梳理与编写具备极其鲜活的时代品质，并同时促成文学理论的不断修正与更新，最终实现了文艺学作为一个整体的与时俱进。在文艺学学科研究及论文写作过程中，追求与历史、实践性的适度结合同样是我们应该坚持的原则。（二）在理性思辨中不断追求论文的理论品味。一般来说，较为出色的思辨能力体现在形式逻辑的三个层面上，即概念的准确、判断的清晰、推理的周严。 五、结合教材，简述古代文学研究论文写作的注意事项。 （一）关于材料的问题1、素材与学术兴趣。唯有扎实、细致的素材积累与整理，我们才能明确对象、清理思路，不断激发并维持浓厚的学术兴趣，以孕育高质高产、常青的学术生命。2、述评与学术研究。述评包含着对问题的研究的发展方向的预测和发展方向。 （二）关于方法的问题1、文本细读与论文写作，主要强调古代文学论文在撰写过程中对文本乃至更纷繁的文献阅读态度与能力的要求。2、论文指导与论文写作，对于古代文学论文写作者而言，引入必要的理论，在理论的烛照下取研究的意义，实现真正意义上的学术研究的突破乃至飞跃。
目录 1. 图式与图式理论.........................................................................................................................错误！未定义书签。 1.1 图式 (1) 1.2 图式理论的定义.................................................................................................................. 错误！未定义书签。 1.3 图式理论的起源与发展...................................................................................................... 错误！未定义书签。 2. 词汇 (2) 2.1 词汇的定义 (2) 2.2 词汇在英语教学中的重要性 (2) 3. 图式理论下的课堂词汇教学方法 (2) 3.1 当前初中英语课堂词汇教学现状 (3) 3.2 运用直观导入 (3) 3.3 设计brainstorming活动 (3) 3.4 创设真实情境 (4) 4. 结论 (4) 5. 参考文献 (4)
图式理论下的初中英语课堂词汇教学 摘要 词汇是英语这门语言的三要素（语音、词汇、语法）之一。美国著名教育家威尔金斯（Wilkins)在《语言学与语言教学》中提出: without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed. ”词汇对语言学习的重要性是显而易见的。语言离不开词汇，交流更离不开词汇。然而，现在的初中英语课堂词汇教学存在一些不容忽视的问题，例如：词汇教学太过于枯燥呆板，学生没有兴趣学习。本文就现在中学课堂词汇教学问题出发，利用图式理论，创造积极活跃的课堂气氛，使学生更容易，更牢固的掌握习得词汇。 关键词：词汇教学图式理论初中英语 Abstract V ocabulary is the one of three factors ( phonetics、vocabulary、grammar) of English. The famous American educationist Wilkins once have put forward in Linguistic and Language Teaching :“ without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed. ” W e can know the importance of vocabulary in language learning from this. Language learning can not separate with vocabulary, communication also can not. While there are some serious problem exist in the vocabulary teaching of medium school, such as: the vocabulary teaching is so bald, and there is not kinds of way to learn word, so students are not interested in learning vocabulary. This text is based on the problem, which exist in vocabulary teaching in medium school, using the Schema Theory to make a positive class and make students to learn vocabulary easier and more vicelike. Key words : vocabulary teaching Schema Theory junior English
成绩 Root and Affixation of Lexicology Abstract: It’s important and permanent to master the vocabulary in the English learning. Everyone who has ever set foot on English realizes that it’s somewhat incredible for us to reciting numerous and difficult words. Nevertheless, there are some skills we should acquire to make word-recitation easier and more effective. This paper mainly discusses the using of vocabulary root and affix. Only by having a good knowledge of the roots and affixes, can we prosper our English vocabulary and further our English study. Key words: root; affixation; detailed analysis; difficult words 1Introduction: Blindly reciting numerous and difficult words is a total waste of time and energy. Especially, situation becomes worse for the college students with little words storage and non-interest. However, most of the English words are comprised with roots and affixes, which are limited, stable and short. If we acquire them, it will be much simpler and rapider for us to recognize the unfamiliar and difficult words through the analysis on roots and affixes. If we can master and know how to use them properly, it will be a big step for the further study of this foreign language. A road of a thousand miles begins with each single step, so does the English words. Now we are going to learn the root and affixation respectively. Definition is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity and it carries the main component of meaning in a word. By learning the roots, we will find it not complicated for us to understand the long and difficult words which we often encounter in the tough reading test. However long and tough the word is, we can divide it into several parts, the fundamental part is the root and then we can understand what it means and fluently blurt it out without repeating it. Here are some detail analyses of the examples: Internationalist: nation is the root which means country or state, inter- is prefix meaning between or interactive, -al is the suffix and the –ist is the suffix meaning the person. So you will quite simply find its meaning. Invigorate: the root is vigor similar to power and energy, in- means making sth have the function of verb, here is make sth vigor, -ate is the verb suffix. So invigorate is to make sth vigorous. Antecedent: -ced- is the root referring to motion or going forward, ante- is before, and –ent means somebody. So antecedent is somebody who moves ahead of us, the same as forefather or ancestor. Protract: -tract is the root like pulling sth or extending sth make it wider or longer, pro- is the prefix meaning “ahead”. After analyzing this word, we know that “protract” is similar to prolong meaning make sth longer or longer to live. A lot of words contain this root, such as detract, extract, subtract, attract, tractable, intractable, etc. Arbitrariness: arbitrary is the root indicating to randomness or out of order, -ness is the noun suffix. The profound meaning of learning roots is that you will find it much easy to memorize words because there are so many word share the same root. No matter how long and hoe difficult the word is, the basic meaning of the word is stable and unchangeable. If we recite words according the
英语词汇学论文(中文版) 单词记忆法细谈 一，读音规则记忆法 它就是按照元音字母、元音字母组合、辅音字母及辅音字母组合在开音节和闭音节的读音规律记忆。例如：ea，ee，er，ir，ur，or分别能发［i：］［：］［：］等。还有些固定的字母组合，例如：ing发［i］，ly发［li］，ty发［ti］和各种前缀、后缀，例如：a-，re-，un-，dis-，im-；-ed，-ing，-ly，-er，-or，-ful，-y等都有其比较固定的发音。掌握了这些规则，记单 词时就不必一个字母一个字母地记忆了。 二.字母变化记忆法 英语单词中以某个单词为基础，加、减、换、调一个字母就成了另一个新单词。具体方法 如下： 1.前面加字母。例如：is/his，ear/near/hear，read/bread 2.后面加字母。例如：hear/heart，you/your，plane/planet 3.中间加字母。例如：though/through，tree/three，for/four 4.减字母。例如：she/he，close/lose，star/tstar 5.换字母。例如：book/look/cook，cake/lake/wake/make/take 6.调字母（即改变字母顺序）。例如：blow/bowl，sing/sign， from/form 三.联想记忆法
在日常生活中可以根据所处的环境，所见到、所摸到的事物，联想相关的英语单词。例如： 打球时联想到：ball，(play)basketball，(play)football，(play)volleyball，playground等等；吃饭时联想到：dining-room，(have)breakfast，(have)lunch，(have)supper等等；睡觉 时联想到：bed，bedroom，gotobed，sleep，gotosleep，fallasleep等等。如果长期坚持下支，效果就会很好。 四.归类记忆法 众所周知，单词本身、单词与单词之间都存在着或多或少的联系，英语词汇中 有许多单词有着其近义词、反义词、一词多义、一词多音、同音词或形音形似词等内 在或外在的联系。因此，记忆单词的主要方法是把单词之间存在的这种联系挖掘归纳 出来，通过对比、对照的方式把学过的单词从各个方面进行归类 1.按词的构造归类 按词跟、前缀、后缀、合成词归类，找出词与词最本质 的联系。这种联系不仅使新词记得快、记得牢、记得久，而 且也同时复习了大量的旧词。合成词，如： schoolbag,school-boy,classroom,football,blackboard,etc. 前缀后缀词，如：unhappy,unhealthy,unfriendly,unlucky,worker,writer,visitor,us
现代汉语课程总结报告 现代汉语是文学院汉语言文学专业和戏剧影视文学专业的学科基础课，主要讲授现代汉语的基本理论和基本知识，培养学生对现代汉语的分析研究和应用能力。现代汉语课由文学院现代汉语教研室承担教学工作。我校建校以来，文学院就开设了现代汉语课。开课以来，始终重视课程建设工作。特别是近几年来，现代汉语课在教学实践中，注重处理古与今、理论与实践、知识与能力、学与用之间的关系，加强教学内容、教学方法的改革；注重处理传统教学手段与现代教育技术协调应用的关系，开发并应用现代化教学手段；注重培养学生的创新精神和实践能力，使课程建设系统化、科学化、现代化，逐渐形成了自身特色。 一、教学内容 课程内容新颖，体现现代汉语课程的时代性。教学内容体现时代特点，体显学术前沿的动态。我们除了在教材内容中体现时代性外，在教学中还适当补充现代汉语学科的新理论、新观点、新材料。正确处理基础与应用的关系、经典与现代的关系、掌握知识与培养思维能力的关系、传授知识与推动先进文化发展的关系、本课程与相关课程内容的关系。担任现代汉语后续课程的教师反映，学生的现代汉语理论知识扎实，运用得当，思维活跃，对学好后续课程帮助很大。 在知识传授的同时注重能力培养，为此，我们根据现代汉语课程的特点，加大实践教学的比重，特别强调理论的实用性，在教学内
容和教学环节中加大能力培养的内容，以此体现课程培养目标的要求。我们要求学生把基础知识的掌握和分析解决问题能力的养成结合起来，逐步形成比较系统的思维能力、实践能力、语言表达能力。由于在教学过程中注重教书育人工作，强调学生实际能力的培养，因此，引发了学生对现代汉语课程学习的兴趣。近年来，学生选题撰写现代汉语及语言学范围的学年论文和毕业论文的人数不断增加，选题范围和深度有所扩展，论文内容更加丰富，论文质量不断提高。 二、教学条件 在现代汉语课程建设中，我们十分重视教材建设。在这方面，一直选用优秀教材，并为学生的自主学习和研究性学习指定了有效的文献资料。现代汉语课为学生提供了阅读书目和学术期刊，作为促进学生主动学习的扩充性资料。这些资料数量充足、版本齐全，图书馆都有存书，学生借阅率高。学生主动学习中提出的问题补充丰富了我们的教学内容。 现代汉语课程组有供实践教学使用的多媒体教室，条件完备，能够满足教学要求，能够进行开放式教学，且教学水平明显。 三、教学方法与手段 运用多种教学方法有利于学生对知识的掌握与理解。现代汉语课程教师积极探讨教学方法的创新，力求最佳的教学效果，如采用启发式、参与式、调研式等教学方法充分调动学生学习的积极性，激发学生的潜能，加强对学生各种能力的培养。 积极进行教学效果和考试方法的改革，注重对学生知识运用能力
中国儿童文学写作的语言学意识 ［摘要］中国儿童文学的写作，不同于成人文学而有其独特的语言学意识，主要表现为语音学意识、词汇学意识和修辞学意识。当然，语言并不是儿童文学写作的全部，但它直接决定儿童对作品的接受。 儿童文学是指适合于各年龄阶段儿童的特点、审美要求以及接受能力的，有助于他们健康成长的文学。在中国漫长的古代社会里，文学从来只属于成人。所以尽管古典文学作品浩如烟海，却很难找到作家明确为儿童创作而又在语言上切合儿童口味的作品。虽然《西游记》中的许多故事使儿童倾倒，但它并不是为儿童写的。清末以来，萌发状态中的儿童文学逐渐出现了自成一宗的趋向。梁启超在《饮冰室诗话》等著作中，曾论及儿童文学的重要性和某些创作要领。与此同时，许多真正意义上的儿童文学作品开始出现，如梁启超的《爱国歌》，黄遵宪的《幼稚园上学歌》等。“五四”之后，中国儿童文学更是蓬勃发展，大家层出不穷，如叶圣陶、冰心、张天翼、高士其、陈伯吹、叶君健、严文井、金近、鲁兵等，举不胜举。文学是语言的艺术，语音、词汇、修辞等的选择和运用，直接影响到儿童对文学的接受。因此，儿童文学的创作不同于成人文学，而应有其独特的语言学意识。 语音是语言的物质外壳，语音的最小单位是音素。语言学家一般把音素分为元音和辅音两大类。诗歌中的押韵，就是同一个收音的字（即韵母相同的字，一般是元音，或者是元音后面再带辅音）在同一个位置上的重复。押韵可以充分利用语音的审美特质，通过韵脚的关联，把诸多散漫的音群组织结合为一个审美整体，使诗歌具有回环之美，便于记忆传诵。例如儿歌《下雨》，在这首小诗里，答、啦、吧、芽、花、大等字都押a的韵，而且每个字的发音都给人一种轻松愉悦之感，整个画面就是人格化后的种子、梨树、麦苗和小孩站在一起，怀着同样的心情，欢迎春雨的到来。我们的小读者在感情上，也会象诗中的小孩一样，和它们产生共鸣。 韵律和节奏比普通语音更能唤起孩子的直感情绪体验，更讨孩子喜爱，这点是与成人不同的地方。成人可以喜欢不同文体的作品，不管有无韵律和节奏，其关键取决于作品的内容和艺术水平。如果内容贫乏，艺术水平低劣，就是节奏感很强，也不会受成人欢迎。而对儿童来说，一首韵律强烈和节奏明快的儿歌远比一篇散文更具有吸引力。因为音韵和节奏能增强作品的音乐性，唤起他们，愉快的直感。 另外，汉语的词汇宝库里，还有很大一部分是双声迭韵组成的复音词。这类词汇可以调度韵节，构成语言本身的和谐，增强语言的音乐美。进行儿童文学创作时，若适当选用，会有很好的效果。如方轶群的《找谁玩》： 作者在这首小诗里，利用汉语语音的特点，不仅运用了押韵，如“家”与“蛙”少高”与“猫”少歌”与“鹅”等，而且选用了“找谁”少看家”少就去”、“（青）蛙玩”等双声词，“小鸭”、“跳高”、“小猫”、“跳下”、“划呀划”、“小虾”等迭韵词，根据它们的起音部位相同或收音协韵，适当地搭配，依照口语的规律，自然地加以排列，使语句念起来顺口、听起来悦耳，全诗语言充满和谐与音乐美。 鲁迅在《表》的序言《译者的话》中说：“想不用什么难字，给十岁上下的孩子们也可以看。但是，一开译，可就立刻碰到了钉子，对孩子的话，我知道得太少……”由此看来，儿童文学的写作还要避免使用艰深的词汇和单字，否则儿童是无法接受的。然而要写出能为儿童读得懂、听得明白的作品，必须有意识地多用“孩子的话，不用或少用“成人的话”。就是说，必须注意用字遣词。如果写出了艰深的词汇，那么用浅近的同义词或近义词来代替
论 广 告 语 言 中 的 修 辞 专业：汉语言文学 班级：108511 姓名：赵瑞 学号：99088706
论广告语言中的修辞 摘要： 广告语修辞对消费者心理的影响广告自诞生之日起便具有了强烈的功利性，它是一门浓缩的、综合的艺术。修辞是一种个性化、意图化的认知方式，广告修辞将这一意图直接指向商品本身。广告修辞的过程是使消费者对品牌产生认同的过程。这个过程是一个双向过程，既有解读广告中受众对广告话语的认知也有构建广告的广告人对受众的劝说。广告作为一种功利性的传播活动必然追求效果，希望消费者购买。广告修辞不但使消费者更形象地感知产品的特性，还在消费者对品牌认同、消费引导等方面产生重要作用。。 关键词：修辞手法，广告，广告效应 一、当前的信息时代，五光十色千姿百态的广告令人目不暇接。然而，广告真正吸引人们注意力的除了其色彩、画面、音乐等因素外，更重要的是广告语，它是广告的灵魂所在。作为广告的重要载体——广告语，在传达广告的内容时，主要通过丰富多彩的修辞，来宣传商品，吸引人们的注意力，激起人们强烈的购买欲望。修辞是语言的艺术化，它是指用各种表现手法对文字语句积极地进行调整和修饰，以使语言表达更准确、鲜明、生动而有力，是提高语言表达效果的一种手法。
在现代广告中，运用修辞对广告语进行创意，一方面能准确无误地传达商品的特点，实现广告的信息功能；另一方面，吸引受众的注意力，进而给受众以启示和联想，在相当短的时间内缩短商品生产者、销售者和受众之间的距离，激起受众强烈的购买欲望，产生预期的广告效应。 二、广告语中经常使用的修辞技法 1、比喻 比喻是利用事物的相似点，通过打比方来使某一事物更形象生动，更有感染力、说服力的一种修辞方式。这种修辞格契合了广告语要在很短的时间内传达完美信息的特性，使人产生深刻的印象。秦牧说：“精致的比喻就像童话中的魔棒，碰到哪儿，哪儿就发出奇特的变化。”它可以把深奥的道理说得浅显易懂，可以将抽象的事物进行形象的表现，可以把陌生的概念变成熟悉的事物，可以将平淡表现为生动。所以，比喻也是广告语中常用的修辞手法。运用比喻可以使广告语生动、鲜明形象，引发受众的想象，帮助受众更加具体地认识产品的特征 例如： (1)雪馥儿童护肤系列，纯净、柔和、全心呵护，恰似妈妈的温柔。(雪馥儿童护肤广告) 对孩子的呵护莫过于妈妈的温柔了，因此用“妈妈的温柔”来比喻儿童护肤系列，奇特地、艺术地说明了它对孩子皮肤的全心呵护和它带给孩子的舒心与快乐。这则广告紧紧抓住了广大妈妈对孩子的爱护之
The English Synonyms 1、Introduction English has the largest vocabularies and synonyms in the world because it absorbed many different languages from various kinds of countries. As Baugh says, the richness of English in synonyms is largely due to the happy mingling of Latin,French and native elements. 2、The origin of the English Synonyms 2.1 As early as the Anglo-Saxon period There were many borrowing words from other countries in Europe,such as Latin ("street","mile"...),Greek("priest","bishop"...),Celtic("crag","bin"...),and Scandinavian languages ("law","egg","thrall"...) and so on. 2.2 After the Norman Conquest A new kind of English language appeared,it called Norman English.The vocabulary doubled in that period because of the influx of French.French was widely used in the high society at that time in especial.For example, there were many words about eating:sugar,vinegar,boil,fry,roast and so on.About dressing,there were "garment", "robe", "mantle", "gown"and so on.About law,there were "plaintiff", "perjury" and so on. About religions,there were "convent", "hermitage", "chaplain", "cardinal" and so on. About social status,there were also some words to be expressed ,such as "prince", "count", "major" and so on. Ancient British people adopted a plenty of French vocabularies to express their feelings,behaviors and living. However,there were many words having same meanings between French vocabulary and the pre-existing Anglos-Saxon vocabulary,so a lager number of synonyms appeared. When the people wanted to say something,they can use the pre-existing Anglo-Saxon vocabulary.For example,"cure" and"heal',"table"and"board","poignant"and"sharp","labor"and"work","mirror"and"gla ss", "assemble"and"meet", "power"and"might" etc. 2.3 In the Renaissance
题目: Semantic Change of English Words 学期2011/2012学年第一学期 科目英语词汇学 班级 学号 姓名
摘要 语言作为人类表达思想和交流的工具随着人类社会的发展不断变化，在语言诸多要素中，词汇的变化是最快、最显著，这表现在新词的产生和旧词的消亡、借用外来词和旧词添新义。 本文首先介绍了词义变化的定义，然后介绍词义变化的历史原因和社会原因，最后介绍了词义变化的方式，同时主要通过介绍委婉语的词义变化，通过列举具体事例更好的了解词义变化的方式，使英语学习者能在日后的学习中，更好的了解英语词汇的意思并且正确的使用英语词汇，使英语学习更上一层楼。 关键词：语言；词义变化；委婉语；英语学习 Introduction Languages are not confined in a fixed state, instead, they are not only constantly changing but also changes quickly. The most noticing change in the process of language development is the sematic change of words. Semantic change is a change in one of the meanings of a word. Every word has a variety of senses and connotations which can be added, removed, or altered over time, often to the extent that cognates across space and time have very different meanings. Why the meaning of a word changed? Changes of meaning can be brought about by many cause. There are three major causes. Historically,changes of lexical meaning can be illustrated by a diachronic development of words. Although objects, conceptions, ideals, etc. change at course of time, but the meaning changes, because the object which it describe has changed. Socially, it is natural that in the course of the development of society a number of new words are needed to describe new ideas. Scientific discoveries are a main kind of social cause. Psychologically, the speaker's state of mind may bring about semantic changes. (Feng shimei, P163-165) In fact, we can see clearly from the euphemism to types of semantic changes. Euphemism is substitution of a word of more pleasant connotation for one of unpleasant connotation or avoided taboos. It is an important social cause of semantic changes. It is also the reflection of semantic change. According to different semantic books, semantic change can be divided into many types. But types of semantic change generally can be divided into four types. 1.Generalization, for instance, alibi. A legal term signifying 'plea that the accused is not at the place when the crime is committed', has now come into common use, meaning any 'excuse'. 2.Specialization, for instance, barbarian was originally a vague designation for a 'foreigner of any kind', and later was specialized to mean an 'uncivilized person'. 3.Elevation, for instance, Chamberlain, now a 'high official of royal courts', was formerly a 'servant'. 4.Degeneration,for instance, cunning was originally 'knowing and skillful', and later was specialized to 'sly'.
英语词汇学期末论文 题目：浅析英语词汇巧记法 专业：英语 班级：13级3班 学号：201313010309 姓名：黄旷静 完成时间：2015年1月14号
浅析英语词汇巧记法 摘要：词汇是英语学习的基础，没有足够的词汇量就不可能高水平的掌握英语这门外语，而浩瀚的词汇海洋让很多人望而生畏。尽管花费了大量时间精力去背，记忆的效果却差强人意，原因就在于没有使用科学的方法记忆词汇。其实，世间万物都是有规律性的，英语单词的组词与构词方法也有规律，了解了它的规律有利于我们有效甚至高效学习英语单词。为了提高单词记忆的效率，本文从不同方面介绍几种记忆方法。 关键词：词汇科学记忆规律效率 一．读音记忆法 1.拼读法 英语是拼音文字，英语中的单词的读音大多是有规律的，熟悉字母及字母组合的发音规则，掌握正确的拼法与读音之间的关系，可以根据单词的读音，降低记忆难度，正确地拼写单词。 例如ay读[ei]。带有ay字母组合的词，如say，day，way，pay，may，play，spray，不仅发音容易，而且拼写也没有任何困难。Sh ch tion ture 等也都有固定读音，ee发音为i: culture 文化pasture牧场mature 成熟的architecture 建筑学带有true的单词也都能很方便的记忆下来
2.谐音法 尽管有些人认为用这种谐音记忆法记忆单词不科学，不利于正确掌握发音，但实践证明，对尚未掌握外语的构词特点和记词规律的初学者来说，采用谐音法记单词确实能有效地记住一部分难记的单词。但是，在用谐音法记单词时需要特别注意，绝不可将其作为模仿发音的依据，只能作为记忆单词时的谐音联想手段，以加强记忆，而必须按照单词的标准发音去读记，以避免这种记词法干扰正确发音。用谐音法记单词是，根据外语单词的读音到中文中寻找与其读音相似的谐音，寻找到谐音与单词的联系。用这种方法甚至可能达到终身不忘，这也正是谐音记忆法的绝妙之处。 例如：mouth嘴[联想：说话“冒失”的就是嘴] think想[联想：想时要“深刻”] 二．联想法 1.拆分联想 科学研究表明：联想是记忆的基础。世界著名的生理学家巴甫洛夫指出："记忆要依靠联想，而联想则是新旧知识建立联系的产物。”联想法是联想记忆的进一步运用和发展。它是指学习者展开积极丰富的想象力，使所要记忆的知识生动、形象化，通过联想在新旧知识(如英语熟词词义与生词词义)之间建立起一种联系，从而达到以旧带新、快速记忆的目的。