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【翻硕考研百科知识】中世纪东欧历史文化知识汇总东欧属于欧洲的东部，是游牧民族进入欧洲最先侵袭的地方，也可以说是西欧那个大后方的前锋。
因此在历史上，东欧各国往往是刚刚强大没多久就被更强大的游牧民族所摧毁。
在历代历史相关书籍上，东欧是一个被人遗忘的地带，也是一个比较边缘的地区。
然而，这个地区，对于历史来说，也是不可磨灭的存在，一起来看看中世纪的东欧都有哪些需要被人们记住的历史~斯拉夫民族斯拉夫民族是古代日耳曼人东部民族与维内德人联合开始大规模迁徙后自己使用的名称，按照斯拉夫语含义，有荣誉、光荣的内涵。
东欧地区的很多非斯拉夫人也被斯拉夫化，是欧洲最大的民族。
主要分布于欧洲东部、中部、东南部等。
波兰人、捷克人和斯洛伐克人是西斯拉夫人。
白俄罗斯人、乌克兰人和俄罗斯人是东斯拉夫人。
巴尔干半岛的是南斯拉夫人。
拜占庭帝国395年，罗马帝国分裂成东西两部分，东部为东罗马帝国，因其首都君士坦丁堡是古希腊移民城市拜占庭的旧址，故又名拜占庭帝国。
在西罗马崩溃后，它继续保持了政治、经济上的繁荣，称为东地中海的一个强国。
奥斯曼土耳其帝国奥斯曼土耳其人为西突厥的一支，得名于其首领奥斯曼。
奥斯曼土耳其人约于11世纪下半叶进入小亚，依附于塞尔柱突厥人的罗姆素丹国。
1293年，奥斯曼宣布独立，建立奥斯曼帝国。
奥斯曼帝国奉行扩张政策，1389年和1396年，两度击败欧洲诸国组成的联军。
1453年拜占庭帝国正式灭亡后，奥斯曼帝国定都君士坦丁堡，将其更名为伊斯坦布尔。
16世纪中叶以后，帝国势力扩张到欧洲、西亚和北非，成为一个地跨欧、亚、非三洲的大帝国。
17世纪中叶后，帝国内外交困，走向衰败。
奥斯曼帝国是实行高度专制的中央集权国家，国家首脑称苏丹，职位世袭，集世俗、宗教大权于一身。
国家体制分军事行政、宗教司法和财政税收三大系统，各大系统直接向苏丹负责。
地方分成省、州、县，受制于中央政府。
查士丁尼527至565年在位，拜占庭帝国历史上最有作为的皇帝。
欧洲文化入门名词解释：1．Pax Romana：In the Roman history ，there came two hundred years of peaceful time， which was guaranteed(保证) by the Roman legions， it was known as Pax Romana2．The New Testament名词解释The Bible was divided into two sections： the Old Testament and the New Testament. The New Testament is about the doctrine (教义) of Jesus Christ. The word “Testament” means “agreement”， the agreement between God and Man.3．Pentateuch名词解释：The Old Testament consists of 39 books， the oldest and most important of which are the first five books， called Pentateuch. Pentateuch contains five books： Genesis (创世记)， Exodus (出埃及记)， Leviticus(教义记)， Numbers (逃亡记)， Deuteronomy (摩西遗言记)。
4． Genesis名词解释Genesis is one of the five books in Pentateuch， it tells about a religious account (描述) of the origin of the Hebrews people， including the origin of the world and of man， the career (经历) of Issac and the life of Jacob and his son Joseph.5．The Historical Books was divided into seven sections：？①Books of Joshua ② Books of Judges ③ Books of Samuel ④ Books of Kings⑤ Books of the Chronicles ⑥ Books of Ezra ⑦ Books of Nehemiah.6．the Middle ages名词解释In European history， the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages.The middle ages is so called because it came between ancient times and modern times. To be specific (具体说来)， from the 5th century to 15th century.The transitional (过渡时期) period is called the middle ages， between ancient times and modern times.7、Feudalism名词解释Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding (土地所有) — a system of holding land in exchange for military service (军事力量)。
欧洲文化入门
欧洲认同价值观的形成在很大程度上是欧洲人对其同源文化的延伸。
作为欧洲文明的渊源，古希腊罗马文化奠定了欧洲的文化传统。
在中世纪基督教大一统的文化氛围中，基督教教义成为欧洲人长期共同秉承的精神家园。
古希腊罗马文化和基督教的影响早已深入到了欧洲人的血液中，成为欧洲认同的重要文化根源。
关键词:欧洲认同;文化根源;古希腊罗马文化;基督教
欧洲，不仅是一个地理概念，更是一种文化凝聚的象征，在此基础上形成的欧洲认同是欧洲人对自身特性的定位，更是对欧洲超越经济范畴的强大文化凝聚力的肯定。
“欧洲在伦理领域存在着某种文化的共同性。
”[1] (P251) 要正确认识欧洲认同的深刻内涵就必须探究其历史发展中的文化共同性。
从整个欧洲的历史演变及其文化传统来看，欧洲认同的实质即是对希腊罗马文化和基督教文化的认同。
一、欧洲文明的起源—古希腊罗马文化在古希腊时代，现在“欧洲”所指的这片土地被称作“欧罗巴”，来源于希腊神话。
随着地中海地区以及现在的中欧、西欧广大地区被罗马帝国所征服，希腊罗马文明也随之而来。
人类文明的中心开始由地中海区域向西转移，希腊的文化成就和罗马的帝国统治长远而深入地影响着“欧罗巴”地区，为其同源性文化与社会意识的形成奠定了坚实的基础。
诚然，对古希腊罗马文明的高度认同成为了欧洲认同形成的根本因素。
恩格斯曾指
出:“没有希腊文化和罗马帝国所奠定的基础，就没有现代的欧洲。
”。
欧洲文化入门听课笔记和重点总结第一篇：欧洲文化入门听课笔记和重点总结欧洲文化入门听课笔记和重点总结1.希腊罗马Homer Author of epics Sappho Lyric poet 三大悲剧家：Aeschylus Tragic dramatist Sophocles Tragic dramatist Euripides Tragic dramatist 喜剧家：Aristophanes Comedy writer 历史学家：Herodotus wrote about wars between Greeks and Persians Father of history Thucydides wrote about wars between Athens and Sparta and Athens and Syracuse the greatest historian that have ever lived 哲学和科学：Pythagoras All things were numbers founder of scientific mathematics Heracleitue Fire is the primary element Democritus Materialist，one of the earliest exponents of the atomic theory Socrates Dissect of oneself，virtue was high worth of life，dialectical method Plato Man have knowledge because of the existence of certain general ideas Aristotle Direct observation，theory follow fact，idea and matter together made concrete individual realities Euclid a textbook of geometry Archimedes when a body is immersed in water its loss of weight is equal to the weight of the water displaced “Give me a place to stand and I…ll move the World”Others Diogenes（the Cynics）Pyrrhon（the Sceptics）Epicurus（the Epicureans）Zeno（the Stoics）4th century B.C.后半叶希腊在Alexander，king of Macedon的领导下，5th century B.C.达到顶峰，146 B.C.被罗马攻克2.基督教和圣经Jews—以前叫Hebrews，3800B.C.穿过中东沙漠，1300B.C.Moses带领Hebrews离开埃及，开始他们的Exodus，他在Sinai山定了ten commandments in the name of God，40年后Hebrews定居Pelestine，known as Canaan，Hebrew人的历史口头传送记入the old Testament，6th century B.C.，他们在Babylon形成synagogue（忧太集会）来发扬他们的教义。
《欧洲文化入门》知识总括Introduction1、There are many elements constituting European Culture.2、There are two major elements：Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.3、The richness of European Culture was created by Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.Unit 11、The 5th century closed with civil war between Athens and Sparta.2、The economy of Athens rested on an immense amount of slave labor.3、Olympus mount，Revived in 1896（当代奥运会）4、Ancient Greek epics were created by Homer.5、They events of Homer‘s own time. （F）（They are not about events of Homer‘s own time，probably in the period 1200-1100 B.C.）6、The Homer‘s epics consisted of Iliad and Odyssey.7、Agamemnon，Hector，Achilles are in Iliad.8、Odysseus and Penelope are in Odyssey.9、Odyssey（对其作品产生影响）—→James Joyoe‘s Ulysses（描述一天的生活）; in the 20th century.10、Drama in Ancient Greece was floured in the 5th century B.C.11、三大悲剧大师①Aeschylus《Prometheus Bound》—→模仿式作品Shelly《Prometheus Unbound》②Sophocles（之首）《Oedipus the King》—→Freud‘s “the Oedipus complex”（恋母情结）—→David Herbert Lawrence’s《Sons and lovers》（劳伦斯）③EuripidesA.《Trojan Women》B. He is the first writer of “problem plays”.Perfection----IbsenClimax----Bernard ShawC. Elizabeth Browning called him “Euripides the human”D. Realism can be traced back to the Ancient Greece.To be specific，Euripides.12、The only representative of Greek comedy is Aristophanes. 18页Aristophanes writes about nature. —→浪漫主义湖畔派（The lakers）Wordsworth）13、History （Historical writing）※“Father of History”—→Herodotus —→war（between Greeks and Persians）This war is called Peloponnesian wars.只是陈述史实，并没有得出理论。
欧洲文化简介是由外语教学研究出版社出版的中文大学英语教科书。
本书介绍了欧洲不同历史时期和人物的英语典故，著名的谚语，成语和地名，并按时间顺序对欧洲历史进行了具体而简洁的介绍。
通过本书，我们可以用英语教授欧洲思想，科学技术，政治和社会的重要时期和人物，从而使学生加深对欧洲历史和文化的理解，并使英语学习更加顺畅。
更好地掌握英语语言和文化。
相关总结
欧洲文化导论是中国大学英语系根据其教学需要编写的一本教科书。
在阅读英语书籍和杂志以及与来自英语国家的人们进行交流的过程中，中国大学生常常感到缺乏对欧洲文化的了解将增加许多困难。
从古希腊和罗马哲学，文学，历史著作，希伯来圣经，文艺复兴时期的艺术创作开始，或者与不同时期的思想，技术，政治和社会有关。
如果您对这些事情不太了解，则可能无法通过阅读来理解它们，并且无法进行顺畅的对话。
对这些知识有了更好的理解后，您不仅可以更好地理解它们，而且可以通过文化更好地学习语言。
课程目的
它是为学习英语的学生而设计的。
因此，地名，人物，书籍，事件等的名称是根据英语约定拼写的，例如Aristotle而不是Aristotle或Aristotle。
欧洲文化概论
出版单位：外语教学与研究出版社
主编：王作良，朱Ju，李品伟，高和坤主编：司徒双，王丽丽，李先生，刘新民，朱永涛，徐海新
资料来源：欧洲文化介绍。
《欧洲文化入门》本作者绪论《欧洲文化入门》由于其内容庞杂，琐碎，因而是一门学习起来比较困难的课程。
其实大家大可不必担心，只要我们潜下心去，找出里面的规律和线索，这门课并不难攻克。
我们要牢记文化的五分法：一、社会历史(包括政治、经济、宗教、历史) 二、哲学三、文学四、科学五、艺术(包括绘画、雕塑、建筑和音乐)，以记忆每个时代的各要点为主，理解纵向的变迁为辅，后者主要的作用时帮助我们更好的记住前者。
《欧洲文化入门》的考试大致包括以下几种题型：四选一，填空，判断，简答题，名词解释，论述题。
选择题：这种题型可考查考生的记忆、理解、判断、推理分析，综合比较，鉴别评价等多种能力，评分客观，故常被应用。
在答题时，如果能瞬时准确地把正确答案找出来最好，假如没有把握，就应采用排除法，即应从排除最明显的错误开始，把接近正确答案的备选项留下，再分析比较强以逐一否定最终选定正确答案。
填空题：这种题型常用于考核考生准确记忆的“再现”能力，在答题时，无论有几个空，回答都应明确、肯定，不能含糊其辞，填空题看似容易实则难，最好的应对办法是对英语语言知识中最基本的知识、概念、原理等要牢记。
名词解释：这种题型一般针对英语专业自考本科段课程中的基本概念、专业名词进行命题，主要考核考生的识记、理解能力。
在答题时，答案要简明、概括、准确，如分值较大，可简要扩展。
简答题：这种题型一般围绕基本概论、原理及其联系进行命题，着重考核考生对概念、史实、原理的掌握、辨别和理解能力。
在答题时，既不能像名词解释那样简单，也不能像论述题那样长篇大论，答案要有层次性，列出要点，并加以简要扩展就可以。
论述题：这种题型一般从试卷编制的全局出发，能从体现考试大纲中的重点内容和基本问题的角度来命题，着重考核考生分析、解决实际问题的能力，考核考生综合应用能力和创见性。
在答题时，要仔细审题，列出答案要点，然后对要点逐一展开叙述，此时考生应发挥自己的真知灼见，要在深度，广度上下功。
Introduction (介绍)1、There are many elements constituting European Culture.2、There are two major elements: Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.The richness of European Culture was created by Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.Divison OneGreek Culture and Roman Culture1、The 5th century closed with civil war between Athens Sparta.2、The economy of Athens rested on an immense amount of slave labour.3、Ancient Greece’s epics was created by Homer.4、The Homer’s epics consisted of Iliad and Odyssey.5、Drama in Ancient Greece was floured in the 5th century B.C.6、Three masters in tragedy三大悲剧大师①AeschylusPrometheus Bound—→Shelly Prometheus Unbound②Sophocles(之首)Oedipus the King—→ Freud’s“the Oedipus complex” (恋母情结) —→ David Herbert Lawrence’s Sons and lovers③EuripidesA．Trojan WomenB．He is the first writer of “problem plays”(社会问题剧)C．Elizabeth Browning called him “Euripides human”(一个纯粹的人)D．Realism can be traced back to the Ancient Greece. To be specific, Euripides.7、The only representative of Greek comedy is Aristophanes.Aristophanes writes about nature.Swift says of him “As for comic Aristophanes, The dog too witty and too profane is.”8、History (Historical writing)“Father of History” —→ Herodotus —→ war(between Greeks and Persians)This war is called Peleponicion wars.“The greatest historian that ever lived.” —→ Thucydides —→ war (Sparta, Athens and Syracuse)9、① Euclid’s Elements解析几何It was in use in English schools until the early years of the 20th century.② ArchimedesHis work not only in geometry几何学,but also in arithmetic算术, machanics 机械, and hydrostatics.流体静力学Give me a place to stand, and I will move the world.（Archimedes）10、The melting between Roman Culture and Greek Culture. (罗马征服希腊的标志)From 146 B.C., Latin was the language of the western half of the Roman Empire. Greek that of the eastern half.Both Latin and Greek belong to Indo-European language.11、The dividing range in the Roman history refers to 27 B.C.12、The year 27 B.C. Divided the Roman history into two periods: republic and empire.13、The idea of Republic can be traced back to Plato’s republic.14、In the Roman history ,there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was guaranteed by the Roman legions(罗马军团)15、In the Roman history, there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was known as Pax Romana.(神圣罗马帝国)16、In the Roman history ,there came two hundred years of peaceful time, which was guaranteed by the Roman legions, it was known as Pax Romana17、The Roman Law protected the rights of plebeians (平民).18、The important contribution made by the Romans to the European culture was the Roman Law.19、After 395,the empire was divided into East (the Byzantine Empire) and West.20、Cicero西赛罗his legal and political speeches are models of Latin diction拉丁语用词described as Ciceronian.西赛罗式的an enormous influence(巨大影响) on the development of European prose.21、Virgil: Aeneid 阿尼德22、The pantheon was built in 27 B.C.The world’s first vast interior space.世界上第一所最大的室内场所23、The representation form of Greek Democracy is citizen-assembly.古希腊民主的表现形式24、The embodiment of Greek democracy is citizen-assembly. 古希腊民主的具体形式25. Many of Plato’s ideas we re later absorbed into Christian thought.How did the Ancient Greek philosophy develop?(1)、Three founders1、Pythagoras① All things were numbers.② Scientific mathematics.③ Theory of proportion.比例的理论2、Heracleitue① Fire is the primary elements of the universe.火是万物之源② The theory of the mingling of opposites produced harmony.矛盾的对立统一3、Democritus① the atomic theory.第一个原子理论开拓者② materialism.唯物主义(2)、Three thinkers1、Socrates① He hadn’t works. We can know him from Plato’s dialogues.② The dialectical method was established by Socrates.2、Plato①The Academy is the first school in the world, it was established by Plato.②He has four works. Dialogues, Apology, Symposium and Republic.3、Aristotle①The Lyceum is the second school in the world, it was established by Aristotle.②Aristotle is a humanist.(2)、Five contending schools1、The Sophists诡辩派①Under the leadership of Protagoras.②The representative of work is On the God.诸神论③His doctrine is “man is the measure of all things”.2、The Cynics犬儒派①Under the leadership of Diogenes.②The word “cynic” means “dog” in English.③He proclaimed his brotherhood. And he had no patience with the rich and powerful.3、The Sceptics置疑学派①Under the leadership of Pyrrhon.②His thought is not all knowledge was attainable, and doubting the truth of what others accepted as true.4、The Epicureans享乐派①Under the leadership of Epicurus.②Pleasure to be the highest good in life but not sensual enjoyment.Pleasure could be attained by the practice of virtue.Epicurus was a materialist. He believed that the world consisted of atoms.5、The Stoics斯多哥派①Under the leadership of Zeno.②His thought is duty is the most important thing in life.One should endure hardship and misfortune with courage.Develop ed into Stoics’ duty.He was also a materialist.What’s the difference between Plato and Aristotle in terms of their philosophical ideas(system)？1、For one thing, Aristotle emphasized direct observation of nature and insisted that theory should follow fact.This is different from Plato’s reliance on subjective thinking.2、For another, he thought that “form” and matter together made up concrete individual realities. Here, too, he differed from Plato who held that ideas had a higher reality than the physical world3、Aristotle thought happiness was men’s aim in life，but not happiness in the vulgar sense, but something that could only be achieved by leading a life of reason, goodness and contemplation.What is the great significance of Greek Culture on the later-on cultural development? There has been an enduring excitement about classical Greek culture in Europe and elsewhere.Rediscovery of Greek culture played a vital part in the Renaissance in Italy and other European countries.1、Spirit of innovation创新精神The Greek people invented mathematics and science and philosophy; They first wrote history as opposed to mere annals; They speculated freely about the nature of the world and the ends of life, without being bound in the fetters of any inherited orthodoxy.2、Supreme Achievement至高无上的成就The Greeks achieved supreme achievements in nearly all fields of human endeavour: Philosophy, science, epic poetry, comedy, historical writing, architecture, etc.3、Lasting effect持续的影响①Countless writers have quoted, borrowed from and otherwise used Homer’s epics, the tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles and Euripides, Aristophanes’s comedies, Plato’s Dialogues,ect.②In the early part of the 19th century, in England alone, three young Romantic poets expressed their admiration of Greek culture in works which have themselves become classics经典之作: Byron’s Isles of Greece, Shelley’s Hellas and Prometheus Unbound and Keats’s Ode on a Grecian Urn.③In the 20th century, there are Homeric parallels in the Irishman James Joyce’s modernist masterpiece Ulysses.Division TwoThe Bible and Christianity1、Christianity is by far the most influential in the West.2、Judeo-Christian tradition constitutes one of the two major components of European culture: Judaism and Christianity.3、The Jewish tradition, which gave birth to Christianity. (犹太教是基督教的前身)Both originated in Palestine, which was known as Canaan.4、The ancestors of the Jews — the Hebrews.5、The Hebrews history was recorded in the Old Testament of the Bible.6、The Bible was divided into two sections: the Old Testament and the New Testament.7、The Old Testament is about God and the Laws of God.8、The New Testament is about the doctrine of Jesus Christ.9、The word “Testament” means “agreement”, the agreement between G od and Man.10、The Old Testament consists of 39 books, the oldest and most important of which are the first five books, called Pentateuch.摩西五经11、The Fall of Man was recorded in Genesis, Pentateuch, the Old Testament, The Bible.12、Noah’s Ark was record ed in Genesis, Pentateuch, the Old Testament, The Bible.13、The content of historical Books: 1200B.C. 586 B.C.Dealing with history of the Hebrew people from their entry into Palestine around 1200 B.C., till the fall of Palestine into hands of Assyrians and Chaldeans in 586 B.C.14、The History Books① The development of system of landed nobles.② The development of monarchy. 君主专制③ Establishment of the two Kingdoms. 两大王国的初步形成④ The settlement in the highlands⑤ Age of great prosperity under Saul, David and Solomon.15、Towards the end of the fourth century four accounts were accepted as part of the New Testament, which tells the beginning of Christianity.16、The Birth of Jesus was recorded in Matthew (马塞福音书)17、The first English version of whole Bible was translated from the Latin Vulgate in 1382 and was copied out by hand by the early group of reformers led by John Wycliff. What difference between Christianity and the other religions?Christianity based itself on two forceful beliefs which separate it from all other religions.1、One is that Jesus Christ is the Son of God, and that God sent him to earth to live as humans live, suffer as humans suffer, and die to redeem mankind.2、The other is that God gave his only begotten son, so that whosoever believes in him should not perish, but have everlasting life.(加尔文主义也有这样的观点)What is the great significance of the translations of the bible?1、It is generally accepted that the English Bible and Shakespeare are two great reservoirs of Modern English.2、Miltion’s Paradise Lost , Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, Byron’s Cain, up to the contemporary Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises, and Steinbeck’s East of Eden.Division ThreeThe Middle Ages1、the Middle agesIn European history, the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages.The middle ages is so called because it was the transitional period(过渡时期) between ancient times and modern times. To be specific, from the 5th century to 15th century.2、In 476 A.D. a Germanic (日耳曼) general killed the last Roman emperor and took control of the government. 西罗马476灭，东罗马1653年灭3、Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding (土地所有) — a system of holding land in exchange for military service (军事力量). The word “feudalism” was derived from the Latin “feudum”, a grant of land.4、5、The Catholic Church made Latin the official language and helped to preserve and pass on the heritage (传统) of the Roman Empire.6、The word “catholic” meant “universal”.(广泛的，无处不在的)7、St. Jerome, who translated into Latin both Old and New Testament from the Hebrew and Greek originals. Vulgate (拉丁语圣经)8、Augustine —→ “Confession” and “The City of God”9、The most important of all courses was Jerusalem. (耶路撒冷)10、Crusades went on about 200 years. There were altogether eight chief Crusades.11、The crusades ended up with the victory of Moslems.(穆斯林)By 1291 the Moslems (穆斯林) had taken over the last Christian stronghold. They won the crusades and ruled all the territory in Palestine that the Crusaders had fought to control.12、Carolingian RenaissanceCarolingian Renaissance is derived from Charlemagne’s name in Latin, Carolus. The most interesting facet (一面) of this rather minor renaissance is the spectacle (有见解) of Frankish or Germanic state reaching out to assimilate (吸收) the riches of the Roman Classical and the Christianized Hebraic culture.13、National Epics(民族史诗运动)The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancient literature. “National epic” refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is, the languages of various national states (民族国家) that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics.14、Chaucer (乔叟) 的诗歌特点：① power of observation (观察)② piercing irony (敏锐的讽刺) ③ sense of humour ④ warm humanity (温暖的人性)15、Gothic① The Gothic style started in France and quickly spread through all parts of Western Europe.② It lasted from the mid-12th to the end of 15th century and, in some areas, into the 16th. More churches were built in this manner than in any other style in history.③ The Gothic was an outgrowth (丰富与发展) of the Romanesque.（罗马式）16、The Canterbury Tales:① The Canterbury Tales was written by Chaucer.②Chaucer introduced French and Italy writing the English native alliterative verse.③Both Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales are the best representative of the middle English.17 In the middle ages, what cultures began to merge？Classical, Hebrew and Gothic heritages merged (文化融合). It paved the way for the development of what is the present-day European culture.Why is the middle ages is called Age of Faith (信仰的年代)？1、During the Medieval times there was no central government to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite Europe was the Christian church.2、The Christian church continued to gain widespread power and influence.3、In the Late middle ages, almost everyone in western Europe was a Christian and amember of the Christian Church. Christianity took the lead in politics, law, art, and learning for hundreds of years.4、It shaped people’s lives. That is why the middle ages is also called the “Age of Faith”.How did Feudalism develop in Europe in middle ages?1、feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding — a system of holding land in exchange for military service. The word “feudalism” was derived from the Latin “feudum”, a grant of land.2、In order to seek the protection of large land-owners, the people of small farms or land gave their farms and land to large land-owners, but they still had freedom, they were called freemen.3、While the people from towns and cities did not possess farms or land. They had nothing but their freedom to be given to large land-owners, and then they lost their freedom for protection. They were called serfs.4、In Feudalism, the ruler of the government redivided the large lands into small pieces to be given to chancellors or soldiers as a reward for their service. The subdivisions were called fiefs. The owners of the fiefs was call vassals.5、There came a form of local and decentralized (分散) government.6、As a knight, he were pledged to protect the weak, to fight for the church, to be loyal to his lord and to respect women of noble birth. These rules were known as code of chivalry, from which the western idea of good manners developed.What positive influence does the Crusades exert on the European Culture?(What is the great significance of the Crusades?)1、The crusades brought the East into closer contact with the West. And they greatly influenced the history of Europe. (拉近了东西方的交流)2、During the wars while many of the feudal lords went to fight in Palestine, kings at home found opportunities to strengthen themselves. Thus among other things, Crusades helped to break down feudalism, which, in turn led to the rise of the monarchies. (取而代之的是君主专制)3、Besides, through their contact with the more cultured Byzantines and Moslems, the western Europeans changed many of their old ideas. Their desire for wealth or power began to overshadow their religious ideals.4、The Crusades also resulted in renewing people’s interest in learning and invention. By the 13th century, universities had spread all over Europe. Such knowledge as Arabic numerals (阿拉伯数字), algebra (代数), and Arab medicine (医学) were introduced to the West.5、As trade increased, village and towns began to grow into cities. And the rise of towns and trade in western Europe paved the way of the growth of strong national governments.How did literature develop in the middle ages?1、The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly usedform in ancient literature. “National epic” refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is, the languages of various national states (民族国家) that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics. Both Beowulf and song of Roland were the representative works of the National Epics.2、Dante Alighieri and The Divine Comedy: (但丁与神曲)① His masterpiece, The Divine Comedy, is one of the landmarks of world literature.②The poem expresses humanistic ideas which foreshadowed (预示) the spirit of Renaissance.③ Dante wrote his masterpiece in Italian rather than in Latin. (只用意大利语创作)3、Geoffery Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales: (乔叟与坎特布雷集)① The Canterbury Tales were his most popular work.②Most of the tales are written in verse (诗) which reflects(反映) Chaucer’s innovation (改革) by introducing into the native alliterative verse (压头韵) the French and Italian styles.③ Chaucer is thus to be , regarded as the first short story teller and the first modern poet in English literature.短篇写作第一人④ Chaucer and the Canterbury Tales were representative of the Middle ages.Division FourRenaissance and Reformation1、RenaissanceGenerally speaking, Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th century. The word “Renaissance” means revival (复兴), specifically in this period of history, revival of interest in ancient Greek and Roman culture. Renaissance, in essence (从实质上讲), was a historical period in which the European humanist thinkers and scholars made attempts (试图) to get rid of conservatism (保守主义思想) in feudalist Europe and introduce new ideas that expressed the interests of the rising bourgeoisie (资产阶级), to lift the restrictions (禁忌) in all areas placed by the Roman church authorities.(权利威信)Generally speaking, Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th century.Renaissance started in Florence and Venice with the flowering of paintings, sculpture (雕塑) and architecture. 最早开始于painting2、In Renaissance literature of Italy, Petrarch (彼得拉克) was the representative poet.3、Intellectuals became closely tied up with the rising bourgeoisie.(人文主义兴起的重要原因Humanistic ideas to develop)4、At the heart of the Renaissance philosophy was the assertion of the greatness of man.(以人为本—人文主义的核心)5、Last Supper adapted from the New Testament of the Bible.6、Michelangelo—— David—— Sistine Chapel (from the First book of the Bible, the Genesis )—— Dying Slave (垂死的奴隶)—— Moses (摩西)7、Raphael was best known for his Madonna. (圣母玛利亚)He painted his Madonnas in different postures against different backgrounds.8、One of the famous paintings besides the Madonnas is School of Athens (雅典学派). Plato and Aristotle engaged in argument.9、Titian—— The Venus of Urbino (断臂的维纳斯)Man with the Glove (带手套的人) ☆10、John Wyclif —— translation of the Bible into English for the first time.11、Martin Luther —— translation of the whole Bible with the vernacular language.12、The reformation get its victory first in England.13、ReformationThe Reformation was a 16th century religious movement as well as a socio-political (社会政治) movement. It began as Martin Luther posted on the door of the castle church at the University of Wittenberg his 95 thesis. This movement which swept over the whole of Europe was aimed at opposing the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church and replacing it with the absolute authority of the Bible. The reformists engaged themselves in translating the Bible into their mother tongues.宗教改革的实质是：反对罗马天主教，直接形式是用母语翻译圣经14、CalvinismCalvinism was established by Calvin in the period of Renaissance. Presbyterian government (长老会). Only those specially elected by God can be saved (上帝的选民) . This belief serves so well to help the rising bourgeoisie on its path (有助于资本主义的兴起)。
欧洲文化入门《文艺复兴》文艺复兴是指13世纪末在意大利各城市兴起，以后扩展到西欧各国，于16世纪在欧洲盛行的一场思想文化运动，带来一段科学与艺术革命时期，揭开了近代欧洲历史的序幕，被认为是中古时代和近代的分界。
1，历史背景：1，西欧的中世纪是个特别“黑暗的时代”。
基督教教会成了当时封建社会的精神支柱，它建立了一套严格的等级制度，把上帝当做绝对的权威。
文学、艺术、哲学一切都得遵照基督教的经典——《圣经》的教义，谁都不可违背，否则，宗教法庭就要对他制裁，甚至处以死刑。
2，中世纪的后期，资本主义萌芽在多种条件的促生下，于欧洲的意大利首先出现。
3，资本主义萌芽的出现也为这场思想运动的兴起提供了可能。
4，许多西欧的学者要求恢复古希腊和罗马的文化和艺术。
这种要求就像春风，慢慢吹遍整个西欧。
文艺复兴运动由此兴起。
2，文艺复兴的实质：是一场资产阶级的思想文化运动，借复兴古人文主义的名义，吸取人文主义的精髓（重视人的价值和地位），来为新兴资本主义发展服务，消除封建主义和封建神学的阻扰势力。
核心思潮：人文主义以人为中心而不是以神为中心，肯定人的尊严和价值；要求享受现实生活，追求自由幸福和物质享受；崇尚科学和理性，追求知识和真理。
,3，作品思想：文艺复兴时期的作品，集中体现了人文主义思想：主张个性解放，反对中世纪的禁欲主义和宗教观；提倡科学文化，反对蒙昧主义，摆脱教会对人们思想的束缚；肯定人权，反对神权，屏弃作为神学和经院哲学基础的一切权威和传统教条；拥护中央集权，反对封建割据，这是人文主义的主要思想。
其中，代表性作品有：但丁的《神曲》、薄伽丘的《十日谈》、马基雅维利的《君主论》、拉伯雷的《巨人传》等。
4，文学三杰和艺术三杰：但丁，彼特拉克和薄伽丘。
达·芬奇，拉菲尔和米开朗基罗。
5，历史影响：首先，文艺复兴发现了人和人的伟大，肯定了人的价值和创造力，提出人要获得解放，个性应该自由。
(1)重视人的价值，要求发挥人的聪明才智及创造性潜力，反对消极的无所作为的人生态度，提倡积极冒险精神。
欧洲文化入门第一章特洛伊战争：特洛伊战争是以争夺世上海伦（Helen）为起因，以阿伽门农（Agamemnon）及阿喀琉斯（Achilles）为首的希腊军进攻以帕里斯及赫克托尔为首的的十年攻城战。
然而根据《世界通史》的论述，特洛伊地处交通要道，商业发达，经济繁荣，人民生活富裕。
亚细亚各君主结成联军，推举阿伽门农为统帅。
他们对地中海沿岸最富有的地区早就垂涎三尺，一心想占为己有，于是以海伦为借口发动战争，这才是特洛伊战争的真正目的。
民主制城邦：指全民行使权利的城邦，但全民仅指成年男性公民，而且公民权也是从父辈那里世袭而来。
荷马：古希腊盲诗人。
相传记述了公元前12～前11世纪特洛伊战争，以及关于海上冒险故事的古希腊长篇叙事代表作——史诗《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》，即是他根据民间流传的短歌综合编写而成。
他生活的年代，当在公元前10～9、8世纪之间。
他的杰作《荷马史诗》，在很长时间里影响了西方的宗教、文化和伦理观。
伊利亚特：相传是由盲诗人荷马所作。
是重要的古希腊文学作品，也是整个西方的经典之一。
《伊利亚特》全诗共15,693行，分为24卷，主要内容是讲述了在阿伽门农的率领下，古希腊南部各城邦联合征战特洛伊的故事。
它通过对特洛伊战争的描写，歌颂英勇善战、维护集体利益、为集体建立功勋的英雄。
奥德赛：又译《奥德修纪》，是古希腊最重要的两部史诗之一《奥德赛》延续了《伊利亚特》的故事情节，相传为盲诗人荷马所作。
这部史诗是西方文学的奠基之作，是除《吉尔伽美什史诗》和《伊利亚特》外现存最古老的西方文学作品。
讲述了奥德修斯在特洛伊战争结束后返回家乡绮色佳岛的故事，书中讲述了奥德修斯在漫长的海上航行中的种种冒险经历，以及最终如何与忠实的妻子泊涅罗泊重新团聚的故事。
荷马史诗：《荷马史诗》相传是由古希腊盲诗人荷马创作的两部长篇史诗——《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》的统称，是他根据民间流传的短歌综合编写而成。
《荷马史诗》以扬抑格六音部写成，集古希腊口述文学之大成，是古希腊最伟大的作品，也是西方文学中最伟大的作品。
《欧洲文化入门》知识点笔记1、There are many elements constituting(组成) European Culture.2、There are two major elements：Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.3、The richness(丰富性) of European Culture was created by Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.第一章1、The 5th century closed with civil war between Athens and Sparta.2、The economy of Athens rested on(依赖) an immense(无限的)amount of slave labour.3、Olympus mount, Revived in 1896(当代奥运会)4、Ancient Greece(古希腊)’s epics was created by Homer.5、They events of Homer’s own time. (错)(They are not about events of Homer’s own time, probably in the period 1200-1100 B.C.)6、The Homer’s epics consisted of Iliad and Odyssey.7、Agamemnon,Hector, Achilles are in Iliad.8、Odysseus and Penelope are in Odyssey.9、Odyssey(对其作品产生影响)—→James Joyoe’s Ulysses(描述一天的生活) In the 20th century.10、Drama in Ancient Greece was floured in the 5th century B.C.11、三大悲剧大师① Aeschylus《Prometheus Bound》—→模仿式作品Shelly《Prometheus Unbound》② Sophocles(之首)《Oedipus the King》—→ Freud’s “the Oedipus complex” (恋母情结)—→ David Herbert Lawrence’s《Sons and lovers》(劳伦斯)447页③ EuripidesA.《Trojan Women》B.He is the first writer of “problem plays”(社会问题剧) 在肖伯纳手中达到高潮，属于存在主义戏剧的人物C.Elizabeth Browning called him “Euripides human”(一个纯粹的人)D.Realism can be traced back(追溯到) to the Ancient Greece.To be specific(具体来说)，Euripides.12、The only representative of Greek comedy is Aristophanes. 18页Aristophanes writes about nature. —→浪漫主义湖畔派(The lakers)华兹华兹(新古典主义代表作家《格列夫游记》《大人国小人国》《温和的提议》用讽刺的写作手法)13、History (Historical writing)史学创作※“Father of History” —→ Herodotus —→ war(between Greeks and Persians)This war is called Peleponicion wars. 博罗奔泥撒，3只是陈述史实，并没有得出理论。
《欧洲文化概论》是中国大学英语专业的一本教科书，由外语教学与研究出版社出版。
该书介绍了欧洲不同历史时期和人物的英语典故，名言，成语，人名，地名等，并按时间顺序对欧洲历史进行了具体而简洁的介绍。
通过本书，我们可以用英语教授不同时期欧洲思想，科学技术，政治和社会的重要时期和人物，从而使学生能够加深对欧洲历史和文化的了解，从而使英语学习更加顺畅。
并更好地掌握英语语言和文化。
相关总结
《欧洲文化概论》是针对中国大学英语系的一本教科书，是根据教学需要编写的。
在阅读英语书籍和杂志以及与来自英语国家的人们进行交流的过程中，中国大学生常常感到缺乏欧洲文化知识会增加许多困难。
从古希腊和罗马时期的哲学，文学，历史著作，希伯来圣经，文艺复兴时期的艺术创作，或涉及意识形态，技术，不同时期的政治和社会方面。
如果您对这些事情不太了解，则可能无法通过阅读来全部理解它们，并且无法进行顺畅的对话。
一旦您对这些知识有了更多的了解，您不仅会更好地理解它们，而且还将通过文化来更好地学习语言。
课程目的
它是为学习英语的学生而设计的。
因此，提到的地点，人物，书籍，事件等的名称是根据英语约定拼写的，例如Aristotle代替Aristotel或Aristoteles。
《欧洲文化入门》“European Culture:An Introduction
出版社：外语教学与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching And Rearch Press
主编：王佐良祝珏李品伟高厚堃编著：：司徒双王立礼李宪生刘新民朱永涛徐海昕来源：《欧洲文化入门》。
百科知识—欧洲文化入门知识I、欧洲文化知识体系1古希腊与古罗马文化
1、古希腊与古罗马文化
2、基督教与《圣经》
3、中世纪★
4、文艺复兴与宗教改革
II、欧洲文化入门学习思路与重点
1、基本特征与思路
欧洲文化特征
欧洲文化特征：
1）欧洲文化历史以古希腊和古罗马为源头；
2）宗教、思潮、以及人文是把握西方文化的三把钥匙；3）尽管时代特征明显，但是每个时代以时代巨人为标志。
III、欧洲文化主体内容
1、古希腊与古罗马（奴隶社会）
A古希腊文化
1）历史：荷马和两大史诗、希罗多德（历史之父）。
2）戏剧：三大戏剧作家：埃斯库罗斯《被俘的普罗米修斯》索福克勒斯《俄狄浦斯王》、欧里庇得斯（问题戏剧）----古希腊神话传说---普罗米修斯、潘多拉盒子等。
重点知识点与真题技巧点拨（
1、南京航空航天大学11年真题:
毒。
特洛伊来自于（）
毒特洛伊来自于
A圣经
2、首师大10年真题：古希腊神话中，（
一方的首领
2、基督教与圣经
A基督教
1）历史：犹太教的关系---康斯坦丁（米兰赦令）--特奥多西斯（唯一国教）阿育王—佛教
2）基督教的基本知识
B圣经
1）圣经的基本定义：圣经是基督教的经典，是其宗教信仰
的最高权威。
圣经两部分以及主要内容，以及双重性质，的最高权威圣经两部分以及主要内容，以及双重性质，
对西方文学和文化的影响。
2）圣经的神话故事与典故:诺亚方舟、上帝、伊甸园、禁
果等。
重点知识点与真题技巧点拨（
3、广东外语外贸大学
中国的传统文化从来没有像（13）《圣经》文化和（14）《古兰经》文化那样，左右一个国家的政治经济学命运。
现在最有利于中国传统文化的彻底贯彻，而这种贯彻是民主的、自由的，人们自觉自愿地接受的，不愿接受马上就可以反对，而不
思路点拨：基督教与圣经是西方文化里必考的文化点！
4、文艺复兴(14-17世纪）与宗教改革1）文艺复兴整体介绍
2）文艺复兴的艺术家
意大利：卜伽丘---十日谈
绘画天才---达
解剖学贡献）5、17世纪（科学成就与欧洲进入现代）
1）德国开普勒与其天文三大定律
2）意大利伽利略的天文、物理成就（证明哥白尼、自由落体、加速度、发明温度计与天文望远镜）
3）大学者牛顿与《自然哲学数学原理》约翰。
洛克政治
6 、启蒙运动(18世纪的理性时代）
1）法国：孟德斯鸠（法国第一个法学家、三权分立、《论法的精神》）伏尔泰《哲学书简》卢梭《论人类不平等的根源》《社会契约论《忏悔录》；狄德罗与《百科全书》
2）德国：莱辛《拉奥孔》歌德《浮士德》希勒《阴谋与爱情》康德的批判系列。
3）音乐：巴赫、古典音乐奥地利海顿、莫扎特的作品比如
）音乐：巴赫、古典音乐奥地利海顿、莫扎特的作品比如安重点知识点与真题技巧点拨（
5、青岛大学11年真题：启蒙运动
复习方向：欧洲文化里面思想解放运动类名词解释方法6、中南大学10年真题：法国启蒙时期，百科全书派的代表作家
是？
7、浪漫主义(18世纪末到十九世纪）
1）德国的狂飙运动（幼稚的浪漫主义时间、内容、以及结束））法国的大作家
2）法国的大作家：雨果以及画家大卫的作品马拉之死；俄国的普希金。
3）音乐：德国贝多芬及其九大交响曲，门德尔松；波兰的钢琴诗人肖邦及其作品9、现实主义、现代主义以及其他思潮
1）19世纪现实主义及代表作家：英（略）法国巴尔扎克、福楼拜、司汤达、莫泊桑的短篇小说；俄国果戈理、屠格涅夫、陀思妥耶夫斯基的《罪与罚》、托尔斯泰；丹麦的易普生；
荷兰画家梵
重点知识点与真题技巧点拨（
8、暨南大学11年真题：贝多芬一生创作了九大交响曲，其中c
小调交响曲又称之为什么？
A英雄
学习思路：关注重点领域的重点人物。
9、湖南大学10年真题：现代主义出现最早，影响最大的流派是
Thanks。
