下载文档原格式
美国阔叶材的市场新机遇
陈玲
【期刊名称】《国际木业》
【年(卷),期】2014(000)001
【摘要】美国阔叶材出口委员会（American Hardwood Export Council，AHEC）的欧洲大会（European Convention）10月底在匈牙利布达佩斯举行。
该大会每两年举办一次。
该大会的主题是“前瞻性思考，分享战略”，反思美国阔叶材出口委员会（AHEC）最近在欧洲的研究和项目如何通过确定和促进美国阔叶材新的应用来重点加强市场。
【总页数】3页(P14-16)
【作者】陈玲
【作者单位】
【正文语种】中文
【相关文献】
1.美国阔叶材地板的市场态势 [J], 管宁
2.美国胶合板市场:2.阔叶材胶合板 [J], Robert Flynn
3.美国本地阔叶材获得新的市场地位 [J], 龙超（译）
4.美国本地阔叶材获得新的市场地位 [J], Liz Switzer; 龙超
5.美国的阔叶材托盘市场年度回顾 [J], 修木
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美国房地产市场正在缓慢复苏
红枫
【期刊名称】《《国际木业》》
【年(卷),期】2010(000)006
【摘要】美国：美国房地产市场对于经济复苏至关重要，美国金融资产负债表显示住房市场没有继续恶化，正在复苏。
基于美国标准普尔机构（S＆P）发布的CaseShiller房屋价格指数显示，美国房屋价格在去年的第四季度一直持平。
【总页数】1页(P30-30)
【作者】红枫
【作者单位】
【正文语种】中文
【中图分类】TU241
【相关文献】
1.正在突起的中国淡水珠：阵痛之后，中国淡水珍珠产业缓慢复苏 [J], 吕磊
2.美国的经济正在复苏吗?--美国机械制造技术协会AMT副总裁Pat McGibbon 先生访谈录 [J], 符祚钢
3.美国在金融危机后犯下了大错：过早紧缩导致经济复苏缓慢 [J], 蒂莫西·F·盖特纳
4.摩根大通研究报告指出全球债市正在缓慢复苏 [J], 无
5.全球氯碱行业正在缓慢复苏 [J],
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Green roofs are roofs of a building that are covered with vegetation over a water proofing(防水). It is a proper method of growing plants on the roof top. Green roofs are also known as “eco-roofs”. Through these green roofing systems, people are equally benefited and so these green roofs are gaining popularity day by day.Man has made full use of major land areas and transformed them in buildings which have terribly affected the environment and the natural environment in which birds and insects live. This situation exists especially in the urban areas where the major land is used by human building activity. But, green roofs compensate(补偿) for that because they can settle on the vegetation.Modern roofs need a lot of energy to moderate(调节) the temperatures in winter and summer. They will increase the price of buildings and help the owner get a great deal of money. Whereas, green roofs reduce the amount of energy required for moderating temperatures. It becomes an important benefit in the buildings for which people are ready to spend hundreds of dollars. The grass and the plants on the green roof absorb a number of pollutants present in the air.Green roofs are beneficial to keeping the otherwise wasted storm water. When it rains, you don’t have to water the green roof vegetation. It uses the rainwater and prevents wastage. During heavy rains the water may damage flat roofs. The green roofs prevent this damage by slowing down the running water. Green roofing also helps reduce the ultraviolet radiation(紫外线辐射).Green roofs provide human beings with physical and psychological (心理上的) benefits like reducing stress levels in people and keeping them physically fit. Nowadays, there is no space left for recreational activities. Green roof systems can even offer space for all these activities. People can experience the pleasure of farming.1. What does the underlined word “that” in Paragraph 2 refer to?A. The urban areas.B. The environment which is getting worse.C. the birds and insects that have lost their home.D. The environment where birds and insects live is destroyed.2. green roofs have high market value because they can _____.A. serve as a natural air conditionerB. save consumers hundreds of dollarsC. encourage people to build more systemsD. reduce the amount of energy required in fall3. How can green roofs protect the house during heavy rains?A. By reducing the speed of the running water.B. By slowing down the speed of the rainwater.C. By stopping the running water from dropping.D. By taking in all the rainwater and preventing wastage.4. According to the passage, green roofs are a place_____.A. to make people healthierB. to throw away pollutantsC. to hold all kinds of activitiesD. to get rid of ultraviolet radiation5. the passage mainly tells us_____.A. what green roofs areB. types of green roofsC. benefits of green roofsD. how to make green roofs。
美国威士伯协力创造“绿能”建筑风尚
佚名
【期刊名称】《绿色建筑》
【年(卷),期】2014(000)004
【摘要】20t4年5月22日，为响应国家各级政府在建筑领域“节能减排”的号
召和要求，进一步推动上海地区绿色建筑与建筑节能发展，由上海市绿色建筑协会、威士伯建筑涂料联合主办的“绿能涂料在绿色建筑应用技术交流会”在在绿地控股集团CBD会议中心举行召开。
【总页数】1页(P8)
【正文语种】中文
【相关文献】
1.威士伯建筑涂料再度亮相国际绿色建筑与节能展——绿能体系开创环保节能新时代
2.美国威士伯协力创造“绿能”建筑风尚
3.美国威腾伯格大学文理学院的减灾
教学4.威士伯建筑涂料再度亮相国际绿色建筑与节能展绿能体系开创环保节能新
时代5.美国威士伯水性防腐涂料
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园艺英语新世纪农业科学专业英语：园艺英语《新世纪农业科学专业英语：园艺英语》是按照⾼等院校专业英语教学要求，为提⾼学⽣的专业英语⽔平，收集国外园艺相关的科技⽂章和新技术介绍，并结合多年来园艺教学实践的体会、汲取其他有关资料⽽编写的。
《新世纪农业科学专业英语：园艺英语》选材多样，内容丰富，既由蔬菜、果树和观赏园艺三个⽅⾯构成，⼜从栽培、育种、⽣物技术、产品采后处理等各个环节形成园艺学科完整的教学体系。
全书18个单元，每⼀单元由精读、泛读、关键字句解释、专业词汇和练习组成。
课⽂附有译⽂可供教师和学⽣参考，是⾼等农林院校本科⽣的适⽤教材，也可供园艺⼯作者和⼴⼤业余爱好者学习参考。
Unit 1Part A TemperatureIntroduction 英[??ntr??d?k?n] n.介绍;引⾔Floriculture literature discusses three types of temperatures; air , leaf , and medium. Generally ,air temperature is the easiest to monitor control, and record, but the actual leaf or plant temperature can differ greatly from the air temperature. For example , when the environment is warm and windy with low humidity ,the leaf temperature will be lower than the air temperature because of the cooling effect of transpiration. Conversely , cool and sunny conditions with high humidity and little air movement will result in leaf temperature higher than the air temperature. The sun warms the leaf and there is little air movement or transpiration to dissipate the heat. Medium temperature reflects the actual temperature of the roots. Currently most temperature recommendations refer to air temperatures unless ,stated otherwise, and most recommendations also refer to night temperature, which is more easily controlled. Advances in environmental monitoring equipment and computer technology may soon allow greenhouse production to be based on leaf and medium temperatures rather than on air temperatures.Temperatures can have a general or a specific effect on plant growth. In the former case , plant growth gradually increases or decreases as the temperature changes. Temperature can have a specific effect on plant growth through vernalization , or the induction of a specific response such as flowering by cool temperatures. For example, Aconitum tuberous roots require, vernalization for flowering ( Leeuwen, 1980). For other species . such as purple coneflower( Echinacea purpurea).vernalization is not required but results in more rapid flowering and higher-quality flowering stems( Armitage , 1993) . Many. perennial species require vernalization for rapid , economical production. Propagation , regarding stratification , is a cold treatment applied to seeds to enhance germination.Air temperatureOptimum and tolerable Temperature Ranges最佳耐受温度范围Each plant species has an optimum growing temperature range and a tolerable temperature range. The Optimum temperature produce high-quality plants most rapidly. Tolerable temperature allow the plants to continue growing but may result in long production times or low quality. For example, the optimum night temperature range for chrysanthemums ( Dendranthema x grandiflorum) is 61 to 64"F ( 16 to l8C), but chrysanthemums will still grow at night temperatures as low as 40F (4C) or as high as 80F (27C) ( Whealy et al. ,1987;Wilins et al.1990). At the low end of the tolerable temperature range , however, growth will be uneconomically slow and at the high end flower initiation and development temperature are delayed and quality reduced. Consequently ,chrysanthemums have a relatively narrow optimum temperature range and a wide tolerable temperature range. For many plant species,the temperature is often dropped several degrees from the optimum temperature one to several weeks before the plants are marketed to enhance color and postharvest life.Average daily temperatureAverage daily temperature controls the rate of plant development. lf the average daily temperature is increased ( within the tolerable temperature range for a species) , most plants will grow faster and dower more rapidly. However, rapid growth often does not mean quality growth. Very warm temperatures encourage weak , poor quality growth which is frequently susceptible to disease. There is often an interaction with light intensity in which low light levels accentuate the poor growth associated with warm production temperatures . Ironically This situation can occur during the summer when heavy amounts of shade are used to reduce greenhouse temperatures. For some species high daily temperatures may cause physiological responses such as delayed flower initiation in chrysanthemums ( Dendranthema x grandiflorum ), poinsettias ( Euphorbia pueherrima). and kalanchoes ( Kalanchoe blossfeldiana) and bolting in petunias ( Petunia x hybrida) ( Grueber, 1985; Whealy et al. , 1987 ). Similarly , low daily temperatures may induce premature flower initiation or dormancy. Photoperiod is often involved in these physiological responses to temperature.Average daily temperature is calculated as an average of temperatures measured each hour(or more frequently if computer monitoring is used), not the Average high and the low temperatures for a 24-hour period. latter calculation is likely to be higher than the real average daily temperature , because the night temperature is usually relatively, constant whereas the day temperature often gradually rises during the day to a high in the mid-afternoon. In addition , brief high temperatures can occur during cloudy days if the sun shines for a short period. Consequently, using the high-low temperature system to calculate average daily temperature will accentuate the day temperature.Temperature recommendationsGeneral temperature recommendations are based on whether height control is a concern for the crop species. When height control is not a problem, such as with rosette-forming plants or cut flowers ,day temperatures are set to 5F above night on cloudy days and 10 to 15 F above night on sunny days to allow maximumphotosynthesis during sunny days and reduce respiration during the night. During cold periods , growers generally lower night temperature as much as possible to reduce fuel costs.DIFDIF is the concept of regulating plant height by monitoring the difference between the day and the night temperature. The higher the day temperature is relative to the night temperature ( day-night = DlF),the greater the stem elongates( Berghage and Heins, 1991 ;Erwin et al. ,1989a,b;Karsson et al. ,1989). Where final plant height is a concern, such as with poinsettias( Euphorbia pulcerrima) ,Easter lily( Lidum longiflorum) .,and many bedding plants, DIF must be taken into consideration lncreasing the day temperature relative to the night will increase internode elongation for many species. Consider three similar greenhouses, for example, where the day and the night are both 12 hours long. Table 1-1 GreenhouseGreenhouse1 will produce the tallest plants because the DIF is the greatest( + 10) and greenhouse 3 the shortest plants( 10 DlF). Plants from greenhouse 2 will be intermediate in height. All plants will flower simultaneously and have similar leaf numbers because the average daily temperature is the same for each greenhouse. Consequently, for plants where height is a concern, the day temperature should be no more than O to 5F (0 to 3C) above the night regardless of weather. According to actual stem measurements ,a large percentage of the daily stem elongation occurs early in the day just after sunrise , thus cool temperatures( negative DIF) for at least two hours starting just before the first light in the morning will reduce stem elongation ( Cockshull, et al. ,1995;Erwin et al. .1989 ; Crindal and Moe, 1995;Moe et al. , 1995). This cool, early morning pulse is known as the temperature DROP. However , very warm temperatures during the rest of the day( positive DIF) may negate much of the effects of the temperature DROP.DlF may also affect plant responses other than height such as flower size and flower number in some species. Extreme day--night temperature reversals(e. g. ,DIF < 5) may induce chlorosis and leaf curling of Easter lilies ( Lilium longiflorum) , although these effects quickly disappear when DIF is less negative( Erwin et al. .1989a). Plant carbohydrate and nitrogen levels also decreasewith extreme negative DIF and may result in postharvest leaf fellowing of Easter lilies and bract edge bum and cyathia drop of poinsettias( Euphorbia pulcherrima)( Miller, 1997). Some species do not respond to DIF, including, most Cucurbitaceae family plants and Dutch bulbs such as Hyacinthus , Tulipa . and Narcissus( Erwin et al. , 1989a). Certainly much remains to be learned about the response of many floriculture species to DIF.Media temperatureMonitoring the soil temperature is important in some situations in addition to monitoring the air temperature. Media heating is important for germination or rooting of cuttings of many species.Generally ,media should be at least 70F(21C) with 72 to75F(22 to 24C ) optimum. Specific species may have a higher or lower optimum medium temperature for propagation. If misting is used during propagation , evaporation of mist may reduce media temperature and additional heat may be required. Heating cables can be placed on the bench , or a heating system may be used under the bench and the bottom of the bench can be enclosed in plastic to trap the heat. Polyethylene tubes can also be used to direct the heat from forced air heaters under the bench，but care must be taken to prevent excess drying of the cuttings or seedlings by covering the bench top with plastic.Over the past few years ，research has been conducted to determine if heating the medium would allow cooler air temperatures to be used during production ( Stephens and widmer, 1976)Root zone heating would allow growers to reduce fuel costs by heating the air immediately around the plant medium and not the entire greenhouse air volume. The heat can be concentrated at the root level by using bench heating systems susch as Biotherm TM or placing heating pipes under the bench and trapping the heat under the bench with plastic. Warm air rises ，heating the aboveground portions of the plants.Root zone heating has proved effective with some plant species such as Cyclamen increase plant growth and speed plant development ( Stephens and Widmer, 1976). Root zone heating is most effective during the first 6 weeks after potting. Potential disadvantages include possible flower bud abortion or blasting and altered watering and nutrition regimes. Generally root zone heating is effective but may not be economically justified.Part B Condition Factors 环境因⼦条件因素LightMeasuring light requires the use of three factors;color , intensity ,and duration. Color(quality) is the wavelength of the light, intensity (quantity) is the strength of the light, and duration （photoperiod) is the time span of the light episode. All three factors are needed to describe how much light is required by plants. Light has two functions in plant growth. The first role is to fuel plant growth through photosynthesis. Plants convert light energy into chemical energy which results plant growth. Secondly，light initiates or modifies specific physiological responses such as seed germination., flowering , seescence . tuber formation , and dormancy.Wavelengths are measured in nanometers ( nm) with specific wavelengths corresponding to specific colors；for example，yellow light has a wavelength of approximately 580 nm. Although general plant growth usually requires light with all wavelengths, red(700nm) and blue(470mm) wavelengths result in the greatest plantgrowth response. Conversely, hotoperiodism involves wavelengths centered around red( 660nm) and far red(720nm).The footcandle (fc,1 fc = 10. 8lux ) quantifies luminous energy ,or light visible to the human eye. This system emphasizes the green-yellow wavelengths( 530 to 580nm) , which the human eye sees the best. Photosynthesis , on the other hand , is driven by a broader range of wavelengths with a red-blue emphasis. Light meters which measure footcandles can give an approximation of greenhouse light levels but may have a 45% error compared with the actual photosynthetic energy in radiation( Muckle , 1997 ). Photosynthetically active radiation(PAR) measures the amount of light energy equally in all wavelengths from 400 to 700nm, without stressing the green-yellow wavelengths most visible to the eye. A third system of measuring light intensity , based on quantum energy. describes light in terms of tiny particles of energy called photons or quanta and is known as photosynthetic photon flux( PPF). The number of photons is measured in moles( mol) or einsteins (E) with one mole( one einstein =6.O23 x 10 23). Thus, the intensity of light in the quantum system would be measured in the number of photons being transmitted such as u mol . s-1m-2,which is the preferred unit of measure. Both PAR and PPF emphasize all wavelengths equally within a specific range such as 400 to 7OOnm or 400 to 850nm without regard to the human eye. PPF meters are available and although most are expensive , low-cost meters have recently been introduced.Duration refers to the photoperiod or daylength which can affect plant growth two ways:(short photoperiods provide less total light energy to plants than long photoperiods at the same light intensity . and (2) be length of the photoperiod may induce specfic physiological response in many plant species independent of the light intensity , which is known as photoperiodism. For examplethe poinsettia( Euphorbia pulcherrima) ,a short-day plant,is induced to flower by providing long nights and short days. NutritionSupplying nutrients to floriculture crops is an exact process. The use of well-drained . soilless media and intensive production requires growers to supply all the necessary plant nutrients with little margin for error. Nutritional programs also tend to be highly individualistic with each grower or greenhouse operation having unique nutrient regimes. A number of variables must be considered when developing a fertilization program for a crop species -total quantity or application rates,proportions of each element , application method . and interactions with media type . pH and soluble salt concentration , light levels, water quality . watering practices , production temperatures, and postharvest life.One other point to consider is the current three-number method for expressing the concentrations of nitrogen ( N). phosphorus( P). and potassium( K) in a fertilizer. Although nitrogen is expressed as the actual percentage of nitrogen in the fertilizer , phosphorus is expressed as percentage of phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5) and potassium as the percentage of potassium oxide(K,O) in the fertilizer. Phosphorus pentoxide is only 44% actual phosphorus and potassium oxide as only 83% actual potassium. Thus,a fertilizer described as 10-10-l0(N-P-K) could also be written as 10-4. 43-8.3(N-P-K) if the percentages of elemental N,P , and K were used. Most trade journals use the 10-10-10system , but scientific literature frequently uses percentages of elemental N,P, and K. The rest of the plant nutrients required for proper growth are expressed as a percentage of the actual element present.WaterIn the past many growers have said that the person at the end of the hose determines plant quality. Today the saying holdstrue , except that the hose has been replaced or supplemented with a variety of automaied systems ranging from flood irrigation to overhead booms. In addition,a variety of factors other than plant quality need to be considered , including cost , water runoff , and nutrition.Despite the advances in irrigation technology. water still performs the same role in plant growth. Nutrients are transported in water from the medium up through the roots to the shoots.Water is responsible for the ability of most plants to standupright because nonlignified cells cannot remain turgid without water. Transpiration of water cools plant tissues. Most importantly , water maintains protoplasm in the cells allowing enzymes and other cellular functions to occur.MediaA good grower will invest much time and money into developing or selecting suitable media. Media provide water, nutrients, and support for the whole plant. Roots require oxygen,so media must provide for good gas exchange. Many growers believe that a majority of the problems that occur during production are linked to the growing media and the roots. Consequently , growers often test several media to select one that works best for them. Growers should never use an untested medium for an entire crop as changing a medium often requires that the irrigation frequency and feritlizer regime also.Unit 2Part A Plant Growth Factors Which Affect Nursery Crop ProductionPart B PruningUnit 3Part A Sexual Propagation of FlowerPart B ManagementUnit 4Part A Asexual Propagation of FlowerPart B Others Asexual Propagation MethodsUnit 5Part A Nursery Container Production OverviewPart B Potting MediaUnit 6Part A Cultivation of Specific Woody Crop GroupsPart B Calculating Plant NeedsUnit 7Part A General Principles of Postharvest Physiology Part B Storage of Cut Flowers and Potted PlantsUnit 8Part A GerberaPart B HederaUnit 9Part A Genetic Engineering for Cut-Flower Improvement Part B GeophytesUnit 10Part A How to Establish a Healthy New LawnPart B Managing Turf in ShadeUnit 11Part A Vegetable Seed SaversPart B Storing Seeds for LongevityUnit 12Part A Breeding MethodsPart B Plant ImprovementUnit 13Part A Growing TomatoesPart B Vegetable CropsUnit 14Part A RAPD Analysis of Seed Purity in a Commercial Hybrid Cabbage Cultivar Part B The Polymerase Chain Reaction Unit 15Part A Propagation of Nursery StockPart B Propagation of Fruit TreesUnit 16Part A Growing Apple TreesPart B Growing Plum TreesUnit 17Part A Pruning of Apple TreesPart B Pruning and Training Fruit TreesUnit 18Part A Breeding Techniques of Apples Part B Evaluation of Fruit。
英挪合作研发新型薄膜太阳能电池
黄兴山
【期刊名称】《中外能源》
【年(卷),期】2011(16)1
【摘要】英国莱斯特大学近日宣布,该大学正与一家挪威公司合作研发像玻璃贴膜一样的新型太阳能电池,它既能发电又可透光,有望广泛应用于建筑物屋顶或门窗等处。
据介绍,这种电池材料是通过在透明化合物中嵌入直径10纳米左右的金属微粒而获得。
【总页数】1页(P47-47)
【关键词】薄膜太阳能电池;研发;合作;玻璃贴膜;金属微粒;电池材料;建筑物;化合物【作者】黄兴山
【作者单位】
【正文语种】中文
【中图分类】TM914.42
【相关文献】
1.英国合作研发新型薄膜太阳能电池 [J],
2.美研发出新型透明太阳能电池薄膜 [J], 无
3.美国研发出新型透明太阳能电池薄膜 [J],
4.以半导体和富勒烯为原料美研发出新型透明太阳能电池薄膜 [J],
5.英挪合作研发新型薄膜太阳能电池发电还透光 [J],
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94WORLD ENVIRONMENT2021年第6期 总第193期Michael Braungart迈克尔·布朗嘉特（Michael Braungart），是总部位于德国汉堡的国际环境研究和咨询机构（EPEA）以及非营利研究中心（Hamburger Umweltinstitut）的创始人，也是美国弗吉尼亚州夏洛茨维尔市麦克唐纳·布朗嘉特设计化学公司（MBDC）的联合创始人和科学总监、美国加利福尼亚“从摇篮到摇篮”产品认证中心（C2CPII）的联合创始人。
布朗嘉特曾在康斯坦茨大学、达姆施塔特大学、汉诺威大学和苏黎世大学学习化学化工专业。
20世纪80年代，他在环保组织——绿色和平工作，自1982年开始帮助建立德国绿色和平组织的国际化学部，并于1985年接管该部门。
同年，他在汉诺威大学化学系获得博士学位。
为了解决复杂的环境问题，绿色和平于1987年成立了EPEA。
从那时起，布朗嘉特便开始投入到帮助企业探索符合“从摇篮到摇篮”生态效益理念的实施方案的咨询工作中，即产品和生产过程应该是安全且循环的，不仅对人或自然无害，而且有益社会的和谐发展。
“从摇篮到摇篮”理念的一个核心思想是“智慧产品系统”（IPS），致力于创造可以循环且具有经济和社会效益的产品。
1994年，布朗嘉特成为德国吕内堡大学的工业工程教授，现在担任“从摇篮到摇篮和生态效益”学院的主席。
从2008年秋天开始，他也在鹿特丹伊拉斯谟大学和荷兰研究所（DRIFT）教授“从摇篮到摇篮”的课程。
从2011年到2017年，他在鹿特丹管理学院（RSM）教授“从摇篮到摇篮——创新与质量”的课程，现在他仍是该学院的访问教授。
此前（1994-1998年）布朗嘉特曾在美国宾夕法尼亚州匹兹堡的卡耐基梅隆大学、美国弗吉尼亚州夏洛茨维尔的达顿商学院、德国魏玛的包豪斯大学和英国卡迪夫的威尔士大学工作过，他目前还是荷兰代尔夫特理工大学、荷兰恩斯赫德特温特设计大学和慕尼黑理工大学建筑技术专业的客座教授。
可持续发展成就美国阔叶木全球市场
王霄京
【期刊名称】《中国建材》
【年(卷),期】2006()7
【总页数】2页(P60-61)
【关键词】阔叶木;全球市场;委员会;东南亚;美国;深圳;年会;中华;可持续;家具设计师
【作者】王霄京
【作者单位】《中国建材》记者
【正文语种】中文
【中图分类】F416.7;TS749.1
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OPTIMUM GREEN ROOF FOR BRISBANE BY JOSH KIDDDecember 2005This thesis was prepared as partial requirement for graduation with a Bachelor's of Engineering (civil) from the University of Queensland, and explores Green Roofs and their ability to reduce storm water runoff in Brisbane, Australia, a theory based simulation of local rainfall versus soil retention and plant transpiration. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis report would not have been possible without the generous help of the following people and organisations:§Bureau of Meteorology§Geoff Connellan, Burnley College, University of Melbourne§Green Australia§Geoimage Australia§Greening Australia Queensland§Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries Queensland§Sheridan Nurseries, Canada§Adaptation & Impacts Research Group, University of Toronto, Canada§Clifton Park Turf, Queensland§David Lockington§Natural Heritage Trust§Brisbane City Council§EPAABSTRACTManaging stormwater runoff is an increasing problem for cities around the world, and Brisbane is no exception. With limited treatment of urban and residential runoff, pollution is free to flow directly into natural waterways with irreversible impacts. One method of reducing stormwater runoff is ‘Green Roofs’. Initially designed to provide insulation in cold climates such as Iceland and Scandinavia, Green Roofs have recently been developed to harness their water retention capabilities to reduce runoff in urban areas. By using a layer of vegetation instead of traditional impervious roofing systems, a large amount of rainfall can be retained and returned to the atmosphere via evapotranspiration.Although not widely recognized in Australia, Green Roofs are slowly becoming an accepted technique for improving stormwater management around the world. The purpose of this report is to evaluate Green Roofs as a technique for relieving stormwater runoff.Using average pan evaporation rates and crop factors, the water used by different vegetation was estimated. Then an appropriate soil was selected based on plant available water and infiltration rate. Using a simple water flow spreadsheet, the water retention of varying soil depths was simulated for each type of vegetation. After determining optimum depths for sustaining plant life, runoff reductions for each vegetation simulation were calculated.The water flow simulations demonstrated that runoff reductions of up to 42% could be achieved with only 100mm of soil planted with moderate growth turf. As the soil depth and vegetation water use increased, so did the retention capacity of the Green Roof, however larger soil depths result in larger loads imposed on the structure.TABLE OF CONTENTS1INTRODUCTION11.1 What is Stormwater Runoff? 11.2 Stormwater Impacts 21.2.1 Erosion 21.2.2 Pollution 21.2.3 Cost 41.3 Purpose of this report 52BACKGROUND52.1 What is a Green Roof?Error! Bookmark not defined.52.1.1 History of the Green Roof 52.1.2 How does a Green Roof work? 72.2 Green Roof Techniques 82.2.1 Intensive Green Roof’s 82.2.2 Extensive Green Roof’s Error! Bookmark not defined.92.3 Green Roof Benefits Error! Bookmark not defined.102.3.1 Stormwater Management 112.3.2 Energy Conservation 112.3.3 Sound Insulation 112.3.4 Protection of roof membrane Error! Bookmark not defined.122.3.5 Reduction of the Urban Hetat Island Effect 122.3.6 Improved Air Quality Error! Bookmark not defined.132.3.7 Habitat and Biodiversity 132.3.8 Food Production Error! Bookmark not defined.142.3.9 Property Values Error! Bookmark not defined.143GREEN ROOF DESIGN143.1 Brisbane Climate Conditions 143.2 Vegetation Water Use Error! Bookmark not defined.153.2.1 The Crop Factor Method 153.3 Soil Selection Error! Bookmark not defined.173.4 Soil Depth Error! Bookmark not defined.183.4.1 Water Flow Model 183.4.2 Best Month to Water 193.4.2 Simulation Results 194STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS264.1 Green Roof Loads 264.2 Waterproofing Integrity Error! Bookmark not defined.274.3 Maintenance Error! Bookmark not defined.284.3.1 Watering and Fertilizing 284.3.2 Trimming and Weeding 284.3.3 Inspection for Drainage Error! Bookmark not defined.294.3.4 Inspection for Leaks 294.3.5 Roof Replacement Error! Bookmark not defined.295RESULTS29 5.1 Runoff Reductions 306CONCLUSIONS30 7REFERENCES32 8APPENDIXES33LIST OF FIGURESFigure 1: Changes in runoff flows due to impervious surfaces2Figure 2: Stormwater pipe spilling into a river 3Figure 3: Hanging gardens of Babylon 5Figure 4: Sod roof (Iceland) 6Figure 5: Modern Green Roof (Rockefeller Centre, New York City) 6 Figure 6: Green Roof System7Figure 7: Intensive Green Roof (Vancouver Coast Plaza Hotel)9 Figure 8: Extensive Green Roof (Ford assembly plant, Dearborn, MI)10 Figure 9: Schiphol International Airport in Amsterdam12Figure 10: Heat Island Effect13Figure 11: Fairmont Hotel vegetable garden (Vancouver)14Figure 12: Brisbane monthly rainfall/evaporation15Figure 13: vegetation monthly ET rates17Figure 14: Soil depth versus water retention18Figure 15: Turf (moderate growth) simulation20Figure 16: Turf (strong growth) simulation 21Figure 17: Turf (vigorous growth) simulation22Figure 18: Vegetable simulation22Figure 19: Groundcover simulation23Figure 20: Shrub simulation24Figure 21: Tree simulation25Figure 22: Annual runoff reductions29LIST OF TABLESTable 1: Crop Factors16Table 2: Soil Properties17Table 3: Water Flow Model example19 Table 4: Soil depth versus weight26Table 5: Conventional roof material loads 271 INTRODUCTIONEconomic, social and environmental change in Brisbane is inherent to development. Whilst development aims to bring about positive change it can lead to conflicts both socially and environmentally. In the past, the promotion of economic growth as the motor for increased well-being was the main development thrust. However, with a population surge predicted over the next 50 years for South East Queensland, the need to avoid adverse impacts is of great importance.One of the main issues associated with urban areas in Brisbane is Stormwater Runoff. During any rain event, stormwater has the potential to cause irreversible damage to local ecosystems via erosion and water borne pollution. With noticeable degradation in the Brisbane River, freshwater creeks, and Moreton Bay, runoff is rapidly becoming an area of concern. This project aims to evaluate Green Roof Urban Design as a method for reducing Stormwater Runoff in Brisbane.1.1 What is Stormwater Runoff?Storm water runoff is rainfall that flows off any surface into natural or man-made drainage ways. In natural areas most rainfall is able to infiltrate the ground cover (Figure 1) and naturally enter the atmosphere via a combination of surface evaporation and plant transpiration known as evapotranspiration, with remaining runoff entering the ocean via streams and rivers. In other cases, particularly urbanized areas, rainfall is unable to penetrate impervious surfaces (Figure 1) and drains directly into streets and man-made drainage systems consisting of inlets and underground pipes commonly referred to as ‘storm sewers’. These sewers are not to be confused with sanitary sewers that transport human and industrial wastewaters to a treatment plant before discharge to surface waters. Storm water entering storm sewers does not receive any treatment before it enters streams, lakes and other surface waters. As more houses, roads and businesses are constructed, water has nowhere to go and can cause serious drainage, pollutant, and sanitation problems.Figure 1: Changes in runoff flows due to impervious surfaces (Tourbier, 1981.)1.2 Stormwater ImpactsThere are number of environmental and economic impacts associated with storm water runoff in the South East Queensland. The 3 main impacts are:§Erosion and Flooding§Pollution§Cost1.2.1 Erosion and FloodingOne of the major factors affecting stormwater erosion and flooding potential is the degree of development in the catchment area draining to the creek or river (DWQ 2005). Urban developments such as car parks, roads, shops and other buildings result in the replacement of porous natural surfaces with impervious surfaces. This has two effects on stormwater runoff. First, the volume of runoff tends to increase significantly. Second, the peak rate of runoff also increases. Both effects significantly increase the erosion and flooding potential of stormwater discharges, resulting in degradation of natural areas due to more frequent and severe flooding. As the erosion and flooding potential increases, so does the ability of stormwater flows to collect large amounts of pollution and transport it into natural areas.1.2.2 PollutionPollution from storm water runoff is a major concern, especially in urban areas. Rainwater washing across building rooftops, streets and other impervious surfaces can pick up spilled oil, detergents, solvents, de-icing salt, pesticides, fertilizer, andbacteria. Stormwater drains do not typically channel water to treatment facilities, butcarry runoff directly into streams, rivers, and lakes (Figure 2). Pollutants in storm-water can increase algae content, reduce aquatic life, and require additional costly treatment to make the water potable for downstream water systems.Figure 2: Stormwater pipe spilling into a riverCommon stormwater pollutants are summarized below, along with their potential sources and types of impacts they may cause (DWQ 2005).Sediment § Sediment is often viewed as the largest pollutant load associatedwith stormwater runoff in an urban setting. The loadings have been shown to be exceptionally high in the case of construction activity.§ Sediment is associated with numerous impacts in surface waters including increased turbidity, effects on aquatic and benthic habitat and reduction in capacity of impoundments.§ A number of other pollutants often attach to, and are carried by, sediment particles. Nutrients§The nutrients most often identified in stormwater runoff are phosphorus and nitrogen.§ In surface waters, these nutrient loads can lead to heavy algaegrowth, eutrophication (especially in impoundments) and low dissolved oxygen levels.§ Nutrients enter the urban system in a variety of ways, including landscaping practices (commercial and home), leaks from sanitary sewers and septic systems, and animal wastes.Organic Matter§Various forms of organic matter may be carried by stormwater in urban areas. Decomposition of this material by organisms in surface waters results in depleted oxygen levels.§ Low levels of dissolved oxygen severely impact water qualityand life within surface waters.§ Sources of organic matter include leaking septic systems,garbage, yard waste, etc.Bacteria §High bacterial levels may be found in stormwater runoff as aresult of leaking sanitary systems, garbage, pet waste, etc.§The impacts of bacteria on surface waters may affectrecreational uses and aquatic life as well as impose health risks.Oil and Grease §Numerous activities in urban areas produce oil, grease, and lubricating agents that are readily transported by stormwater. §The intensity of activities, including vehicle traffic, maintenance and fuelling activities, leaks and spills, and manufacturingprocesses within an urban setting contribute heavily to the level of these pollutants present in adjacent surface waters.Toxic Substances §Many toxic substances are potentially associated with urban stormwater including metals, pesticides, herbicides andhydrocarbons.§Toxic compounds may affect biological systems, and accumulate in bottom sediments of surface waters.Heavy Metals §Heavy metals such as copper, lead, zinc, arsenic, chromium and cadmium may be typically found in urban stormwater runoff. §Metals in stormwater may be toxic to some aquatic life and may accumulate in aquatic animals.§Urban sources of metals in stormwater may include automobiles, paints, preservatives, motor oil and various urban activities.Temperature §Stormwater runoff increases in temperature as it flows overimpervious surfaces. In addition, water stored in shallow,unshaded ponds and impoundments can increase in temperature.§Removal of natural vegetation (such as tree canopy) opens upwater bodies to direct solar radiation.§Elevated water temperatures can impact a water body’s ability to support certain fish and aquatic organisms.1.2.3 CostStorm water management is an expensive business in urban areas. To alleviate the effects of runoff, local authorities spend a large percentage of government funds on storm water and sewerage infrastructure such as bio-retention basins, sediment basins, sand filters, swales, gutters, pipes and drains. This year the Brisbane City Council intends to spend nearly 500 million dollars to reduce stormwater impacts such as flooding and waterway degradation (Newman 2005). Other costs arise from storm water pollution, and its effect on local economies such as fisheries, tourism and recreation related businesses.1.3 Purpose of this reportThe objective of this study is to investigate Green Roofs as a method of reducing stormwater runoff in Brisbane. This will be achieved by comparing different methodsof Green Roof design, and calculating runoff reductions using soil and ecology theory.2 BACKGROUNDThe importance of implementing Green Roof systems in urban centres is becoming recognized worldwide. Initially inspired by the sod roofs seen in rural Iceland over several centuries, Green Roofs have been adopted by municipalities as a pragmatic means of ameliorating environmental impacts associated with storm water runoff.2.1 What is a Green Roof?A Green Roof, also known as a vegetated or eco-roof is an engineered roofing system that allows for the propagation of rooftop vegetation while protecting the integrity of the underlying roof (Earth Pledge 2005). While conventional roof gardens rely on heavy pots and planters, Green Roof systems allow for much more extensive cultivation of plant life across wide expanses of a given rooftop, thus replacing the vegetated footprint that was destroyed when the building was constructed. Throughout history there have always been Green Roofs of various types. Until recently, they had been forgotten or had sunk into obscurity, only to be "re-discovered" and further developed.2.1.1 History of the Green RoofThe history of Green Roofs dates back to 500 B.C. when King Nebuchadnezzar commissioned the Hanging Gardens of Babylon (Figure 3) as a gift to his wife Semiramis ( 2005). Considered one of the Seven Wonders of the World, these terraced structures were built over arched stone beams and waterproofed with layers of reeds and thick tar. With an area of roughly 2,000m2, the gardens consisted of trees, bushes, climbing plants, and exotic spices (Rohrbach 2003).Figure 3: Hanging gardens of BabylonFrom the ancient Hanging Gardens of Babylon to the modern aesthetics of Le Corbusier’s “New Architecture,” integrating nature into urban design has always been a natural step (Rohrbach 2003). The original inspiration for contemporary Green Roofs came from rugged Iceland, where sod roofs and walls were used for insulation. Usually made of stone, timber and turf, these thick walled structures (Figure 4) were highly effective at insulating a small house during extreme winter conditions.Figure 4: Sod Roof (Iceland)In the last 100 years, the ‘Modern Green Roof’ has gradually increased in popularity. Originating in Germany, countries such as Japan, Canada and the USA have all utilised Green Roofs for their environmental and economical benefits in city centres. In Germany, an estimated 10% of buildings now have Green Roofs. The city of Tokyo enacted “Tokyo Plan 2000” on April 1, 2001. Under this plan, useable rooftop space atop new buildings larger than 1,000 m2 must be 20% green (Earth Pledge 2005). Green Roofs have been incorporated into city planning in North America in Chicago, Portland, Oregon, and Toronto, Canada. Chicago, where there is a 2,000m2 Green Roof atop the city hall, recently passed the Chicago Energy Conservation Ordinance on June 3, 2002, requiring all new or refurbished roofs to contain Green Roofs or reflective roofing (Earth Pledge 2005). The most recognizable Green Roofs in North America were installed in the 1930's on Rockefeller Centre (Figure 5) in New York City. These rooftop gardens continue to flourish today after nearly seventy years of service.Figure 5: Modern Green Roof (Rockefeller Centre, New York City)2.1.2 How does a Green Roof work?A Green Roof system (Figure 6) consists of 5 layers, each with a specific design purpose.Figure 6: Green Roof System1.Vegetation LayerThe vegetation layer is the most vital part of the Green Roof, and as such the hardest to perfect. Compatibility issues of Green Roof type, anticipated use, temperature, humidity, rainfall, and sun/shade exposure are important elements for successful plantings of any kind. Characteristics of vegetation typically used in Green Roof systems include:§drought tolerant,§shallow root systems,§regenerative qualities, and§resistance to direct radiation, frost and windPlant material can be applied to Green Roofs by several means: pre-vegetated mats or blankets; direct on-site planting of sedum cuttings and/or seed or root plants; hydro-planting; or any combination of these methods.Most importantly for the artificial environment of a Green Roof, native and culturally adaptable plants need to be reviewed for heat and drought tolerance, as most systems are designed to be low maintenance.2.Soil LayerLightweight, specially formulated soil absorbs and retains water in a controlled manner to nourish the plant life. The growing medium or soil substrate can be any mixture of native soil and organic matter. A successful soil should provide: §optimum water retention,§good drainage and aeration,§nutrient holding capacity,§stability, and§minimal weight3.Drainage LayerEvery Green Roof must have a drainage layer to carry away excess water; on very shallow Green Roofs the drainage layer may be combined with a filter layer. Unimpeded drainage is assured in Green Roof systems because the drainage layer is applied over the entire roof area. A filter layer prevents soil from clogging the drainage system, while enabling water to penetrate and nurture the plant life. The drainage layer can also include a water retention fabric to store excess water, hence increasing the capacity of the roof.4.Waterproofing LayerA roofing membrane provides the critical waterproofing layer; ideally it should waterproof the entire roof, and prevent damage to the roof construction due to plant penetration.5.Roof ConstructionThe roof construction provides a foundation to support the Green Roof system.2.2 Green Roof TechniquesModern Green Roofs can be categorized as ‘intensive’ or ‘extensive’ systems depending on the plant material and planned usage for the roof area.2.2.1 Intensive Green RoofsIntensive Green Roofs (Figure 7) are accessible gardens used for recreational and leisure purposes. The landscape variations are practically limitless as it is feasible to create an environment at roof level similar to that of any designed garden. An intensive garden requires maintenance and management throughout the year to ensure the upkeep of the garden and vegetation ( 2005). The more intensivethe landscaping, the greater the diversity options for design. There is little to restrict scope for design other than the overall weight of the system and its effect on the cost of the supporting construction.Figure 7: Intensive Green Roof (Vancouver Coast Plaza Hotel)Intensive Green Roofs have the following pros and cons:Advantages §Greater diversity of plants can be used§Good insulation properties§Accessible recreation area§Retains more stormwater runoff§More favourable conditions for plantsDisadvantages §Greater weight loading on the roof (up to 1000mm of soil)§Need for irrigation and drainage systems §Higher cost§Complex system requires expertise2.2.2 Extensive Green RoofsExtensive Green Roofs (Figure 8) are lower in weight, cost, and maintenance than intensive systems. Plants for extensive Green Roofs tend to require 100mm or less soil and little additional irrigation or care ( 2005). Typically, they include sedums, grasses, and wildflowers (see Appendix for plant list). It is important to note that extensive roofs are often unable to accommodate regular human traffic.Figure 8: extensive Green Roof (Ford assembly plant, Dearborn, MI)The pros and cons of Extensive Green Roofs include:Advantages §Lightweight construction§Suitable for any size area§Suitable for angled roofs§Low maintenance§Little technical expertise required§Relatively inexpensive§No need for irrigation and drainage systems Disadvantages §Limited choice of plants§No recreation access§Can be unattractive in winter§Plants can get stressed during drought2.3 Green Roof benefitsAs well as reducing storm water runoff and associated impacts, Green Roofs provide a range of environmental and social benefits.There are many potential benefits associated with Green Roofs. These include: §Stormwater Management§Energy Conservation§Reducing sound reflection and transmission§Prolonging the service life of roofing materials§Mitigating urban heat-island effects§Improving air quality§Creating wildlife habitat§Food production, and§Increased property values.5.2.1 Stormwater ManagementThe most important benefit of a Green Roof, as evaluated in this report, is the ability to reduce stormwater runoff. Instead of draining off the roof, where it can become a burden to a city’s infrastructure and ecosystem, a significant portion of stormwater is absorbed by the soil and, in turn, by the plant life. By retaining rainfall, Green Roofs aid in alleviating pressure on drainage systems helping to reduce pollution, erosion, and flooding.5.2.2 Energy ConservationAlthough initially designed to insulate houses in the cold conditions of Iceland and Scandinavia, Green Roofs offer similar benefits in warm climates. An unprotected or poorly insulated roof made from hard impervious construction materials such as concrete, stone, asphalt or tarmac, absorb solar energy and increase overall building temperatures. By providing shade and reducing heat absorption (twice as efficient as reflective roof surfaces), a Green Roof can significantly reduce the temperature of a building, hence reducing cooling costs. Environment Canada have found that a one story building with a 100mm deep grass roof can result in a 25% reduction in summer cooling needs. Chicago’s City Hall, which has a large Green Roof, is expected to save up to $5,000 a year in heating and cooling costs due to the roof (Earth Pledge 2005).Citywide Green Roof implementation has the potential to reduce the ambient air temperature in a city. Lower temperatures during summer months result in decreased demand for electricity. During winter months, Green Roofs can provide important insulation, reducing the demand for heat energy.5.2.3 Sound InsulationIt is certain that Green Roofs can be used as an effective sound attenuation system. The combination of soil, plants and trapped layers of air within Green Roof systems can act as a sound insulation barrier. Sound waves are absorbed, reflected or deflected. The growing medium tends to block lower sound frequencies whilst the plants block higher frequencies ( 2005). The amount of sound insulation is dependent on the system used and the substrate depth. Green Roofs have been used to address sound impacts from air traffic at the Schiphol International Airport in Amsterdam (Figure 9). In this case, Green Roofs were installed on buildings that lie below the flight path on approaches to the airport, part of a plan to mitigate impacts associated with expansion of the airport ( 2005).Figure 9: Sedum covers the roof of Schiphol International Airport in Amsterdam.5.2.4 Protection of roof membraneA Green Roof can extend the lifespan of a roofing membrane by protecting it from intense UV degradation and continued expansion and contraction due to fluctuating temperatures. Most roofs have to be replaced every 15 to 20 years; the Green Roof at Rockefeller Centre (Figure 7) was constructed in the 1930’s and still has its original waterproofing membrane (Chase 2004).5.2.5 Reduction of the Urban Heat Island EffectThe term urban heat island effect refers to the difference in temperature between a city and its surrounding areas (Figure 10). The temperature in an urban area can be up to 10 degrees hotter due to the following factors (Heat Island Group 2000): §Displacement of trees and vegetation minimizes the natural cooling effects of shading and evaporation of water from soil and leaves (evapotranspiration).§Tall buildings and narrow streets can heat air trapped between them and reduce air flow.§Waste heat from vehicles, factories, and air conditioners add warmth to their surroundings, further exacerbating the heat island effect.§In addition to these factors, heat island intensities depend on an area's weather and climate, proximity to water bodies, and topography.Figure 10: Heat Island EffectGreen Roofs combat the urban heat island effect due to the increased vegetation they bring to the urban landscape. Plants cool their surrounding environments through evapotranspiration, hence reducing the overall temperature of the city ( 2005). With more Green Roofs in the city and less bitumen and concrete, our cities can be cooled down.5.2.6 Improved Air QualityTo most Australians, urban and regional air pollution is today’s greatest environmental threat. Industry, power generation and motor vehicles release pollutants that may lead to photochemical smog, haze, and acidification. Brisbane traffic alone emits nearly 60,000 tonnes of carbon monoxide and nitrous oxide every year (Lockington 2005). The nature of air pollution and the impact it may have depend on a host of factors. These include the pollutant source, reactions in the atmosphere, transport by winds, and land features.Air pollution problems can often be reduced using Green Roofs. Any vegetation has the ability to filter air by absorbing and converting carbon dioxide and producing oxygen. In Frankfurt Germany, for example, a street without trees had an air pollution count of 10-20,000 dirt particles per litre of air and a treed street in the same neighbourhood had an air pollution count of less than a third of that amount (Peck & Kuhn 2005). Based on data from Environment Canada, a grass roof with 2,000 m2 of unmown grass could cleanse 4,000 kg of dirt from the air per year (2 kg per m2 of roof).5.2.7 Habitat and biodiversityGreen Roofs can be home to a diverse range of wildlife. By providing a habitat free from human disturbance, birds, possums and insects can survive in busy urban environments without assistance. Studies in the United States show that, provided there is a good source of nectar, butterflies will visit gardens located as high as twenty stories (Johnson and Newton 1996). Other species found at high levels include bees on the twenty-third floor, and squirrels and birds on the nineteenth floor (Peck 1999).。
