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Chapter one1.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. System means it is rule-governed; arbitrary means there is no logical relationship between language elements and their meaning; vocal means speech is primary; symbols related to arbitrariness, it means language elements are only the symbols for the meaning they express. Human, it means language is uniquely human; communication is the primary function of language.2.What are the design features of language, give their definitions and examples. Arbitrary: arbitrary is the core feature of language, which means that there is no logical relation between meanings and sounds. Arbitrary is a matter of degree, language is not entirely arbitrary, first, the onomatopoeia are words that sound like the sound they describe, to some extent, they have natural basis. Second, some compounds are not entirely arbitrary either, “snow” and“storm” are arbitrary words, but the compound word “snowstorm”is less so. Thirdly, some surnames, such as Longfellow, Johnson.Examples: a rose by other name would smell as sweetDuality: is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization .we call sounds secondary units as opposed to primary units as words, since the secondary are meaningless and the primary unit have distinct and identifiable meaning.Creativity: language users can understand and produce new sentences to express new meanings. By creativity, we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness. By duality the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never produced or heard before. Language is creativity in another sense, that is, itspotential to create endless sentences. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis of this possibility.Example: He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who……Displacement: means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts, which are not present at the moment of communication.Examples : we can refer to Confucius and Bush at the moment of communication , but the former lived thousands of years ago and the latter live far away from us .3.Functions of the language and their examples⑴informative function: when language is used to express human experience and knowledge about the world. It is predominantly the major role of language.⑵interpersonal function is the most important sociological use of language by which people establish and maintain their status in a society. Language marks our identity, physically in terms of age, sex, and voiceprints; psychologically in terms of language, personality, and intelligence; geographically in terms of accents and dialects; ethnically and socially in terms of social stratification, class, status, role, solidarity, and distance.(3) Performative function: is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony and the cursing of enemies. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.(4) Emotive function: changes the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.(5) Phatic communion: occurs when language is used for pure interpersonal purposes, e.g. greetings, farewell, etc.(6) Recreational function: when language is used for the pure joy of using it, such as baby’s babbling and chanter’s chanting.(7) Metalingual function: when language is used to discuss itself. For example, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought.4. What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language.4.Main branches of the linguistics1)Phonetics: studies speech sounds, it is the description, classification, andtranscription of speech sounds. It includes articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and auditory phonetics.2)Phonology: the study of speech sounds as a system: the relations betweenspeech sounds, the way in which speech sounds are related to meaning, the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds. 3)Morphology: the internal structures of words. It studies the minimal units ofmeaning-morphemes and word-formation processes.4)Syntax: studies the internal structure of sentences5)Semantics: the study of meaning as encoded in language6)Pragmatics: the study of language use, meaning in context5. Macrolinguistics1) Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition. The psycholinguistics constraints on the form of grammar are studied. It also studies language development in the child, biological foundations of languages, and the relationship between language and cognition.2) Social linguistics: is an umbrella term, which covers a variety of different interest in language and society, including the social functions of language and the social characteristics of its users.3) Anthropological linguistics: anthropology and linguistics combined: the relationship between language and culture.4) Computational linguistics: the use of computers to process or produce human language: machine-translation, information retrieval, expert systems.6. Important distinction in linguistics1) Descriptive VS PrescriptiveThe distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. Describing language as it is used by its native speakers is descriptive; trying to lay down language rules for correct uses of language is prescriptive. To say linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them rules, or norms, of correctness.2) Synchronic VS diachronicStudying language as it is used at a particular point in time is synchronic study; studying language as it changes over time is a diachronic study.3) Langue Vs paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is the language system, which is social, essential, and stable while parole is the actual use of the language system, which is individual, accidental, and unstable.4) Competence VS performanceA language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence, and performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situation. (Chomsky)5) Syntagmatic VS paradigmatic relationsSyntagmatic relations are relations between units present in the same sequence or construction, syntagmatically related elements form structures.Paradigmatic relations are relations between a unit and other units that can replace it in a given sequence. Paradigmatically related units form systems.how he can get to his destination. Then you tell him all that you know about the course, including which bus or subway he should take. This is the very process in which you use your experience and knowledge to help him. If you have no idea about his destination, you would say “Sorry, I can’t help you”. At this moment, he may buy a map of the city. This is the reason why map came into being. Map provides the detailed information including not only the complicated and crossing roads, but also the course of bus and subway. Map is an instrument by that peopleuse language to show their experience and knowledge. By analogy, there are also many other instruments for people to express content, such as books, papers, magazines and dictionaries and so on. These forms are utilized by human to record the facts of social development; conversely, the recorded facts is a prerequisite of social development. Having talked so much, I believe there are two important points to be captured. 一是，人这个主体通过使用语言将内容传递出去；另一个是语言通过报纸、杂志、书、字典等的外在形式把知识和经验传递出去。
我对al的理解英语作文The Essence and Significance of AL in the Modern Era.In the ever-evolving landscape of technology and education, the acronym "AL" often surfaces as a pivotal concept, carrying with it a depth of meaning thattranscends its mere letters. While the interpretation of AL can vary depending on the context, this essay aims to explore the multifaceted understanding of AL, particularlyin the realms of artificial intelligence, adaptive learning, and academic literacy, and its implications for our society.Artificial Intelligence (AI) and AL.In the realm of artificial intelligence, AL is often associated with the concept of "Artificial Life" or "Artificial Learning". Artificial Life explores the simulation of natural life processes using computational techniques, aiming to understand the fundamental principles of life itself. On the other hand, Artificial Learning, ormachine learning, refers to the ability of computer systems to learn from data, identify patterns, and make predictions or decisions without being explicitly programmed.The intersection of AI and AL is particularly fascinating, as it heralds a new era of intelligent machines capable of.。
Anticipatory coarticulation:If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in lamb, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Affix: An affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Antonymy: Anthnymy is the name for oppositeness relation.Acronym: Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. Broad transcription: When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, is is called a broad transcription. Categorization Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences.Closed syllable: A syllable with coda.Classification of Words: 1. Variable and invariable words 2. Grammatical words and lexical words 3. Closed-class words and open-class words 4. Word classConsonants: Consonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tracy, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.Coarticulation: When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process coarticulation. Conjoining: conjoining refers to the process where one clause is coordinated or conjoined with another.Cognitive linguistics: Cognitive linguistics is a newly established approach to the study of language as a reaction against the dominant generative paradigm which pursues an autonomous view of language.Cohesion: Cohesion is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax, it refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and defines it as a text.Design Features: 1.Arbitrariness: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 2.Duality: the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 3.Creativity: language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. 4.Displacement: human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.Endocentric:endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e.Functions of Language: 1. Informative 2. Interpersonal Function 3. Performative 4. Emotive Function 5. Phatic Communion 6. Recreational Function 7. Metalingual FunctionHeuristics: 1. What isn’t said, isn’t. 2. What is simply described is stereotypically exemplified. 3. What’s said in an abnormal way, isn’t normal; or Marked message indicates marked situation.Language: 1.human speech 2.the ability to communicate by this means 3.a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings 4.the written representation of such a systemLinguistics: Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language. Main Branches of Linguistics: 1. Phonetics: phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is, how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc 2. Phonology: Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. 3. Morphology: Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes. 4. Syntax: Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences. 5. Semantics: Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language. 6.Pragmatics: Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context.Macrolinguistics: 1. Psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and language acquisition for example. 2. Sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is an umbrella term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the social functions of language and the social characteristics of its users. 3. Anthropological Linguistics: As a science, the study of language is somewhat older than anthropology. 4. Computational Linguistics: Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.Morphology:The systematic study of morpheme is a branch of linguistics called morphology.Morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be dicided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning.Metaphor: 1. Ontological metaphors 2. Structural metaphors 3. Orientional metaphorsNarrow transcription:The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription.Open syllable: A syllable that has no coda.Origin of Language: 1. The “bow wow” theory: In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that. 2. The “pooh-pooh” theory: In the hard life of our primitive ancestors they utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy. 3. The “yo-he-ho”theory: As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language. Phonetics: Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.Psycholinguistics:Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated withe the use of language.Phonology: Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.Phonetic similarity:means that the allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance.Phrase:phrase is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clauses.Recursiveness: Thought it mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category.Referential theory: The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.Stem: A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.Synonymy: synonymy is the technical name for the sameness relation.Sentence: sentence is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought.Subordination: subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.Syntax: sentences are constructed according to the grammar of arrangement.Syntactic function: The syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.Type of Morphemes:1. Free morpheme and bound morpheme 2. Root, affix and stemVoiceless: When the vocal folds are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be voiceless. Voiced: When they are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be voiced.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation. Word: Word is a typical grammatical unit between morpheme and word group.Relation of substitutability: the relation of substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.。
语言学学名词解释1)Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific or systematic study of (human) language.a.The word language preceded by zero article in English implies that linguistics studies not any particular language, e.g. English , Chinese , French and Japanese, but languages in general.b.The word study does not mean “learn” but “investigate”.c.The word scientific refers to the way in whichlanguage is studied.It is a science in the sense that it scientifically studies the rules,systems and principles of human languages. It deals with a wide range of linguistic phenomena,analyzes them,and makes general statements about them.2)Linguistics is always guided by the 3 canons of science:(e c e)exhaustiveness: it strives for thorough-goingness in the examination of relevant materials;consistency: there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statementeconomy: other things being equal, a shorter statement or analysis is to be preferred to one that is longer or more complex. (e c e)3) The subject matter of linguistics is all natural language, living or dead.4) Linguistics has 2 main purposes:it studies the nature of language and tries to establish a theory of language, and describes languages in the light of the theory established.It examines all the forms of language in general and seeks a scientific understanding of the ways in which it is organized to fulfill the needs it serves and the functions it performs in human lifelinguistics differs from traditional grammar at least in 3 basic ways: Linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness. Linguists are interested in what is said. So they are often said to be descriptive.Linguists regard the spoken language as primary. It is believed that speech came into being first for any human language and the writing system came along much later. Traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages, while linguistics describes each language on its own merits.For a student of language, some knowledge of linguistics is of both interest and importance.For a teacher of foreign languages, he will definitely a great deal from the knowledge of linguistics.For a researcher, there is even more scopefor displaying his abilities.Why study linguistics ?1. Linguistics takes an analyticalapproach to the study of language, and focus on developing skills in data analysis, problem solving, and logical thinking that can be applied to many fields.2.It is an interdisciplinary subject.3.Linguistics is a science that is stillin its infancy but undergoing rapid development, and it is “a pilot science”.What and how linguists study language?1. nature of language (focus on languageitself)2. nature of acquisition (focus onlearners)3. nature of teaching (focus on teachers)The process of linguistic study can be summarized as follows:between language and society: how social factors influence the structure and use of language. Another name for sociolinguistics is the sociology of language. Psycholinguistics is the study of language and mind: the mental structures and processes which are involved in the acquisition, comprehension and production of language.Neurolinguistics or neurological linguistics is the study of language processing and language representation in the brain.Stylistics is the study of how literary effects can be related to linguistic features. It usually refers to the study of written language, including literary texts, but it also investigates spoken language sometimes.Discourse analysis, or text linguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the contexts in which language is used.Computational linguistics is an approach to linguistics which employs mathematical techniques, often with the help of a computer.Cognitive linguistics is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information. Apart from the different branches of linguistics, there are some distinctions of linguistics, such as: functional linguistics vs formal linguistics; theoretical linguistics vs applied linguistics.Applied linguistics is primarily concerned with the application of linguistic theories, methods and findings to the elucidation of language problems which have arisen in other areas of experience.Phonetics（语音学）:Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds.It studies how speech sounds arearticulated, transmitted, and received. It is a pure science and examines speech sounds in general.Phonetics: The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds. Phonology（音系学/音位学）: The description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.Phonology is the study of how speech sounds function in a language. It studies the ways speech sounds are organized. It can be seen as the functional phonetics of a particular language.Morphology（形态学，词法学）: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words.Morphology is the study of the formation of words. It is a branch of linguistics which breaks words into morphemes.Syntax（句法学）: The study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences.Syntax deals with the combination of words into phrases, clauses and sentences. It is the grammar of sentence construction. Semantics(语义学）is a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the study of meaning in abstraction. Pragmatics can be defined as the study of language in use. It deals with how speakers use language in ways which cannot be predicted from linguistic knowledge alone, and how hearers arrive at the intended meaning of speakers. In a broad sense, pragmatics studies the principles observed by human beings when they communicate with one another.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.This definition is widely accepted because it includes some of the important characteristics of human language. Language as system ---The key word in thedefinition is "system". Language is systematic. Otherwise we would not be able to learn or use it consistently. Each language system contains two subsystems: a system of sound and a system of meaning. Language is a system—elements in it are not arranged and combined randomly, but according to some rules and principles. Language as arbitrary ---There is no natural relationship between the sound and what it means in a certain language.The relation between sound and meaning is almost always arbitrary or conventional. The relation between sound and meaning is almost always arbitrary.A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.Romeo and JulietThe relation between sound and meaning is almost always conventional《荀子·正名》：“名无固宜，约之以命，约定俗成谓之宜，异于约则谓之不宜。
语言学作业班级：姓名：Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsI. Please illustrate the following terms.1. Arbitrariness:The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.The different levels of arbitrariness:(1) Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words(2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.(3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.2. DualityThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.3. Phatic communionPhatic communion refers to the social interaction of language.4. Synchronic linguistics:A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.II. Please distinguish the following terms:1. Langue vs. ParoleLangue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, that is, the lexicon, grammar, and phonology implanted in each individual, and it is the linguist’s proper object;Parole refers to the realization of langue, the immediately accessible data. While parole constitutes the immediately accessible data, and it is a mass of confused facts, so it is not suitable for systematic investigation..(1) Langue is abstract, while parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs.(2) Langue is not actually spoken by anyone, while parole is always a naturally occurring event.(3) Langue is relatively stable, systematic and social, while parole is subject to personal, individual and situational constraints.(4) Langue is essential while parole is accessory and accidental.2. Descriptive vs. PrescriptiveThe distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Traditional grammar was very strongly normative in grammarians tried to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all. That is prescriptive.These attitudes are still with us, though people realize nowadays the facts of usage count more than the authority-made “standards”. Thenature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.3. Synchronic vs. DiachronicSynchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.Actually synchrony is a fiction since any language is changing as the minutes pass.Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.4. Competence vs. PerformanceAccording to Chomsky:A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language or the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances in concrete situations.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors, so a speaker’s performance does not always or equal his supposed competence.He believes that linguists ought to study competence rather than performance.5. Langue vs. CompetenceAccording to Chomsky:Langue is a social product, a systematic inventory of rules of the language, a set of conventions for a speech community.Competence is defined from the psychological point of view, is deemedas a property of the mind of each individuals, or underlying competence as a system of generative processes.According to Hymes:He approaches language from a socio-cultural viewpoint with the aim of studying the varieties of ways of speaking on the part of individual and the community.He extended notion of competence, restricted by Chomsky to a knowledge of grammar, to incorporate the pragmatic ability for language use. This extended idea of competence can be called communicative competence.III. Answer the following questions in brief:1. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge thesynchronic or diachronic orientation just from the titles1) English Examined: Two Centuries of Comment on the Mother Tongue2) Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage3) Pejorative Sense Development in English4) The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation5) Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular 1) diachronic 2）synchronic 3）diachronic 4）synchronic5）We can’t judge whether it is synchronic or diachronic orientation just from the titles.2. What is language What is linguisticsLanguage can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication and interaction.Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. The aims of linguistic theory: 1) what is knowledge of language (Competence) 2) howis knowledge of language acquired (Acquisition) 3) how is knowledge of language put to use (Performance/language processing). Main branches of linguistics:Phonetics, Phonology Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics.3. How do you understand performative function of languageThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons or the situations of events, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an as a means of controlling the invisible forces which the believers feel might affect their lives adversely.IV. Discuss the following question in detail.How do you interpret the viewpoint that “arbitrariness is a matter of degree”1)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words:The dog barks bow wow in English but “汪汪汪” in Chinese.2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.He came in and sat down.He sat down and came in.He sat down after he came in.3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.Arbitrariness of language makes it potentiallycreative.Conventionality of language makes learning a languagelaborious.Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Complete the following statements.1. Human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events andconcepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as __________.2. The sound [p] can be described with “voiced, __________, stop.”3. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phoneticallydifferent but do not make one word different from another in meaning,, are_________.4. Both semantics and ________ investigate linguistic meaning, but theyfocus on different aspects.5. If certain linguistics tries to lay down rules for the correct useof language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all, it is ___________ linguistics.6. Phones that fall into allophones of a phoneme have to satisfy twoconditions, one is they are ___________________, and another is that they should be in _____________________.7. The vowel ________ is high front tense unrounded.8. A dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days,because its language does not have the feature of ___________.9. Computational linguistics often refers to the problems of________________, information retrieval, and ______________.10. Halliday proposed a theory of metafunctions of language, that is,language has ___________, ____________ and _____________ functions. II. Define the following terms.1. Manner of articulation:2. Distinctive features:3. Intonation:4. Assimilation:III. Answer the following questions briefly.1. Specify the difference between each pair of sounds using distinctivefeatures.1) [l] [ł] 2) [p h] [p] 3) [b] [d] 4) [k] [g] 5) [I][u]2. Work out the features of the following sounds.1) [t h] ________________________________________2) [w] ________________________________________3) [v] ________________________________________4) [ð] _________________________________________5) [l] __________________________________________3. In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels,as shown by the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.A B. Cbite [bʌit] bide [ba i d] tie [ta i]rice [rʌis] rise [ra i z] by [ba i]type [tʌip] bribe [b r aib] sigh [s a i]wife [wʌif] wives [wa i vz] die [d a i]tyke [tʌik] time [ta i m] why [wa i]1) What is the difference of the sounds that end the words in columnsA and B2) How do the words in column C differ from those in column A and B3) Are [ʌi] and [a i] in complementary distribution Give your reasons.4) What are the phonetic transcriptions of (a) life and (b) lives5) What would the phonetic transcriptions of the following words be inthe dialects of English shown in the data(a) trial (b) bike (c) lice(d) fly (e) mine6) State the rule that will relate the phonemic representations to bephonetic transcriptions of the words given above.IV. Discuss the questions in details.1. Illustrate phoneme, phone and allophone.2. To what extent is phonology related ot phonetics and how do they differ。
I am an individual with a multifaceted skill set that has been honed through persistent dedication, continuous learning, and practical application across various domains. This essay aims to provide you with a comprehensive understanding of my core competencies, which I have cultivated over the years.Firstly, in the realm of academics, I specialize in the field of Computer Science and Engineering. I hold a strong command over programming languages such as Python, Java, and C++. My expertise extends from front-end web development to back-end systems architecture, including proficiency in frameworks like ReactJS, AngularJS, Node.js, and Django. I have consistently delivered projects involving complex algorithms, data structures, machine learning models, and software engineering principles. Beyond coding, I possess a keen interest in computational theory and artificial intelligence, allowing me to approach problems with both a theoretical and practical perspective.Secondly, my forte lies in effective communication and leadership abilities. Throughout my academic and professional journey, I've had numerous opportunities to lead teams, organize events, and conduct presentations. These experiences have fine-tuned my interpersonal skills and ability to articulate ideas clearly and persuasively. I excel at interpreting technical information for non-technical stakeholders, thereby bridging the gap between technical and business realms. Moreover, my empathetic leadership style enables me to foster collaborative environments where team members feel valued and motivated.Thirdly, I pride myself on my critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Whether it's tackling intricate mathematical conundrums or resolving real-world business challenges, I apply analytical rigor to every task. I approach problems systematically, breaking them down into manageable components before devising innovative solutions. This strategic mindset is instrumental in project planning and execution, ensuring that objectives are met efficiently and effectively.In the domain of research and writing, I am adept at conducting meticulous literature reviews, synthesizing information from diverse sources, and presenting findings coherently. My written work reflects a high degree of clarity,depth, and adherence to scholarly standards. I have published articles in reputable journals, showcasing my ability to contribute meaningfully to the intellectual discourse in my field.Lastly, I am passionate about continuous personal and professional growth.I believe in lifelong learning and hence invest time in staying updated with the latest trends and technologies in my industry. My adaptability and eagerness to learn new skills have allowed me to navigate through different roles and responsibilities with ease.In terms of extracurriculars, I also boast significant accomplishments in public speaking and debating, demonstrating my confidence and poise under pressure. Additionally, I am fluent in English, Mandarin, and Spanish, enabling me to engage in cross-cultural dialogue and collaborate effectively in international settings.In conclusion, my strengths lie in a blend of technical prowess, leadership acumen, critical thinking, research aptitude, and cultural sensitivity. These attributes equip me to excel in dynamic, challenging environments where innovation and collaboration are key. I continually strive to refine these skills and expand my horizons, driven by an insatiable curiosity and passion for excellence. Each day presents a new opportunity to deepen my knowledge, sharpen my abilities, and make meaningful contributions to any endeavor I undertake.This self-portrait, while highlighting my current proficiencies, underscores my commitment to ongoing improvement and the relentless pursuit of quality and high standards in all aspects of my life and career.。
我在计算方面进步了英语作文250字In terms of computation, I have made significant progress. Initially, I was apprehensive about tackling complex calculations, but with consistent practice, I am now able to approach mathematical challenges with confidence. My understanding of core concepts like algebra, calculus, and probability has deepened, and I am adept at applying these principles to real-world scenarios.One notable achievement has been my proficiency in solving optimization problems. Through exposure to various techniques such as linear programming and dynamic programming, I can formulate and solve optimization models efficiently. This has proven invaluable in my academic coursework, where I have successfully applied these methods to optimize resource allocation, scheduling, and decision-making.Moreover, I have developed a strong foundation in data analysis and visualization. I am proficient in usingstatistical software packages like R and Python to analyze large datasets, extract meaningful insights, and communicate results through compelling visualizations. My ability to interpret data effectively has enabled me to contribute to research projects and make informed decisions based on empirical evidence.Furthermore, I am actively seeking opportunities to enhance my computational skills. I regularly participate in online coding challenges and hackathons, which provide a platform to test my abilities and learn from others. I am also exploring advanced topics such as machine learning and artificial intelligence, which have the potential to revolutionize various industries.Complementing my technical proficiency, I have also cultivated a strong work ethic and problem-solving mindset.I am persistent in tackling challenges, even when faced with setbacks. I believe that errors are valuable learning opportunities, and I strive to learn from my mistakes and refine my approach accordingly.Overall, my journey in computation has been marked by steady progress and a growing passion for the subject. I am eager to continue expanding my knowledge and sharpening my skills, as I firmly believe that computational thinking is an essential asset in today's rapidly evolving technological landscape.。
课程名称中英文对照表(1)工学ENGINEERING 课程中文名称课程英文名称高等数理方法Advanced Mathematical Method 弹塑性力学Elastic-Plastic Mechanics 板壳理论Theory of Plate and Shell 高等工程力学Advanced Engineering Mechanics 板壳非线性力学 Nonlinear Mechanics of Plate and Shell 复合材料结构力学 Structural Mechanics of Composite Material 弹性元件的理论及设计Theory and Design of Elastic Element 非线性振动 Nonlinear Vibration 高等土力学 Advanced Soil Mechanics 分析力学Analytic Mechanics 随机振动Random Vibration 数值分析Numerical Analysis 基础工程计算与分析Calculation and Analysis of Founda tion Engineering 结构动力学Structural Dynamics 实验力学 Laboratory Mechanics 损伤与断裂Damage and Fracture 小波分析 Wavelet Analysis 有限元与边界元分析方法 Analytical Method of Finite Element and Boundary Element 最优化设计方法 Optimal Design Method 弹性力学 Elastic Mechanics 高层建筑基础 Tall Building Foundation 动力学 Dynanics 土的本构关系Soil Constitutive Relation 数学建模 Mathematical Modeling 现代通信理论与技术 Emerging Communications Theory and Technology 数字信号处理 Digital Signal Processing 络理论与多媒体技术 Multi-media and Network Technology 医用电子学 Electronics for Medicine 计算微电子学Computational Microelectronics 集成电路材料和系统电子学Material and System Electronics for In tegrated Circuits 络集成与大型数据库 Computer Network Integrating Technology and Large scale Database 现代数字系统 Modern Digital System 微机应用系统设计Microputer Application Design 计算机络新技术 Modern Computer Network Technologies 络信息系统 Network Information System 图像传输与处理 Image Transmission and Processing 图像编码理论 Theory of Image Coding 遥感技术Remote Sensing Techniques 虚拟仪器系统设计Design of Virtual Instrument System 生物医学信号处理技术 Signal Processing for Biology and Medicine 光纤光学 Fiber Optics VLSI 的EDA技术 EDA Techniques for VLSI 电子系统的ASIC技术 ASIC Design Technologies VLSI技术与检测方法VLSI Techniques & Its Examination 专题阅读或专题研究 The Special Subject Study 信息论Information Theory 半导体物理学 Semiconductor Physics 通信原理Principle of Communication 现代数理逻辑Modern Mathematical Logic 算法分析与设计 Analysis and Design of Algorithms 高级计算机络Advanced Computer Networks 高级软件工程Advanced Software Engineering 数字图像处理 Digital Image Processing 知识工程原理Principles of Knowledge Engineering 面向对象程序设计Object-Oriented Programming 形式语言与自动机 Formal Languages and Automata 人工智能程序设计 Artificial Intelligence Programming 软件质量与测试 Software Quality and Testing 大型数据库原理与高级开发技术 Principles of Large-Scale Data-Bas e and Advanced Development Technology 自然智能与人工智能 Natural Intelligence and Artificial Intelligence Unix操作系统分析 Analysis of Unix System 计算机图形学Computer Graphics Internet与Intranet技术Internet and Intranet Technology 多媒体技术 Multimedia Technology 数据仓库技术与联机分析处理 Data Warehouse and OLAP 程序设计方法学 Methodology of Programming 计算机信息保密与安全 Secrecy and Security of Computer Information 电子商务 Electronic Commerce 分布式系统与分布式处理Distributed Systems and Distributed Processing 并行处理与并行程序设计 Parallel Processing and Parallel Programming 模糊信息处理技术Fuzzy Information Processing Technology 人工神经络及应用 Artificial Intelligence and Its Applications Unix编程环境 Unix Programming Environment 计算机视觉Computer Vision 高级管理信息系统Advanced Management Information Systems 信息系统综合集成理论及方法Theory and Methodology of Information n System Integration 计算机科学研究新进展 Advances in Computer Science 离散数学 Discrete Mathematics 操作系统 Operating System 数据库原理 Principles of Database 编译原理Principles of Compiler 程序设计语言Programming Language 数据结构 Data Structure 计算机科学中的逻辑学 Logic in Computer Science 面向对象系统分析与设计 Object-Oriented System Analysis and Design 高等数值分析Advanced Numeric Analysis 人工智能技术 Artificial Intelligence Technology 软计算理论及应用 Theory and Application of Soft-Computing 逻辑程序设计与专家系统Logic Programming and Expert Systems 模式识别Pattern Recognition 软件测试技术 Software Testing Technology 高级计算机。
中山大学语言学概论C 2010年考研真题答案解析Ⅰ.音标题Transcribe the following words into IPA symbols, with stress marking where necessary. (10 points)1. advantageous [ædvən'teɪdʒəs]2. cushions ['kʊʃən]3. paradigm ['pærədaɪm]4. propagate ['prɒpəgeɪt]5. synonymy [sɪ'nɒnɪmɪ]6. kernel ['kɜːn(ə)l]7. cohesion [kə(ʊ)'hiːʒ(ə)n]8. tagmemics [tæg'miːmɪks]9. immobile [ɪ'məʊbaɪl]10. prefix ['priːfɪks]II. 填空题 Fill in the following blanks. (15 points)1. By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels ha sits own principles of organization.2. The IPA chart has been revised and corrected several times and is widely used in dictionaries and textbooks through the world. The lattested version was revised in 1993 and updated in twice in 1996 and 2005.3. Folk etymology refers to the change of the form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of4. The development of modern linguistic science has helped push the study of syntax beyond the traditional sentence boundary. More linguists are now exploring the syntactic relation between sentences in the paragraph or chapter or the whole text, which leads to the emergence of text linguistics and discourse analysis.5. Predicate logic, also called propositional calculus, studies the internal structure of simple propositions. In this logical system, propositions like Socrates is a man will be analyzed into two parts: _argument_ and a predicate.6. Cognitive linguistics seeks to ascertain the global integrated system of conceptual structuring inlanguage.7. when Hyme’s theory of communicative competence was introduced into the fieldas an antagonism to the traditional philosophy in language teaching, language teachers began to pay more attention to the question of how their students as active and successful language users in real language context.8. Levinson presents his three heuristics, which are derived from Conversational Implicature.9. The form thou in Early Modern English, the second person singular pronoun equivalent to the French form tu, was used to signal intimacy/respect.10. Computational linguistics, dealing with computer processing of human language, includes programmed instruction, speech synthesis and recognition, automatic translation, and text processing and communication between people and compuetrs.11. Nunan （1983：3）suggests that a curriculum is concerned with making general statements about language learning, learning purpose, and experience, and the relationship between teachers and learners, whereas a syllabus is more localized and is based on the accounts and records of what actually happens at the classroom level as teachers and students apply a curriculum to their situation.12. Saussure’s ideas we re developed along three lines: linguistics, sociology, and psychology.13. The Prague School practiced a special style of synchronic linguistics, and its most important contribution to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of function.14. In SFG, Mental process express such mental phenomena as “perception”, reaction and cognition.15. Bloomfield’s language(1993) was once held as the model of scientific methodology and greatest work in linguistics on both sides of the Atlantic in the 20th century.III. 名词解释Define the following terms. (50 points)1. Macrolinguistics【考察知识点+解题思路】本题考查的知识点是宏观语言学的定义。
The future of computing is a topic that has been a subject of fascination and speculation for decades.As technology continues to evolve at an unprecedented pace,it is essential to consider the potential changes and advancements that could shape the future of computing.This essay will explore the possible transformations in hardware, software,artificial intelligence,and the societal impact of these changes.Hardware AdvancementsThe hardware of computers is expected to undergo significant changes in the coming years.One of the most anticipated developments is the miniaturization of components, leading to even smaller and more powerful devices.The concept of wearable technology is already becoming a reality,with smartwatches and fitness trackers being just the beginning.In the future,we may see computers integrated into clothing or even implanted within the human body.Quantum computing is another area that could revolutionize the field.Quantum computers use the principles of quantum mechanics to process information,which could potentially solve complex problems much faster than traditional computers.This could have profound implications for fields such as cryptography,drug discovery,and complex system modeling.Software InnovationsSoftware is also set to evolve,with a focus on greater integration and interoperability. Cloud computing has already begun to change the way software is developed and used, allowing for more scalable and flexible solutions.In the future,we may see the rise of decentralized software systems that operate on a blockchain,providing greater security and transparency.Artificial intelligence AI will play a significant role in software development,with AIdriven applications becoming more sophisticated and capable of learning and adapting to user behavior.This could lead to highly personalized software experiences that anticipate user needs and preferences.Artificial Intelligence and Machine LearningAI and machine learning are expected to become even more integrated into our daily lives.As these technologies become more advanced,they will be able to perform tasks that were once thought to be the exclusive domain of humans.From autonomous vehicles to smart home systems,AI will be at the forefront of many technological innovations.One of the most significant changes will be the way AI interacts with humans.As AI becomes more capable of understanding natural language and emotions,it will be able to communicate more effectively with people.This could lead to AI becoming a more integral part of our social interactions,potentially even as companions or assistants. Societal ImpactThe societal impact of these changes in computing will be vast.As computing becomes more integrated into our lives,issues such as privacy,security,and the digital divide will become increasingly important.Society will need to grapple with the ethical implications of AI,such as the potential for job displacement and the need for regulations to ensure fairness and transparency in AI decisionmaking.Education will also be affected,with a greater emphasis on teaching digital literacy and computational thinking.As the workforce becomes more technologyfocused,there will be a need for individuals who can not only use technology but also understand and innovate with it.ConclusionThe future of computing is full of exciting possibilities and challenges.As we move forward,it is crucial for individuals,businesses,and governments to be proactive in understanding and preparing for these changes.By embracing innovation and considering the societal implications,we can ensure that the future of computing is one that benefits all of humanity.。
语言学作业班级：姓名：Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsI. Please illustrate the following terms.1. Arbitrariness:The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.The different levels of arbitrariness:(1) Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words(2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.(3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. 2. DualityThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.3. Phatic communionPhatic communion refers to the social interaction of language.4. Synchronic linguistics:A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.II. Please distinguish the following terms:1. Langue vs. ParoleLangue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, that is, the lexicon, grammar, and phonology implanted in each individual, and it is the linguist’s proper object;Parole refers to the realization of langue, the immediately accessible data. While parole constitutes the immediately accessible data, and it is a mass of confused facts, so it is not suitable for systematic investigation..(1) Langue is abstract, while parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs.(2) Langue is not actually spoken by anyone, while parole is always a naturally occurring event.(3) Langue is relatively stable, systematic and social, while parole is subject to personal, individual and situational constraints.(4) Langue is essential while parole is accessory and accidental.2. Descriptive vs. PrescriptiveThe distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Traditional grammar was very strongly normative in character.The grammarians tried to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all. That is prescriptive.These attitudes are still with us, though people realize nowadays the facts of usage count more than the authority-made “standards”. The nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.3. Synchronic vs. DiachronicSynchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.Actually synchrony is a fiction since any language is changing as the minutes pass.Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.4. Competence vs. PerformanceAccording to Chomsky:A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language or the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances in concrete situations.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors, so a speaker’s performance does not always or equal his supposed competence.He believes that linguists ought to study competence rather than performance.5. Langue vs. CompetenceAccording to Chomsky:Langue is a social product, a systematic inventory of rules of the language, a set of conventions for a speech community.Competence is defined from the psychological point of view, is deemed as a property of the mind of each individuals, or underlying competence as a system of generative processes.According to Hymes:He approaches language from a socio-cultural viewpoint with the aim of studying the varieties of ways of speaking on the part of individual and the community.He extended notion of competence, restricted by Chomsky to a knowledge of grammar, to incorporate the pragmatic ability for language use. This extended idea of competence can be called communicative competence.III. Answer the following questions in brief:1. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the synchronic ordiachronic orientation just from the titles?1) English Examined: Two Centuries of Comment on the Mother Tongue2) Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage3) Pejorative Sense Development in English4) The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation5) Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular1) diachronic 2）synchronic 3）diachronic 4）synchronic5）We can’t judge whether it is synchronic or diachronic orientation just from the titles.2. What is language? What is linguistics?Language can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication and interaction.Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. The aims of linguistic theory: 1) what is knowledge of language? (Competence) 2) how is knowledge of language acquired? (Acquisition) 3) how is knowledge of language put to use? (Performance/language processing). Main branches of linguistics:Phonetics, Phonology Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics.3. How do you understand performative function of language?The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons or the situations of events, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an as a means of controlling the invisible forces which the believers feel might affect their lives adversely.IV. Discuss the following question in detail.How do you interpret the viewpoint that “arbitrariness is a matter of degree”?1)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words:The dog barks bow wow in English but “汪汪汪” in Chinese.2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.⏹He came in and sat down.⏹He sat down and came in.⏹He sat down after he came in.3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.⏹Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative.⏹Conventionality of language makes learning a languagelaborious.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds I. Complete the following statements.1. Human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and conceptswhich are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as __________.2. The sound [p] can be described with “voiced, __________, stop.”3. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically differentbut do not make one word different from another in meaning,, are_________. 4. Both semantics and ________ investigate linguistic meaning, but they focus ondifferent aspects.5. If certain linguistics tries to lay down rules for the correct use of language andsettle the disputes over usage once and for all, it is ___________ linguistics.6. Phones that fall into allophones of a phoneme have to satisfy two conditions, oneis they are ___________________, and another is that they should be in _____________________.7. The vowel ________ is high front tense unrounded.8. A dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days, because itslanguage does not have the feature of ___________.9. Computational linguistics often refers to the problems of ________________,information retrieval, and ______________.10. Halliday proposed a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has___________, ____________ and _____________ functions.II. Define the following terms.1. Manner of articulation:2. Distinctive features:3. Intonation:4. Assimilation:III. Answer the following questions briefly.1. Specify the difference between each pair of sounds using distinctive features.1) [l] [ł ] 2) [p h] [p] 3) [b] [d] 4) [k] [g] 5) [I] [u]2. Work out the features of the following sounds.1) [t h] ________________________________________2) [w] ________________________________________3) [v] ________________________________________4) [ð] _________________________________________5) [l] __________________________________________3. In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shownby the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.A B. Cbite [bʌi t]bide [ba i d]tie [ta i]rice [rʌi s]rise [ra i z]by [ba i]type [tʌi p]bribe [b r aib] sigh [s a i]wife [wʌi f]wives [wa i vz]die [d a i]tyke [tʌi k]time [ta i m]why [wa i]1) What is the difference of the sounds that end the words in columns A and B?2) How do the words in column C differ from those in column A and B?3) Are [ʌi] and [a i] in complementary distribution? Give your reasons.4) What are the phonetic transcriptions of (a) life and (b) lives?5) What would the phonetic transcriptions of the following words be in the dialectsof English shown in the data?(a) trial (b) bike (c) lice(d) fly (e) mine6) State the rule that will relate the phonemic representations to be phonetictranscriptions of the words given above.IV. Discuss the questions in details.1. Illustrate phoneme, phone and allophone.2. To what extent is phonology related ot phonetics and how do they differ?。
填空题Chapter11. function is realized by mood and modality.【答案】Interpersonal2. Halliday proposes a theory of metalingual functions of language, that is, language has , interpersonal and textual functions.【答案】ideational3. Some sentences do not describe things. They cannot be said to be true or false. The utterance of these sentences is or is a part of the doing of an action. They are called p .【答案】performative1. studies meaning in language, is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences, and is concerned with the internal organization of words. They are all among the main branches of linguistics.【答案】semantics；syntax；morphology2. In linguistics, refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation as sentences.【答案】Syntax3. studies how the speech sounds are made, transmitted, and received, and studies the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.【答案】phonetics; phonology1. is the study of the language-processing mechanisms. It is concerned with the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language; , on the other hand, attempts to show the relationship between language and society. They both belong to branches of macrolinguistics.【答案】psycholinguistics ; sociolinguistics2. Computational linguistics can be seen as a branch of applied linguistics, dealing with computer of human language.【答案】processing1. grammars attempt to tell what is in the language, while grammars tell people what should be in the language. Most contemporary linguists believe that whatever occurs naturally in the language should be described.【答案】descriptive；prescriptive2. In linguistics, languages are studied at a theoretical point in time: one describes a ‘state’of the language, disregarding whatever changes might be taking place.【答案】synchronicChapter21. Consonant articulations are relatively easy to feel, and as a result are most conveniently described in terms of place and of articulation.【答案】manner2. are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.【答案】consonantsChapter31. There are two fields of morphology: the study of and the study of .【答案】inflectional；lexical/derivational2. A morpheme is one that cannot constitute a word by itself.【答案】bound3. is a branch of linguistics that studies the interrelationship between phonology and morphology.【答案】Morphophonology1. is a relatively complex form of compounding in which a new word is formed by joining the initial part of one word and the final part of another word. For example, the English word smog is made from and .【答案】blending；smoke；fog2. The principle of Creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.【答案】Analogical3. Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an affix from a longer form already in the language.【答案】imaginedChapter41.______ refers to ties and connections which exist within texts. They are also called formal links between sentences and between clauses.【答案】CohesionChapter51. According to G Leech, meaning is the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content【答案】connotative2. According to G. Leech, meaning refers to what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker／writer.【答案】affective1.“X buys something from Y”and “Y sells something to X”are in a relation of .【答案】converse antonymy2. Terms like “desk”and “stool”are of the term “furniture”.【答案】(co-)hyponyms3.“Tulip”, “rose”and “violet”are all included in the notion of “flower”. Therefore, they are superordinates of “flower”【答案】FChapter91. “The world is like a stage” is an example of, and “All the world is a stage”is an example of . They are often used in analyzing features of literary language.nnn【答案】simile；metaphor1. At different times, different patterns of metre and sound have developed and become accepted as ways of structuring poems. Among them, consists of lines in iambic pentameter which do not rhyme.【答案】blank verse2. A foot contains two syllables. A stressed syllable comes first, following by an unstressed syllable.【答案】trochee。
出国留学导师推荐信范文1To whom it may Concern,I am writing this letter to attest to Paul’s skills in language and public relations. In the four years I have known him, I have been consistently impressed with his ability not only to negotiate complex ideas in other languages, but also to relate these things in a personable, conscientious fashion. His manner in these cases is both professional and personal, two qualities which I find particularly valuable in a professional setting. He has personally helped me in professional negotiation for everything from train tickets to contract information, and I have always been able to count on him.I first met Paul in school, where he was a student at the university at which I taught. He was well-known to most of the westerners in town, who could call from different universities to ask for his help. Sometimes this help involved translation of professional documents, and sometimes it involved personal help in making phone calls. Many of these westerners continue to call him today, even though they live quite far away from him, because they have come to trust him very much. From this foundation in public relations Paul has found positions in various professional capacities and has been highly-valued in each place. He is generally the sort of employee a company finds most valuable in its dealings with both foreign and domestic clients. He puts people at their ease with his language ability and manner, both of which communicate to people that they can relax and simply communicate.I would highly recommend Paul as an employee. His experience and manner are rare and very valuable.Robert MooreMentor出国留学导师推荐信范文2Dear Colleagues:MS. XXX requested a letter of reference from me to support her application for graduate studies at your university. As her research adviser when she was a graduate student in my school of science Beijing University of Chemical Technology, I am pleased to comply with her request.I have known Ms. Zhang since 2003, when she was admitted as a Master of Science candidate into the school. As her research adviser, I directed her research and found her a promising youth radiating with intelligence and creativity. During her first year, she got a very good record in major courses and earned good scores major and general GPA 3.3. She particularly enjoyed challenging areas of studies such as Quantum Chemistry and Theory of Electrochemistry.During the following two years, Ms. Zhang worked on a computational theory study of inorganic functional materials project for his degree thesis “Theoretical Study of Electronic Structures of Several Representative Metal Element in the Hydrotalcite Slabs”. To make the theory model meet t he actual materials, she faced down many practical problems, such as building reasonable module of inorganic materials, and calculation techniques. Working hard and independently, she cracked the problems one by one, and came up with a thesis that was characterized by academic excellence. During her M.S. period, she had three papers published in international journals.Judging by her outstanding performance while she studied with me, I am convinced that Ms. Zhang has acquired the knowledge and intellectual sophistication on the basis of which she can undertake world-class training. I therefore lend her my enthusiastic support and would appreciate your favorable consideration of her application.From: x x x xDepartment of the SPECIAL CLASS GIFTED for YOUTHSUniversity of Science and TechnologyHefei, Anhui 230026, P.R. ChinaJuly 1, 19983Dear Sir or x x x:I take great pleasure in recommending Ren Ren, one of my favorite students, for admission into your distinguished graduate program.Mr. Ren was admitted in 1986 at 14 years of age into the SPECIAL CLASS for the GIFTED YOUTHS, my university's unique program that caters to the intellectual needs of unusually talented Chinese youngsters. It was a rare privilege he earned with his nearly impeccable academic performance through the years of his elementary and secondary school.He impressed me almost as he entered into my university, a major cradle of China's scientific and technological talents. At the time, members of the Gifted Class all had to spend half a month studying by themselves the principles of calculus and then take an exam so that we could evaluate their self-study capability. Mr. Ren scored the highest grade in that exam. He also exhibited a keenly whetted mind during class discussions. To my regret at the time, his English was not as good as his mathematics or physics. But I noticed he made a point of working especially hard in improving his English during his five undergraduate years with us. By now, he seems to be at least as proficient in English as most of his former classmates in the Gifted Class.In my experience with Mr. Ren, I was impressed with not only his extraordinary intelligence but also his ambitions and persistence. I am sure that Mr. Ren will be an outstanding student in any doctoral program that he may care to enroll in. So I would like to support him firmly in his quest recommendation into account when considering his application. I would greatly appreciate it you decide to accept him as he wishes.Yours sincerelyx x x xProfessor and Deputy Head4Dear Admissions Committee,As Director of the State Key Laboratory of Electrical Insulation at ABC University inBLANK, China, it is my sincere and distinct pleasure to recommend Ms. Xiao Xiao for your graduate program in BLANK.I have known Ms. Xiao since 2001, when she was one of eighty students who completed their undergraduate thesis projects in my BLANK laboratory. Ms. Juan’s enthusiasm for and diligence in learning helped her become one of the most outstanding students in the entire group, making a strong, positive impression upon me. Ms. Xiao is a very driven woman and student who know what she wants to accomplish and does not falter in her chosen path. Her intellectual curiosity and desire to acquire new acknowledge continuously have led her to perform much study on her own outside the scope of her classes and research work; oftentimes, I witnessed her consulting scientificbooks and journals to help her discover how she could improve her knowledge and her work in the laboratory. Countless times, Ms. Xiao remained in the laboratory for more than twelve hours in a row to complete her work and make sure there were no errors. With such devotion and fortitude, Ms. Xiao did not surprise me with her superior performance on her thesis paper. In terms of her character, Ms. Xiao is an amiable, courteous, and helpful young woman who has many friends amongst our laboratory personnel.Ms. Xiao is ready to move on to a more rigorous program of graduate study. Her academic performance, research work, and upstanding personal character have won her my highest recommendation, and I hope you give her application strong consideration. Thank you.Sincerely,NAMEDirectorState Key Laboratory of Electrical Insulation,ABC University5几乎所有的大学都会要求美国留学申请人提出推荐信（Recommendation Letter）,评审委员借着推荐者的文字描述,可以了解申请人的背景状况。
英语作文介绍自己的专业课程兴趣全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1Title: My Interest in My Major CoursesIntroduction:Hello, my name is [Your Name], and I am currently pursuing a degree in [Your Major]. In this essay, I will share with you my passion and interest in the courses that are part of my major.Passion for Computer Science:One of the main reasons why I chose to major in Computer Science is my passion for technology and problem-solving. I have always been fascinated by how computers work and how they can be used to create innovative solutions to complex problems. From programming languages to algorithms, I find every aspect of Computer Science exciting and challenging.Favorite Courses:Within my major, there are several courses that I find particularly interesting and engaging. One of my favorite courses is “Data Structures and Algorithms.” Th is course has helpedme understand how to efficiently organize and manipulate data, as well as how to design algorithms to solve various computational problems. I enjoy the logical thinking and creativity that this course requires.Another course that I am passionate about is “Artificial Intelligence.” This course explores the fascinating field of AI, and I am amazed by the potential applications of machine learning and neural networks in solving real-world problems. I find the concept of creating machines that can learn and adapt on their own to be both inspiring and intriguing.Future Goals:As I continue to study my major courses, I hope to gain a deeper understanding of Computer Science and develop my skills in programming, problem-solving, and critical thinking. My ultimate goal is to pursue a career in the tech industry, where I can apply my knowledge and passion for Computer Science to innovate and make a positive impact on society.Conclusion:In conclusion, my interest in my major courses stems from my passion for technology, problem-solving, and innovation. I am excited to continue learning and exploring the diverse anddynamic field of Computer Science. I believe that with hard work, dedication, and perseverance, I can achieve my goals and contribute to the ever-evolving world of technology. Thank you for taking the time to read about my passion for my major courses.篇2Title: Introduction to My Interest in My Major CoursesIntroduction:In this essay, I would like to share with you my passion and interest in the major courses that I am currently studying. I believe that our choice of major courses reflects our interests, skills, and career aspirations. Therefore, I am excited to elaborate on why I chose my major, what I have learned from it, and how it has shaped my future career path.Reasons for Choosing My Major:I am currently pursuing a degree in Computer Science, and I chose this major because of my fascination with technology and programming. From a young age, I have always been curious about how computers work and how software is developed. I enjoy solving problems and designing innovative solutions, which are essential skills in the field of computer science.Additionally, I believe that technology plays a crucial role in shaping the future, and I want to be a part of this dynamic industry.What I Have Learned:Throughout my studies, I have gained a deep understanding of programming languages, algorithms, data structures, and software development methodologies. I have also learned how to analyze complex problems, think critically, and work effectively in a team. Moreover, I have had the opportunity to work on various projects and internships, which have allowed me to apply my theoretical knowledge to real-world scenarios. These experiences have enhanced my problem-solving skills, communication skills, and creativity.Future Career Path:After graduating, I plan to pursue a career as a software developer or data analyst. I am excited about the prospect of working on innovative projects, collaborating with talented professionals, and making a positive impact on society. I believe that my major courses have equipped me with the necessary skills and knowledge to succeed in the tech industry. Additionally, I am considering furthering my education by pursuing a master'sdegree or obtaining industry certifications to enhance my qualifications and career prospects.Conclusion:In conclusion, my passion for technology and programming has driven me to pursue a degree in Computer Science. I am grateful for the opportunities and experiences that my major courses have provided me, and I am excited about the future prospects in the tech industry. I am confident that my skills, knowledge, and passion will enable me to achieve my career goals and make a meaningful contribution to the field of computer science. Thank you for taking the time to read about my interest in my major courses.篇3Introduction to My Major Course InterestsAs a student studying in the field of computer science, I have developed a strong interest and passion for various courses related to my major. In this essay, I will share with you some of my favorite courses and explain why I find them interesting.One of the courses that I particularly enjoy is Introduction to Programming. This course teaches the fundamental concepts of programming languages and provides hands-on experience incoding. I love the challenge of solving complex problems through coding and the satisfaction of seeing my code run successfully. The logical thinking and problem-solving skills that I have gained from this course are invaluable and have equipped me with the tools to tackle real-world challenges in the field of computer science.Another course that I find intriguing is Data Structures and Algorithms. This course delves into the study of organizing and structuring data in an efficient manner, as well as designing algorithms to manipulate and process this data. I am fascinated by the intricate ways in which data can be stored and manipulated to perform various tasks efficiently. The ability to optimize algorithms and data structures to improve the performance of software applications is a critical skill that I am excited to master.I am also drawn to courses such as Operating Systems and Computer Networks, which explore the underlying principles and technologies that govern how computers communicate and operate. Understanding the inner workings of operating systems and networks is essential for developing software applications that are reliable, secure, and efficient. I am eager to learn about topics such as process management, memory management,network protocols, and security mechanisms, as they are key components of modern computing systems.In addition, courses such as Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning captivate me with their potential to revolutionize the way we interact with technology. The ability to create intelligent systems that can learn from data, make decisions, and perform tasks autonomously is a field that holds tremendous promise for the future. I am excited to explore the algorithms and techniques that power artificial intelligence applications and apply them to solve real-world problems.Overall, my passion for computer science is driven by the endless possibilities for innovation and creativity that the field offers. I am constantly inspired by the rapid advancements in technology and the impact that my work can have on society. Through my studies and exploration of various courses, I hope to deepen my understanding of computer science and contribute to the development of innovative solutions that will shape the future of technology.In conclusion, my interest in computer science stems from a desire to explore the vast potential of technology and its power to transform the world. I am committed to pursuing my studies with dedication and enthusiasm, and I look forward toembracing the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead in my academic journey. Thank you for taking the time to learn about my major course interests.。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）第一部分各章节提纲笔记Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and writtendiscourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k”itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement.The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’sdiachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English hasundergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event.What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance.Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance.Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.9.5 Etic vs. emicBeing etic means researchers’ making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.Following the suffix formations of (phon)etics vs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction between the material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas phonemics analyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional aspect.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics – the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can beconsidered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes throughcertain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place ofarticulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air stream from the lungs and thensuddenly releasing it. In English, [] are stops and[] are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream from the lungs to escapewith friction. This is caused by bringing the two articulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip,close together but not closes enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English,[] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without thevocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. In English thisclass of sounds includes [].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partially blocking the airstream fromthe lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting it escape at one or both sides of the blockage. [] is theonly lateral in English.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curled back so that theunderside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hardpalate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the uvula, the shortprojection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of the velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and the walls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards eachother.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.A chart of English consonantsPlace of articulationManner ofarticulation Bilabial Labio-dentalDental AlveolarPost-alveolarPalatal Velar GlottalStop NasalFricative Approximant LateralAffricateIn many cases there are two sounds that share the same place and manner of articulation. These pairsof consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearing on the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally, three or four degreesare recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-high and mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips – various degrees of lip rounding or spreading.4. The position of the soft palate – raised for oral vowels, and lowered for vowels which have beennasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowelsCardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to providea frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[],CV2[], CV3[], CV4[], CV5[], CV6[], CV7[], CV8[].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for a give position: CV9 –CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want to know, you may consult the textbook p. 47.2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.Vowel glides: Vowels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[] high front tense unrounded vowel[] high back lax rounded vowel[] central lax unrounded vowel[] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the twosubjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. Any of thedifferent forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. in English, when the phoneme // occurs at thebeginning of the word like peak //, it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when // occursdin the word like speak //, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Both the aspirate[ ] in peak and the unaspirated [ =] in speak have the same phonemic function, i.e. they are both heardand identified as // and not as //; they are both allophones of the phoneme //.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned or triggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a preceding sound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspects to it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; a set of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative → voiceless / __________ voiceless.This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies the environment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicates the position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, itis put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be //.It shouldn’t be // or // according to this principle.2.12 StressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [] is used just before the syllable it relates to.Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other similarunits. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unitthat cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse – mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech orwriting.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example.If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word “the minimum free form,” the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows – following – followed.Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical wordsGrammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis.(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negative marker “not,” and thesubordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by,” “do up,” “look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties,which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separateword class.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements for different elements ina sentence. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.。
Computational Principles of Learning in the Neocortex and HippocampusRandall C.O’Reilly&Jerry W.RudyDepartment of PsychologyUniversity of Colorado BoulderCampus Box345Boulder,CO80309oreilly@11th October2000Published in Hippocampus,2000,vol10,p.389-397AbstractWe present an overview of our computational approach towards understanding the different contributions of the neo-cortex and hippocampus in learning and memory.The approach is based on a set of principles derived from converging biological,psychological,and computational constraints.The most central principles are that the neocortex employs a slow learning rate and overlapping distributed representations to extract the general statistical structure of the envi-ronment,while the hippocampus learns rapidly using separated representations to encode the details of specific events while suffering minimal interference.Additional principles concern the nature of learning(error-driven and Hebbian), and recall of information via pattern completion.We summarize the results of applying these principles to a wide range of phenomena in conditioning,habituation,contextual learning,recognition memory,recall,and retrograde amnesia, and point to directions of current development.2Computational Principles of LearningIntroductionThis paper presents a computational approach to-wards understanding the different contributions of the neocortex and hippocampus in learning and memory. This approach uses basic principles of computational neural network learning mechanisms to understand both what is different about the way these two neural systems learn,and why they should have these differences.Thus, the computational approach can go beyond mere descrip-tion towards understanding the deeper principles under-lying the organization of the cognitive system.These principles are based on an convergence of biological, psychological,and computational constraints,and serve to bridge between these different levels of analysis.The set of principles discussed in this paper werefirst developed in McClelland,McNaughton,and O’Reilly (1995),and have been refined several times since then (O’Reilly,Norman,&McClelland,1998;O’Reilly& Rudy,1999,in press).The computational principles have been applied to a wide range of learning and memory phenomena across several species(rats,monkeys and hu-mans).For example,they can account for impaired and preserved learning capacities with hippocampal lesions in conditioning,habituation,contextual learning,recog-nition memory,recall,and retrograde amnesia.This pa-per provides a concise summary of the previous work, and a discussion of current and future directions.The PrinciplesThere are several levels of principles that can be dis-tinguished by their degree of specificity in characteriz-ing the nature of the underlying mechanisms.We be-gin with the most basic principles and proceed towards greater specificity.Learning Rate,Overlap,and Interference The most basic set of principles can be motivated by considering how subsequent learning can interfere with prior learning.A classic example of this kind of interfer-ence can be found in the associative learning task(e.g.,Barnes&Underwood,1959).The repre-sents one set of words that are associated with two dif-ferent sets of other words,and.For example,the word window will be associated with the word reason in the list,and associated with locomotive on the list.After studying the list of associates,subjects are tested by asking them to give the appropriate associate for each of the words.Then,subjects study thelist(often over multiple iterations),and are subsequently tested on both lists for recall of the associates after eachLearning Trials on AC List255075100%CorrectLearning Trials on AC List255075100a) AB−AC List Learning in Humans b) AB−AC List Learning in ModelFigure1:Human and model data for AB-AC list learning.a)Humans show some interference for the AB list items as a function of new learning on the AC list items.b)Model shows a catastrophic level of interference.(data reproduced from Mc-Closkey&Cohen,1989).iteration of learning the list.Subjects exhibit some level of interference on the initially learned asso-ciations as a result of learning the list,but they still remember a reasonable percentage(see Figure1a for rep-resentative data).Thefirst set of principles concern the effects of over-lapping representations(i.e.,shared units between two different distributed representations)and rate of learn-ing on the ability to rapidly learn new information with a level of interference characteristic of human subjects: Overlapping representations lead to interference (conversely,separated representations prevent inter-ference).A faster learning rate causes more interference(conversely,a slower learning rate causes less in-terference).The mechanistic basis for these principles within a neural network perspective is straightforward.Interference is caused when weights used to encode one association are disturbed by the encoding of another(Figure2a).Over-lapping patterns share more weights,and therefore lead to greater amounts of interference.Clearly,if entirely separate representations are used to encode two different associations,then there will be no interference whatso-ever(Figure2b).The story with learning rate is simi-larly straightforward.Faster learning rates lead to more weight change,and thus greater interference(Figure3). However,a fast learning rate is necessary for rapid learn-ing.Integration and Extracting Statistical Structure Figure3shows theflip side of the interference story, integration.If the learning rate is low,then the weights will integrate over many experiences,reflecting the un-derlying statistics of the environment(White,1989;Mc-Clelland et al.,1995).Furthermore,overlapping repre-sentations facilitate this integration process,because theO’Reilly 3ABList 1: A−>BABCList 2: A−>CBA1B CA1A2List 1: A−>B List 2: A−>C a) Remembering specifics using same representations causes interference.b) Separated (conjunctive) represen−tations and fast weight changes enable rapid learning of specifics without interference.Figure 2:Interference as a function of overlapping (same)representations versus separated representations.a)Using the same representation to encode two different associations (and )causes interference —the subsequent learningofinterferes with the prior learning of because the stimulus must have stronger weights to than to for the second association,as is reflected in the weights.b)A sepa-rated representation,where is encoded separated for the first list ()versus the second list ()prevents interference.0−0.2− 0.4− 0.6− 0.8− 1−Figure 3:Weight value learning about a single input unit thatis either active or not.The weight increases when the input is on,and decrease when it is off,in proportion to the size of the learning rate.The input has an overall probability of be-ing active of rger learning rates (.1or 1)lead to more interference on prior learning,resulting in a weight value that bounces around substantially with each training example.In the extreme case of a learning rate of 1,the weight only reflects what happened on the previous trial,retaining no memory for prior events at all.As the learning rate gets smaller (.005),the weight smoothly averages over individual events and reflects the overall statistical probability of the input being active.same weights need to be reused across many different experiences to enable the integration produced by a slow learning rate.This leads to the next principle:Integration across experiences to extract underlying statistical structure requires a slow learning rate and overlapping representations.Episodic Memory and Generalization:Incom-patible FunctionsThus,focusing only on pattern overlap for the mo-ment,we can see that networks can be optimized for two different,and incompatible,functions:avoiding interfer-ence or integrating across experiences to extract general-ities.Avoiding interference requires separated represen-tations,while integration requires overlapping represen-tations.These two functions each have clear functional advantages,leading to a further set of principles:Interference avoidance is essential for episodic memory,which requires learning about the specifics of individual events and keeping them separate from other events.Integration is essential for encoding the general statistical structure of the environment,abstracted away from the specifics of individual events,which enables generalization to novel situations.The incompatibility between these functions is fur-ther evident in these descriptions (i.e.,encoding specifics versus abstracting away from them).Also,episodic memory requires relatively rapid learning —an event must be encoded as it happens,and does not typically re-peat itself for further learning opportunities.This com-pletes a pattern of opposition between these functions:episodic learning requires rapid learning while integra-tion and generalization requires slow learning.This is summarized in the following principle:Episodic memory and extracting generalities are in opposition.Episodic memory requires rapid learn-ing and separated patterns,while extracting gener-alities requires slow learning and overlapping pat-terns.Applying the Principles to the Hippocampus and NeocortexArmed with these principles,the finding that neural network models that have highly overlapping represen-tations exhibit catastrophic levels of interference (Mc-Closkey &Cohen,1989,Figure 1b)should not be sur-prising.A number of researchers showed that this in-terference can be reduced by introducing various factors4Computational Principles of Learningthat result in less pattern overlap(e.g.,Kortge,1993;French,1992;Sloman&Rumelhart,1992;McRae& Hetherington,1993).Thus,instead of concluding that all neural networks are fundamentallyflawed,as Mc-Closkey and Cohen(1989)argued(and a number of oth-ers have uncritically accepted),McClelland et al.(1995)argued that this catastrophic failure serves as an impor-tant clue into the structure of the human brain.Specifically,we argued that because of the funda-mental incompatibility between episodic memory and extracting generalities,the brain should employ two sep-arate systems that each optimize these two objectives in-dividually,instead of having a single system that triesto strike an inferior compromise.This line of reasoning provides a strikingly goodfit to the known properties of the hippocampus and neocortex,respectively.The de-tails of thisfit in various contexts is the substance of the remainder of the paper,but the general idea is that: The hippocampus rapidly binds together informa-tion using pattern-separated representations to min-imize interference.The neocortex slowly learns about the general sta-tistical structure of the environment using overlap-ping distributed representations.(see also Sherry&Schacter,1987for a similar conclu-sion).Before discussing the details,a few more princi-ples need to be developedfirst.Conjunctive Representations and NonlinearDiscrimination LearningThe conjunctive or configural representations the-ory provides a converging line of thinking about the na-ture of hippocampal function(Sutherland&Rudy,1989; Rudy&Sutherland,1995;Wickelgren,1979;O’Reilly& Rudy,1999).A conjunctive/configural representation is one that binds together(conjoins or configures)multi-ple elements into a novel unitary representation.This is consistent with the description of hippocampal func-tion given above,based on the need to separate patterns to avoid interference.Indeed,it is clear that pattern separation and conjunctive representations are two sides of the same coin,and that both are caused by the use of sparse representations(having relatively few active neurons)that are a known property of the hippocampus (O’Reilly&McClelland,1994;O’Reilly&Rudy,1999). To summarize:Sparse hippocampal representations lead to pattern separation(to avoid interference)and conjunctive representations(to bind together features into a uni-tary representation).One important application of the conjunctive rep-resentations idea has been to nonlinear discrimination problems.These problems require conjunctive represen-tations to solve because each of the individual stimuli isambiguous(equally often rewarded and not rewarded). The negative patterning problem is a good example.Itinvolves two stimuli,and(e.g.,a light and a tone), which are associated with reward(indicated by)or not().Three different trial types are trained:, ,.Thus,the conjunction of the two stimuli ()must be treated differently from the two stim-uli separately(,).A conjunctive representa-tion that forms a novel encoding of the two stimuli to-gether can facilitate this form of learning.Therefore, the fact that hippocampal damage impairs learning the negative patterning problem(Alvarado&Rudy,1995; Rudy&Sutherland,1995;McDonald,Murphy,Guar-raci,Gortler,White,&Baker,1997)would appear to support the idea that the hippocampus employs pattern separated,conjunctive representations.However,it is now clear that a number of other nonlinear discrimina-tion learning problems are unimpaired by hippocampal damage(Rudy&Sutherland,1995).The next set of prin-ciples help to make sense of these data so that they can be reconciled with our interference-based principles of con-junctive pattern separation,as discussed in a subsequent section.Pattern Completion:Recalling a ConjunctionPattern completion is required for recalling informa-tion from conjunctive hippocampal representations,yet it conflicts with the process of pattern separation that forms these representations in thefirst place(O’Reilly& McClelland,1994).Pattern completion occurs when a partial input cue drives the hippocampus to complete to an entire previously-encoded set of features that were bound together in a conjunctive representation.For a given input pattern,a decision must be made to recog-nize it as a retrieval cue for a previous memory and per-form pattern completion,or to perform pattern separa-tion and store the input as a new memory.This deci-sion is often difficult given noisy inputs and degraded memories.The hippocampus implements this decision as the effects of a set of basic mechanisms operating on input patterns(O’Reilly&McClelland,1994;Has-selmo&Wyble,1997),and it does not always do what would seem to be the right thing to do from an omniscient perspective knowing all the relevant task factors—this can complicate the involvement of the hippocampus in nonlinear discrimination problems.O’Reilly5Learning Mechanisms:Hebbian and Error DrivenTo more fully explain the roles of the hippocampus and neocortex we need to understand how learning works in these systems(the basic principles just described do not depend on the detailed nature of the learning mech-anisms;White,1989).There are two basic mechanisms that have been discussed in the literature,Hebbian and error-driven learning(e.g.,Marr,1971;McNaughton& Morris,1987;Gluck&Myers,1993;Schmajuk&Di-Carlo,1992).Briefly,Hebbian learning(Hebb,1949) works by increasing weights between co-active neurons (and usually decreasing weights when a receiver is ac-tive and the sender is not),which is a well-established property of biological synaptic modification mechanisms (e.g.,Collingridge&Bliss,1987).Hebbian learning is useful for binding together features active at the same time(e.g.,within the same episode),and has therefore been widely suggested as a hippocampal learning mech-anism(e.g.,Marr,1971;McNaughton&Morris,1987).Error-driven learning works by adjusting weights to minimize the errors in a network’s performance,with the best example of this being the error backpropaga-tion algorithm(Rumelhart,Hinton,&Williams,1986). Error-driven learning is sensitive to task demands in a way that Hebbian learning is not,and this makes it a much more capable form of learning for actually achiev-ing a desired input/output mapping.Thus,it is natural to associate this form of learning with the kind of pro-cedural or task-driven learning that the neocortex is of-ten thought to specialize in(e.g.,because amnesics with hippocampal damage have preserved procedural learning abilities).Although the backpropagation mechanism has been widely challenged as biologically implausible(e.g., Crick,1989;Zipser&Andersen,1988),a recent analysis shows that simple biologically-based mechanisms can be used to implement this mechanism(O’Reilly,1996),so that it is quite reasonable to assume that the cortex de-pends on this kind of learning.Although the association of Hebbian learning with the hippocampus and error-driven learning with the cor-tex is appealing in some ways,it turns out that both kinds of learning play important roles in both systems (O’Reilly&Rudy,1999;O’Reilly&Munakata,2000; O’Reilly,1998).Thus,the specific learning principles adopted here are that both forms of learning operate in both systems:Hebbian learning binds together co-occurring fea-tures(in the hippocampus)and generally learns about the co-occurrence statistics in the environ-ment across many different patterns(in neocortex).Error-driven learning shapes learning according tospecific task demands(shifting the balance of pat-tern separation and completion in the hippocampus, and developing task-appropriate representations in the neocortex).It is the existence of this task-driven learning that com-plicates the picture for nonlinear discrimination learning problems.A Summary of PrinciplesThe above principles can be summarized with the fol-lowing three general statements of neocortical and hip-pocampal learning properties(O’Reilly&Rudy,1999): Learning rate.The cortical system typically learns slowly,while the hippocampal system typically learns rapidly.Conjunctive bias.The cortical system has a bias to-wards integrating over specific instances to extract generalities.The hippocampal system is biased by its intrinsic sparseness to develop conjunctive repre-sentations of specific instances of environmental in-puts.However,this conjunctive bias trades-off with the countervailing process of pattern completion,so the hippocampus does not always develop new con-junctive representations(sometimes it completes to existing ones).Learning mechanisms.Both cortex and hippocampus use error-driven and Hebbian learning.The error-driven aspect responds to task demands,and will cause the network to learn to represent whatever is needed to achieve goals or ends.Thus,the cortex can overcome its bias and develop specific,conjunc-tive representations if the task demands require this.Also,error-driven learning can shift the hippocam-pus from performing pattern separation to perform-ing pattern completion,or vice-versa,as dictated by the task.Hebbian learning is constantly operating, and reinforcing the representations that are activated in the two systems.These principles are focused on distinguishing neo-cortex and hippocampus—we have also articulated a more complete set of principles that are largely common to both systems(O’Reilly,1998;O’Reilly&Munakata, 2000).Models incorporating these principles have been extensively applied to a wide range of different cortical phenomena,including perception,language,and higher-level cognition.In the next section,we highlight the ap-plication of the principles presented here to learning and memory phenomena involving both the cortex and hip-pocampus.6Computational Principles of LearningApplications of the PrinciplesThe principles just developed have been applied to a number of different domains,as summarized in the following sections.In most cases,the same neural network model developed according to these principles(O’Reilly&Rudy,1999)was used to simulate the em-pirical data,providing a compelling demonstration that the principles are sufficient to account for a wide range offindings.Conjunctions and Nonlinear Discrimination LearningWefirst apply the above principles to the puzzling pattern of hippocampal involvement in nonlinear dis-crimination learning problems.The general statement of the issue is that although we think the hippocampus is specialized for encoding conjunctive bindings of stimuli (and keeping these separated from each other to mini-mize interference),apparently direct tests of this idea in the form of nonlinear discrimination learning problems have not provided clear support.Specifically,rats with hippocampal lesions can learn a number of these non-linear discrimination problems just like intact rats.The general explanation of these results according to the full set of principles outlined above is that:The explicit task demands present in a nonlinear discrimination learning problem cause the cortex alone(with a lesioned hippocampus)to learn the task via error-driven learning.Nonlinear discrimination problems take many trials to learn even in intact animals,allowing the slow cortical learning to accumulate a solution.The absence of hippocampal learning speed advan-tages in normal rats,despite the more rapid hip-pocampal learning rate,can be explained by the fact that the hippocampus is engaging in pattern comple-tion in these problems,instead of pattern separation.We substantiated this verbal account by running com-putational neural network simulations that embodied the principles developed above(O’Reilly&Rudy,1999; Figure4).These simulations showed that in many—but not all—cases,removing the hippocampal compo-nent did not significantly impair learning performance on nonlinear discrimination learning problems,matching the empirical data.Figure5shows one specific example, where the negative patterning problem discussed previ-ously(,,)is impaired with hippocampal lesions,but performance is not impaired on a very simi-lar ambiguous feature problem,,,,,HippocampusCortexEC_inFigure4:The O’Reilly and Rudy(1999)model,showing both cortical and hippocampal components.The cortex has12dif-ferent input dimensions(sensory pathways),with4different values per dimension.These are represented separately in the elemental cortex(Elem).Higher level association cortex(As-soc)can form conjunctive representations of these elements,if demanded by the task.The interface to the hippocampus is via the entorhinal cortex,which contains a one-to-one mapping of the elemental,association,and output cortical representations. The hippocampus can reinstate a pattern of activity over the cortex via the EC.(Gallagher&Holland,1992).See O’Reilly and Rudy (1999)for a detailed discussion of the differential per-formance on these tasks.To summarize,this work showed that it is essential to go beyond a simple conjunctive story and include a more complete set of principles in understanding hippocampal and cortical function.Because this more complete set of principles,implemented in an explicit computational model,accounts for the empirical data,this data provides support for these principles.Rapid Incidental Conjunctive Learning TasksA consideration of the full set of principles suggests that another class of tasks might provide a much better measure of hippocampal learning compared to the non-linear discrimination problems suggested by Sutherland and Rudy(1989).As we just saw,the very fact that non-linear discrimination problems require conjunctive rep-resentations is what drives the cortex alone to be able to solve them via error-driven learning.Therefore,we suggest that incidental conjunctive learning tasks,where conjunctive representations are not forced by specificO’Reilly 7100200300T o t a l E r r o r s100200300T o t a l E r r o r sa)b)c)d)510152025A B − E r r o r s510152025A B − E r r o r sFigure 5:Results for the negative patterning (left column)and ambiguous feature (,,,;right column)prob-lems.The top row shows data from rats from Alvarado and Rudy (1995),and the bottom row shows data from the model.Intact isintact rats/networks,and HL is rats/networks with hippocampal lesions.N=40different random initializations for the model.The hippocampally-lesioned system is able to learn the problems,and all conditions require many trials (i.e.,large number of errors).Negative patterning is differentially impaired with a hippocampal lesion.Data from O’Reilly and Rudy (1999).task demands,may provide a much better index of hip-pocampal function (O’Reilly &Rudy,1999).Further-more,the task should only allow for a relatively brief period of learning,which will emphasize the rapid learn-ing of the hippocampus as compared to the slow learning of the cortex.Thus,we characterize these tasks as rapid,incidental conjunctive learning tasks .There are several recent studies of tasks that fit the rapid,incidental conjunctive characterizations.In these tasks,subjects are exposed to a set of features in a partic-ular configuration,and then the features are rearranged.Subjects are then tested to determine if they can detect the rearrangement.If the test indicates that the rearrange-ment was detected,then one can infer the subject learned a conjunctive representation of the original configura-tion.The literature indicates that the incidental learning of stimulus conjunctions,unlike many nonlinear discrim-ination problems,is dependent on the hippocampus.Perhaps the simplest demonstration comes from the study of the role of the hippocampal formation in ex-ploratory behavior.Control rats and rats with damage to the dorsal hippocampus were repeatedly exposed to a set of objects that were arranged on a circular platform in a fixed configuration relative to a large and distinct visual cue (Save,Poucet,Foreman,&Buhot,1992).Af-ter the exploratory behavior of both sets of rats habitu-ated,the same objects were rearranged into a different configuration.This rearrangement reinstated exploratory behavior in the control rats but not in the rats with dam-age to the hippocampus.In a third phase of the study,a new object was introduced into the mix.This manipula-tion reinstated exploratory behavior in both sets of rats.This pattern of data suggests that both control rats and rats with damage to the hippocampus encode representa-tions of the individual objects and can discriminate them from novel objects.However,only the control rats en-coded the conjunctions necessary to represent the spatial arrangement of the objects,even though this was not in any way a requirement of the task.Several other stud-ies of this general form have found similar results in rats (Honey,Watt,&Good,1998;Honey &Good,1993;Good &Bannerman,1997;Hall &Honey,1990;Honey,Willis,&Hall,1990).In humans,the well established incidental context effects on memory (e.g.,Godden &Baddeley,1975)have been shown to be hippocampal-dependent (Mayes,MacDonald,Donlan,&Pears,1992).Other hippocampal incidental conjunctive learning ef-fects have also been demonstrated in humans (Chun &Phelps,1999).We have shown that the same neural network model constructed according to our principles and tested on the nonlinear discrimination learning problems as described above exhibits a clear hippocampal sensitivity in these rapid incidental conjunctive learning tasks (O’Reilly &Rudy,1999).8Computational Principles of LearningContextual Fear ConditioningEvidence for the involvement of the hippocampal for-mation in the incidental learning of stimulus conjunc-tions has also emerged in the contextual fear condition-ing literature.This example also provides a simple ex-ample of the widely-discussed role of the hippocampus in spatial learning(e.g.,O’Keefe&Nadel,1978;Mc-Naughton&Nadel,1990).Rats with damage to the hippocampal formation do not express fear to a con-text or place where shock occurred,but will express fear to an explicit cue(e.g.,a tone)paired with shock (Kim&Fanselow,1992;Phillips&LeDoux,1994;but see Maren,Aharonov,&Fanselow,1997).Rudy and O’Reilly(1999)recently provided specific evidence that, in intact rats,the context representations are conjunc-tive in nature,which has been widely assumed(e.g., Fanselow,1990;Kiernan&Westbrook,1993;Rudy& Sutherland,1994).For example,we compared the ef-fects of preexposure to the conditioning context with the effects of preexposure to the separate features that made up the context.Only preexposure to the intact context facilitated contextual fear conditioning,suggesting that conjunctive representations across the context features were necessary.We also showed that pattern completion of hippocampal conjunctive representations can lead to generalized fear conditioning.We have simulated the incidental learning of con-junctive context representations in fear conditioning us-ing the same principles as described above(O’Reilly& Rudy,1999).For example,Figure6shows the rat and model data for the separate versus intact context fea-tures experiment from Rudy and O’Reilly(1999),with the model providing a specific prediction regarding the effects of hippocampal lesions,which has yet to be tested empirically.Transitivity and FlexibilityWhereas the previous examples concern the learn-ing of conjunctive representations,this next example is concerned with theflexible use of learned information. Several theorists have described memories encoded by the hippocampus as beingflexible,meaning that(a)such memories can be applied inferentially in novel situations (Eichenbaum,1992;O’Keefe&Nadel,1978)or(b)that they are available to multiple response systems(Squire, 1992).Although the termflexibility provides a useful de-scription of certain behaviors,it does not provide a mech-anistic understanding of how thisflexibility arises from the properties of the hippocampus.We have shown that hippocampal pattern completion plays an important role in producing thisflexible behav-ior(O’Reilly&Rudy,1999).Specifically,we showeda)b)204060PercentFreezing0.000.050.100.150.200.250.30FearResponseFigure6:Effects of exposure to the features separately com-pared to exposure to the entire context on level of fear response in a)rats(data from Rudy and O’Reilly(1999))and the model. The immediate shock condition(Immed)is included as a con-trol condition for the model.Intact rats and the intact model show a significant effect of being exposed to the entire con-text together compared to the features separately,while the hip-pocampally lesioned model exhibits slightly more responding in the separate condition,possibly because of the greater over-all number of training trials in this case.Simulation data from O’Reilly and Rudy(1999).that the transitivity studies of Bunsey and Eichenbaum (1996)and Dusek and Eichenbaum(1997)can be sim-ulated using the same model as in all of the previous examples,with pattern completion playing a key role. Interestingly,the model shows that the training parame-ters employed in these studies interact significantly with the pattern completion mechanism to produce the ob-served transitivity effects.We are able to make a number of novel empirical predictions that are inconsistent with a simple logical-reasoning mechanism by manipulating these factors(O’Reilly&Rudy,1999).Dual-Process Memory ModelsThe dual mechanisms of neocortex and hippocampus provide a naturalfit with dual-process models of recogni-tion memory(Jacoby,Yonelinas,&Jennings,1997;Ag-gleton&Shaw,1996;Aggleton&Brown,1999;Vargha-Khadem,Gadian,Watkins,Connelly,Van Paesschen,&。
