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国家尊严的英语作文National dignity is a concept that transcends borders and cultures. It represents the respect and honor that a nation commands both within its own borders and internationally. Here is an essay on national dignity:National Dignity: The Backbone of a NationIn the tapestry of global relations, the thread of national dignity stands out as a symbol of pride and strength. It is the collective self-respect that a nation holds, reflecting its history, culture, and achievements. National dignity is not just a matter of pride; it is the foundation upon which a nation's identity and international standing are built.Historical Roots of DignityThe roots of national dignity are often found in a country's rich history and the struggles it has overcome. It is the stories of resilience and triumph that shape a nation's character and instill a sense of dignity in its people. For instance, the United States' national dignity is deeply intertwined with its founding principles of liberty and democracy, which have been tested and upheld through various historical events.Cultural SignificanceCulture plays a pivotal role in defining national dignity. It is through the arts, traditions, and values that a nation expresses its unique identity. The preservation and promotion of cultural heritage are crucial in maintaining a nation's dignity. For example, China's long-standing civilization and its contributions to philosophy, science, and art have been instrumental in shaping its national dignity.Economic and Political StrengthA nation's economic and political strength are also integral to its dignity. Prosperity and stability contribute to a nation's ability to assert itself on the global stage. Countries that are economically robust and politically stable are often seen as dignified, as they can influence global decisions and provide for their citizens.International RelationsIn the realm of international relations, national dignity is upheld through diplomacy and respect for international law. Nations that are respected by their peers are those that adhere to the principles of fairness, cooperation, and mutual respect. This respect is earned through consistent behavior and adherence to the rules that govern global interactions.Citizen ResponsibilityUltimately, the responsibility of upholding national dignitylies with the citizens. It is through the actions and behavior of individuals that a nation's dignity is either reinforced or diminished. Citizens must be educated about the importance of national dignity and encouraged to contribute positively to their country's image.ConclusionNational dignity is a multifaceted concept that encompasses a nation's history, culture, economic strength, political stability, and international standing. It is a precious asset that must be nurtured and protected. As citizens, we must strive to uphold our nation's dignity, both within our borders and on the world stage, ensuring that our country is respected and honored for its unique contributions to humanity.This essay touches upon various aspects that contribute to the concept of national dignity, providing a comprehensive view of what it entails and why it is important.。
The Emblems of Nations: National Flagsand MascotsIn the tapestry of the world, each nation stands unique, distinguished by its symbols and icons. Among these, the national flag and the representative animal occupy a prominent place, reflecting the essence and spirit of the country. These symbols are not just visual representations; they are embodiments of the nation's history, culture, and aspirations.The national flag is the most visible and recognizable symbol of a country. It flies proudly, representing theunity and sovereignty of the nation. The colors, patterns, and designs of the flag often have deep meanings and historical significance. For instance, the flag of the United States, with its red, white, and blue stripes andthe fifty stars representing the states, symbolizes liberty, justice, and the unity of the nation. Similarly, the flagof China, with its red background and the yellow five-pointed star, represents the revolutionary spirit and the leadership of the Communist Party of China.On the other hand, the representative animal, often called the mascot or the national animal, is another symbol that captures the essence of a nation. These animals are chosen based on their unique characteristics, whichresonate with the national identity and values. For example, the eagle is a powerful symbol associated with the United States, embodying the nation's spirit of strength and freedom. The panda, a national treasure of China, is a symbol of peace and friendship, reflecting the country's diplomatic approach.The combination of the national flag and the representative animal creates a powerful narrative thattells the story of a nation. These symbols are not just for display; they are tools of national pride and unity. They inspire citizens to uphold the values and idealsrepresented by these icons and to strive for the betterment of their country.Furthermore, these symbols play a significant role in international relations. When representatives of a country travel to another nation, the national flag and the representative animal accompany them, serving asambassadors of the nation's culture and spirit. They foster a sense of camaraderie and understanding between different countries, promoting peace and cooperation.In conclusion, the national flag and the representative animal are invaluable symbols that define a nation. They are more than just visual representations; they are embodiments of a country's history, culture, and aspirations. These symbols unite citizens, inspire pride, and foster international understanding and cooperation. As we look towards the future, it is essential to cherish and uphold these symbols, ensuring that they continue to represent the best of our nations.**国家象征：国旗与代表动物**在世界的织锦中，每个国家都独一无二，以其符号和图标为标志。
公共场所双语标识英文译法English Translation of Public Signs第4部分体育场馆Part 4: Stadium and Gymnasium1 范围DB11/T 334本部分规定了北京市体育场馆双语标识英文译法的原则。
本部分适用于北京市体育场所中的英文标识译法。
2 规范性引用文件下列文件中的条款通过本部分的引用而成为本部分的条款。
凡是注日期的引用文件, 其随后所有的修改单（不包括勘误的内容）或修订版均不适用于本部分,然而, 鼓励根据本部分达成协议的各方研究是否可使用这些文件的最新版本。
凡是不注日期的引用文件, 其最新版本适用于本部分。
GB/T 16159-1996 汉语拼音正词法基本规则3 术语和定义下列术语和定义适用于本部分。
3.1 体育场stadium3.2 指有400米跑道(中心含足球场), 有固定道牙, 跑道6条以上, 并有固定看台的室外田径场地。
3.3 体育馆gymnasium/indoor stadium3.4 指具备基础服务, 包括运动、健身、娱乐、休闲、比赛以及安全保障等功能的设施。
3.5 游泳馆natatorium4 指用钢筋混凝土或砖石建造池身, 使用人工引水有固定看台的室内游泳池。
5 分类6 体育场馆的英语标识按内容可分为: 警示提示信息、功能设施信息、运动项目及场馆名称等信息。
7 具体要求7.1 警示提示信息译法原则参照本标准通则的规定。
7.2 功能设施信息7.3 体育功能设施涉及许多专门的体育和电视转播专业词汇按国际通用表示方法翻译。
如在奥运场馆中, 主体育场译为Main Stadium、主新闻中心译为Main Press Center、运营区/场馆工作区译为BOH（Back of House）、通行区/场馆公众区译为FOH (Front of House)。
7.4 运动项目信息7.5 遵循国际惯例采用英文直接翻译。
如竞技体操和艺术体操的译法特别容易混淆, 应译为竞技体操Artistic Gymnastics、艺术体操Rhythmic Gymnastics。
小学上册英语第2单元真题试卷英语试题一、综合题(本题有100小题，每小题1分，共100分.每小题不选、错误，均不给分)1.The invention of the printing press revolutionized the spread of _____.2.What is 15 divided by 3?A. 3B. 4C. 5D. 6C 53.I want to ________ a new bike.4.What is the main language spoken in France?A. SpanishB. FrenchC. ItalianD. GermanB5.The chemical symbol for scandium is ______.6.The _____ is a region of space with a lot of stars.7.My brother is playing ________.8.The ________ (cello) is a musical instrument.9. A reaction that occurs between an acid and a base produces ______.10.What color is an orange?A. BlueB. OrangeC. GreenD. PurpleB11.What is the opposite of "happy"?A. SadB. AngryC. JoyfulD. ExcitedA12.The chemical formula for barium hydroxide is _____.13.The __________ (未来展望) shapes our dreams.14.What is the main ingredient in a cake?A. FlourB. SaltC. SugarD. ButterA15.I like _______ (观察) the stars at night.16.Liquid nitrogen is used as a _____ (cryogenic fluid) in laboratories.17.What do you call a young female horse?A. ColtB. FillyC. MareD. FoalB18.The fruit salad is ________ (新鲜).19.What is the opposite of 'wet'?A. DryB. DampC. MoistD. All of the aboveD20.His favorite singer is a ________.21.The ______ thrives in tropical climates.22.I love _____ (toys/books).23.What do we call a person who studies physical activity?A. KinesiologistB. PhysiotherapistC. Exercise ScientistD. All of the above24.I want to be a ________ when I grow up.25.I love to watch _____ (蝴蝶) visit the flowers.26.My aunt loves to __________. (种花)27.What do you call a group of lions?A. PackB. PrideC. FlockD. Pod28.What is the name of the process plants use to make food?A. PhotosynthesisB. RespirationC. DigestionD. Fermentation29.The birds _______ (飞) in the sky.30.Many fruits grow from _____ (树) or bushes.31.The _____ (树冠) provides shelter for birds.32. A chemical reaction requires a change in ______.33.I love chocolate ___. (cake)34. A tortoise can live for over a ________________ (百年).35.Can you help me _____ (find/lose) my toy?36. A __________ is a famous mountain range in North America.37.The __________ (文化差异) can enrich social interactions.38.I can see a ___. (star)39.He is my best _____ (同学).40.The _____ (向日葵) is tall and bright.41.What do we call a story that is believed to be true but cannot be proven?A. FableB. MythC. LegendD. FolkloreC42.I like to eat _____ for lunch. (sandwiches)43.The _______ (马) is running fast.44.The __________ is a famous mountain range in the United States. (落基山脉)45.What is 18 + 2?A. 19B. 20C. 21D. 22B46.What do we call the place where we can see old things?A. MuseumB. GalleryC. LibraryD. Theater47.The process of photosynthesis converts sunlight into __________.48.My brother is a ______. He enjoys video editing.49.What is the name of the holiday celebrated in October?A. ThanksgivingB. HalloweenC. ChristmasD. New YearB50.The __________ (国际关系) influence trade and travel.51.Which season comes after summer?A. SpringB. WinterC. FallD. SummerC52.My brother collects ________.53.I found a ___ in my pocket. (coin)54.We visit the zoo to see ______ (动物).55.My dream job is __________ because I want to __________.56.I enjoy ___ (making) new friends.57.我的朋友喜欢 _______ (活动). 她觉得这很 _______ (形容词)58. A ______ (蜗牛) moves very slowly.59.The _____ (栽培) of plants is an important skill.60.What is the term for a young monkey?A. KidB. PupC. InfantD. BabyD Baby61.Kittens are baby _________ (猫).62.The capital of Nicaragua is ________ (马那瓜).63.What do we call an animal that eats both plants and meat?A. HerbivoreB. CarnivoreC. OmnivoreD. InsectivoreC64.What is the term for animals that eat both plants and meat?A. HerbivoresB. CarnivoresC. OmnivoresD. InsectivoresC65.The horse helps on the ______ (农场) and carries loads.66.I love to ________ (探险) in nature.67.What do we call the first meal of the day?A. LunchB. DinnerC. BrunchD. BreakfastD Breakfast68.The goat will eat almost anything, including ______ (纸).69.My uncle is a ____ (doctor) who helps sick people.70.I enjoy ______ (旅行) during the summer.71.What do we call the tool used to measure temperature?A. BarometerB. ThermometerC. HydrometerD. Altimeter72.My sister loves her _________ (玩具马) that she brushes every day.73.What is the capital of Armenia?A. YerevanB. GyumriC. VanadzorD. ArtashatA74.The ______ (小鸟) chirps in the morning.75.What do we call the process of changing from a gas to a liquid?A. EvaporationB. CondensationC. FreezingD. Melting76.Plant cells have a ______ (细胞壁) that protects them.77.The _____ (pollen) is carried by the wind.78.My teacher is ______ (善良). She always helps us with our ______ (功课).79.She is a musician, ______ (她是一位音乐家), performing at concerts.80.My mom makes the best ________.81. A ______ is a type of sea creature with tentacles.82.The __________ is the transition zone between different rock types.83.We will have a ________ (展览) at school.84.What is the capital of the Central African Republic?A. BanguiB. BouarC. BerberatiD. BambariA85.The lizard can lose its _______ (尾巴) to escape.86.__________ changes involve the formation of new substances.87.I can create a show using my ________ (玩具名称).88.The ______ (小鼠) scurries quickly across the floor.89.The ______ helps us learn about physical fitness.90.What is the name of the event where people come together to celebrate a festival?A. GatheringB. PartyC. CeremonyD. FestivalD91.__________ (酶) are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in living organisms.anic compounds contain carbon and ______.93.Carbon dioxide is produced during ______.94.What is the term for a baby goat?A. KidB. CalfC. LambD. FoalA95.The ______ (熊) hibernates during the winter months.96.The garden is ______ with flowers. (full)97.Did you see that _____ (小狗) digging in the dirt?98.What is the capital of Japan?A. TokyoB. BeijingC. SeoulD. BangkokA99.中国的历史上有很多著名的________ (battles)，如赤壁之战。
![[整理版]英语国家标志性动物和国家珍惜动物](https://img.taocdn.com/s1/m/e91ba5243868011ca300a6c30c2259010202f310.png)
英语国家标志性动物和国家珍惜动物Animals have always been used to represent certain human characteristics. Countries also use animals as symbols. From eagles to lions, many countries use an animal to show its national spirit and character.人们常常用动物来表现人类的性格。
许多国家把鹰和狮子等动物奉为国家的象征，用它们来展现民族精神和民族性格。
The image of an eagle is on the US President's flag, and on the one-dollar bill. The bald eagle is a large, powerful, brown bird with a white head and tail. The term "bald" does not mean that this bird lacks feathers. Instead, it comes from the old word piebald, that means, "marked with white".美国总统印章和一美元币上都有白头鹰的形象。
白头鹰体形很大，动作有力，羽毛呈灰色，脑袋和尾巴呈白色。
白头鹰英文名字中的"bald"并不是指它没有羽毛。
追根溯源，这个词其实来自一个旧词"piebald"，意思是“黑白相间的”。
The US declared that the eagle was its national bird in 1782. It was chosen because of "its long life, great strength, and noble looks".1782年，美国宣布白头鹰为国鸟。
小学上册英语第3单元综合卷英语试题一、综合题(本题有100小题，每小题1分，共100分.每小题不选、错误，均不给分)1.In a solution, the substance present in the greatest amount is called the ________.2. A ________ is a large, flat area of grassland.3.Fruits provide essential ______ for our bodies. (水果为我们的身体提供必需的营养。
)4.I like to _____ my lunch at school. (eat)anic compounds contain _______ atoms.6.What is the largest mammal in the world?A. ElephantB. Blue WhaleC. GiraffeD. RhinocerosB7.She has a beautiful __________.8.She is a good ________.9.He is playing with his ___. (toys)10.The main component of hemoglobin is _____.11.Which animal is known for its long neck?A. ElephantB. GiraffeC. ZebraD. Kangaroo12.The United Kingdom is made up of England, Scotland, Wales, and ________.13.The rabbit hops _____ (quickly/slowly).14.What is the largest organ in the human body?A. HeartB. LiverC. SkinD. Brain15.I see a _____ (mouse) in my house.16.The ________ is a colorful bird that sings.17.The _______ (犬) is often considered man's best friend.18.I have a lot of fun with my toy ____ set. (玩具名称)19.The __________ is perfect for a picnic in the park. (天气)20. A ______ (骆驼) can survive without water for days.21.The __________ (葡萄牙) was a major player in the Age of Exploration.22.What do we call the study of heredity and variation?A. GeneticsB. EvolutionC. BiologyD. Ecology23.What is the capital city of Italy?A. RomeB. FlorenceC. VeniceD. MilanA24. A solution that does not conduct electricity is called a _______.25.The monkey swings from ______ to ______.26.What do we use to write?A. BrushB. PencilC. SpoonD. ForkB27.The _____ (草地) is perfect for playing outside.28.I enjoy making my own games using my ________ (玩具名). It sparks my imagination.29.The ________ Revolution began in the late 18th century.30.My ________ (玩具名称) can change shapes easily.31.The children are ___ in the park. (running)32.The octopus can taste with its ______ (触手).33.What animal is known as “man's best friend”?A. CatB. DogC. RabbitD. Hamster34.Cosmic rays are high-energy particles that travel through ______.35.The capital of Samoa is __________.36. A _____ (种子库) preserves different types of seeds.37.What is the opposite of "cold"?A. CoolB. WarmC. HotD. FreezingC38.I have a toy _______ that can spin and twirl around.39.I enjoy drawing and painting in my free time.40.What is the name of the largest freshwater lake in the world?A. Lake SuperiorB. Lake VictoriaC. Caspian SeaD. Lake BaikalD41.The capital of Russia is _____ (51).42.My sister loves to _______ (动词) in the park. 我们常常一起 _______ (动词).43.The ______ teaches us about famous historical figures.44.I enjoy ______ with my family.45.__________ (测量工具) are vital for accurate chemical analysis.46.The __________ (Renaissance) was a period of great cultural revival in Europe.47.The ancient Egyptians used _______ to write on. (纸草)48.The chemical formula for silver nitrate is ______.49.My mom cooks _______ (美味的) food.50. A shooting star is also called a ______.51. A __________ is a natural phenomenon that can impact ecosystems.52.What do we call the outer layer of the Earth?A. CrustB. CoreC. MantleD. LithosphereA53.The ant is strong for its _________ (大小).54.What is the capital city of the USA?A. New YorkB. WashingtonC. Los AngelesD. ChicagoB55.My dream is to have a room full of ____. (玩具名称)56.What is the name of the famous wizard in "Harry Potter"?A. DumbledoreB. GandalfC. MerlinD. HagridA57.My teacher encouraged us to create our own ________ (漫画). I drew a funny ________ (角色).58.The _______ of sound can be affected by the distance from the source.59. A strong acid has a pH value that is ________ than60.We can _______ (跑步) fast.61.What is the capital of Peru?A. LimaB. QuitoC. BogotáD. SantiagoA62.Emma is a ______. She likes to read stories.63.The capital of Pakistan is __________.64.The _____ (土地) must be prepared before planting.65. A concentrated solution contains a high amount of ______.66.What is the main ingredient in salad?A. MeatB. VegetablesC. BreadD. Cheese67.Hydrogen is the simplest and most abundant _____.68.My _______ (蜗牛) is very slow and steady.69.The _____ (植物组织) is made up of different cells.70.My cousin is a talented ____ (dancer).71.What is the main ingredient in chocolate chip cookies?A. SugarB. FlourC. Chocolate chipsD. Eggs72.What is a comet mostly made of?A. RockB. MetalC. Ice and dustD. Gas73. A puppy loves to play with ______ (球).74.I read a _____ (书) every night.75.What is the name of the famous statue in New York Harbor?A. Christ the RedeemerB. Statue of LibertyC. DavidD. Venus de MiloB76.What is the opposite of "happy"?A. SadB. ExcitedC. JoyfulD. AngryA77.The _____ (自然资源) includes all the plants and animals.78.The _____ (watermelon) is refreshing.79.Did you see that _____ (小狗) rolling in the grass?80.My brother has a deep love for __________ (自然).81.The molecule responsible for carrying oxygen in the blood is ______.82. A __________ has a flat body and can often be found in rivers.83.We _____ (play/plays) games on weekends.84. A force can change an object’s ______.85.What is the opposite of "speak"?A. TalkB. WhisperC. SilenceD. ShoutC86.What is the capital city of Australia?A. SydneyB. MelbourneC. CanberraD. Brisbaneets have a bright tail that points away from the _______.88.What do we call an animal that lays eggs?A. MammalB. ReptileC. BirdD. Both B and C89.My cousin is very __________ (适应力强).90. Wall is one of the most famous ________ (地标). The Grea91.What is the name of the famous theme park located in California?A. DisneylandB. Universal StudiosC. SeaWorldD. LegolandA92.What do we call the act of working together toward a common goal?A. CooperationB. CollaborationC. TeamworkD. PartnershipCmunity meeting) discusses local issues. The ____94.I enjoy ______ (与朋友互动).95.The nurse plays a vital role in _____ (患者护理).96.What do you call the written record of events?A. HistoryB. ScienceC. GeographyD. MathA97.How many senses do humans have?A. 4B. 5C. 6D. 7B98.My uncle plays soccer on the ____ (weekends).99. A ____ is a friendly animal that enjoys human companionship. 100. A shadow is formed when light is ______.。
小学上册英语第4单元真题英语试题一、综合题(本题有100小题，每小题1分，共100分.每小题不选、错误，均不给分)1.The ________ is a tiny insect that helps flowers bloom.2.The type of energy that can change the state of matter is called _______ energy.3.The Earth’s shape is not a perfect sphere; it is an ______.4.在中国历史中，________ (philosophers) 的思想对社会发展产生了深远的影响。
5.Which insect produces honey?A. AntB. BeeC. FlyD. MosquitoB6.Which animal lives in a den?A. LionB. BearC. CatD. Dog7.I want to be a ________ (医生) when I grow up.8.I saw a _______ playing in the grass (我看到一只_______在草地上玩).9. A _______ is a mixture where the components can be distinguished.10.What color are most leaves in summer?A. YellowB. GreenC. RedD. BrownB11.I can ___ (sing) in the shower.12.What do you call the study of living things?A. BiologyB. ChemistryC. PhysicsD. GeologyA13.I enjoy _______ (在公园散步).14.The __________ is a major river that flows through France. (塞纳河)15.What is the name of the second-largest planet in our Solar System?A. SaturnB. JupiterC. NeptuneD. Uranus16.The symbol for argon is _______.17.The ________ is very gentle and kind.18.Black holes can be detected by observing their effects on nearby _______.19.We had a race with our toy ____. (玩具名称)20.I have a toy ________ (飞机) that can fly high in the ________ (天空).21.My dad works as a _______ (工程师).22.The ________ (lantern) lights up the night.23.How many players are there on a soccer team?A. 7B. 9C. 11D. 13C24.The ancient Romans were known for their _____ and engineering.25.The _______ (马) has a long mane.26.What is the name of the famous rock formation in the USA?A. Mount RushmoreB. Grand CanyonC. Devil's TowerD. All of the above27.Which planet is known for its rings?A. MarsB. JupiterC. SaturnD. NeptuneC28.What is the capital of Qatar?A. DohaB. Al RayyanC. Al WakrahD. LusailA29. A cactus can survive in very _______ places.30.The girl is very ________.31.My friends call me “.”32.My ______ enjoys playing with his friends.33.I enjoy ________ (动词) new toys with my family. Going to the toy store is always an exciting ________ (名词).34.The __________ Sea is located between Europe and Asia.35.The park is ______ (perfect) for picnics.36.What is the capital of Burundi?A. GitegaB. BujumburaC. NgoziD. MuyingaA37.I have a soft ______ (玩偶). I hug it when I feel ______ (伤心).38.This girl, ______ (这个女孩), enjoys painting landscapes.39.What do we call the process of a caterpillar becoming a butterfly?A. MetamorphosisB. GrowthC. EvolutionD. TransformationA40.The _______ (Hopi) are one of the Native American tribes in the Southwest.41. A _______ is a large body of saltwater.42.I planted ______ (花) in my garden. I hope they bloom ______ (快).43.What is the capital of India?A. MumbaiB. DelhiC. KolkataD. BangaloreB44.Which creature is known for spinning webs?A. AntB. SpiderC. BeeD. Fly45.What do we call a person who studies ancient artifacts?A. HistorianB. ArchaeologistC. GeologistD. AnthropologistB46.What do you call a person who creates art?A. ArtistB. PainterC. SculptorD. IllustratorA47.He is my __________. (舅舅)48.The ancient Greeks made significant contributions to ________ (数学).49.What is the name of the ocean that is located between Africa and Australia?A. Atlantic OceanB. Indian OceanC. Pacific OceanD. Arctic OceanB50.The main gases in air are nitrogen and _______.51.War was fought indirectly through ________ (代理战争). The Cold52.What is the color of a typical eggplant?A. GreenB. YellowC. PurpleD. RedC53.advocacy coalition) amplifies voices for change. The ____54.__________ are used to show the arrangement of electrons in an atom.55.What do we call a person who plays a musical instrument?A. MusicianB. ComposerC. ConductorD. SingerA56.My dad likes to _______ (动词) on weekends. 他觉得这个活动很 _______ (形容词).57.What do you call a group of wolves?A. PackB. FlockC. HerdD. School58.Listen and tick.听录音，勾出每个人所喜欢的颜色。
【国标舞】中英文名称对照表［完整版］1、国际标准舞（体育舞蹈）英文常用词汇和术语名称的翻译（1）组织名称World Dance Council 世界舞蹈理事会简称W.D.C.World DanceSport Federation 世界体育舞蹈联合会简称W.D.S.F.Imperial Society of Teacher of Dancing 英国皇家舞蹈教师协会简称I.S.T.D.International Dance Teather’s Association 国际舞蹈教师协会简称I.DT.A.International Council of Ballroom Dancing 国际交际舞理事会简称I.C.B.D.International Council of Ballroom Danving 国际业余舞蹈家理事会简称I.C.AD.China Ballroom Dance Federation中国国际标准舞总会简称C.B.D.F.China Dance Sport Federation中国体育舞蹈联合会简称C.D.S.F.（2）组织名称中国国标舞总会 CBDF国标舞特别舞台 Full Moon美国国标舞 Ballroom Dancing世界华人国标舞联合会 WUCBD国标舞误闯高中校园 Ballroom Adventure国标舞-探戈音乐精选 Ballroom Dance Collection - Tango黄宇曛可爱国标舞 Shine Huang跳国标舞的小女孩 Dancing Girl Miss Wang XY国标舞-伦巴音乐精选 Ballroom Dance Collection ; Ballroom Dance Collection -（3）舞蹈相关词汇1 Dancing 舞蹈、跳舞2 Ballroom Dancing 舞厅舞、交际舞国际体育舞蹈的通称3 Social Dancing 社交舞、交际舞舞会舞的别称4 Modern 摩登的、现代的5 Standard Dancing 标准舞6 International Style of Ballroom Dancing 国际标准交际舞7 Competition Dancing 竞技舞8 Formation Dancing 编队舞、集体舞9 Sports Dancing 体育舞蹈10 Waltz 华尔兹11 Tango 探戈12 Slow Foxtrot 狐步13 Quick Step 快步14 Viennese Waltz 维也纳华尔兹15 Latin American Dancing 拉丁美洲舞16 Rumba 伦巴 17 Samba 桑巴18 Cha-Cha-Cha 恰恰恰19 Paso Doble（西） Paso Double（法）斗牛舞\帕索多布累20 Jive 牛仔舞（4）赛场词汇1 Parrty 舞会2 Partner 舞伴\合作伴侣3 Competition 竞赛\比赛4 Champion 冠军5 Championship 锦标赛\冠军赛6 Amalgamation 组合7 Judge 裁判8 Adjudicator 舞蹈比赛评委9 Professional 专业的,职业的10 Amateur 业余的,爱好者11 Associate 学士12 Member 会士13 Fellow 范士14 Round （第x）轮，圈15 Final 决赛（5）舞蹈术语名称1 Slow 慢的记录符号为S2 Quick 快的记录符号为Q3 Double 双的,加倍的4 Repeat 重复,反复5 Natural 自然的右的,向右的记录符号为Nat6 Relax 放松,松弛7 Music 音乐8 Tempo 速度9 Rhythm 节奏10 Figure 舞步,步法11 Variation 变奏,变化步法12 Alignment(缩写Align) 步向,方位13 Amount of Turn 旋转度14 Precede 在…..之前15 Body Sway 身体倾斜简称B.S16 Swing 摆动动作摆荡17 Rise and Fall 升降动作18 Lower 低下,降低,放下19 Balance 平衡20 Step in Timing 脚步的时间每步占用的拍子21 Reverse 反转的,反的左的,向左的记录符号为Rev22 Position 位置,位子舞伴相关位置,记录符号为Pos23 Posture,Poise 舞姿,姿势24 Hold,Holding 握抱,握持25 Lead,Leading 引导,领导26 Follow,Following 跟随27 Step 步子,舞步28 Closed 关闭,闭式29 Open 开放的,开式30 Crossed 交叉的31 Closed Position 闭位式,闭式舞姿32 Facing Position 舞伴相对立位面对位33 Open Position 开式位,开式舞姿34 Promenade Position 散式舞姿,侧行位简称P.P35 Counter Promenade Position 反散式舞姿,反侧行位简称C.P.P36 Outside Partner 外侧舞姿,右外侧位记录符号为O.P37 Partner Outside 舞伴进外侧,退外侧步38 Wrong Side 左外侧位39 Line of Dancing 物程线,舞蹈线简称L.O.D40 Wall 墙,壁记录符号为W41 Centre 中央,中心记录符号为C42 Diagonal(ly) 斜向的43 Side 边,旁,侧44 Left 左记录符号为L45 Right 右记录符号为R46 Forward 向前的记录符号为Fwd47 Backward 向后的记录符号为Bwd48 Outside 外侧,边外的记录符号为O/S49 Inside 内侧,边内的50 In Line 对直线51 Partner in Line 正对舞伴52 To 衔接,向……53 With 带,带有54 Weight 重量,中心记录符号为Wt55 Without Weight 无重心,无重量记录符号为W/Owt 6 Weight Change 重心转移57 Diagonally Wall 斜向墙记录符号为DW58 Diagonally Centre 斜向中央记录符号为DC59 Syncopation,Syncopated 切分,切分的60 Progressive 行进的记录符号为Prog61 Foot 脚,足记录符号为F62 Foot Work 足着点,足部动作记录符号为Fwk63 Foot Change 换脚动作64 Toe 脚趾,脚尖记录符号为T65 Ball of Foot 脚掌记录符号为B66 Hell 脚跟记录符号为H67 Inside Edge 内侧缘记录符号为IE68 Ankle 脚踝69 Leg 腿70 Knee 膝71 Hip 臀,胯72 Waist 腰73 Breast 胸74 Shoulder 肩75 Shoulder Lesding 肩引导与动力脚同侧肩先行76 Arm 臂77 Elbow 肘78 Hand 手79 Finger 指80 Head 头81 Face 面,脸82 Technique 技术,技巧83 Contrary Body Movement 反身动作简称C.B.M.P84 Contrary Body Movement Position 反身动作位置简称C.B.M.P（6）标准舞专用术语标准舞种通用动作1 Basic Movement 基本动作2 Walk 走步，常步3 Turn 转4 Whole Turn 全转 360o角转5 Half Turn 二分之一转，半转 180o角转6 Quarter Turn 四分之一转 90o角转7 Natural Turn 右转顺转8 Reverse Turn 左转反转9 Pivot Turn 轴转撇转10 Natural Pivot Turn 右轴转右撇转11 Reverse Pivot Turn 左轴转左撇转12 Slip Pivot 滑轴转滑撇转13 Spin 疾转，旋转14 Natural Spin Turn 右旋转右疾转15 Reverse Spin Turn 左旋转左疾转16 Impetus Turn 推转顺转17 Open Impertus Turn 开式推转开式顺转，开足疾转18 Double Reverse Spin 双左疾转旋涡转19 Natural Impetus Turn 右推转右向顺转，合足疾转20 Whisk 扫步，叉行步21 Chassee(法) 并合步，追步快滑步22 Check 截步，止步23 Check Back 截步退行止步后行24 Back Check 退截步退止步25 Brush 刷步26 Break 断步27 Lock Step 锁步28 Forward Lock Step 前进锁步29 Backward Lock Step 后退锁步30 Rock 摇步，摇摆31 Wing 翼步32 Weave 纺织步迂回步33 Weave form P.P. 从P。
备战2022年中考英语题阅读专项训练专题02 2022年北京冬奥会(解析版)¤话题01 为2022年北京冬奥会招募志愿者¤话题02 介绍三届冬奥会情况¤话题03 为庆祝历届冬奥会发行的邮票¤话题04 北京冬奥会及残奥会的吉祥物¤话题05 冬奥会期间住宿预订¤话题06为冬奥会而建造的高铁的情况¤话题07 北京冬奥会的比赛项目¤话题08 冬奥会运动项目之一——冰球¤话题09 冬奥会的发展历史¤话题10 易小阳刻苦训练，为冬奥会作准备的故事Passage 1（2021·江苏·南京郑和外国语学校一模）V olunteers wanted around the world! This is your chance to have a special role in Beijing 2022. The website below can offer more information on the application details. See you in Beijing 2022●Be at least 18 years of age by January 2022.●Be able to municate in Chinese or English freely.●Be able to take part in preGames training and offer volunteer services during the Games period.Applications will be accepted from 5 December 2019 to 30 June 2021. V olunteers who are chosen will receive official notice by 30 September 2021.1．For more information on the application details, you can click on ________.A．309 likes B．152 OpinionC．D．share2．People who want to volunteer can send applications in ________.A．June 2021B．September 2021C．December 2022D．January 2022 3．A volunteer should ________.A．only e from China B．receive preGames trainingC．be above 18 by January 2021D．speak English and Chinese【答案】1．C 2．A 3．B【解析】文章是介绍2022年北京冬奥会招募志愿者的对象、要求、报名时间等。
小学上册英语第二单元真题(含答案)考试时间：90分钟（总分:110）A卷一、综合题(共计100题共100分)1. 听力题：A reaction that releases energy is called an ______ reaction.2. 听力题：My brother is very ________.3. 听力题：The phase change from solid to liquid is called ______.4. 选择题：Which animal is known as the king of the jungle?A. LionB. TigerC. ElephantD. Bear5. 听力题：In a chemical equation, the substances that react are called ______.6. 选择题：What do we call the area around the equator?A. TropicsB. PolesC. ZonesD. Continents答案:A7. 选择题：What do we call the scientific study of plants?A. BotanyB. ZoologyC. EcologyD. Geography答案: A8. 填空题：I find ________ (社会学) very interesting.9. 选择题：What is the name of the small, winged insect that produces honey?A. AntB. FlyC. BeeD. Wasp答案:C10. 听力题：The baby is ________ in the crib.11. 选择题：What is 50 ÷ 10?A. 4B. 5C. 6D. 7答案:B12. 填空题：He is a _____ (评论员) on a popular podcast.13. 听力题：The ______ teaches us about international relations.14. 填空题：The coach, ______ (教练), encourages us to do our best.15. 选择题：What is the name of the fictional superhero from Gotham City?A. SupermanB. SpidermanC. BatmanD. Ironman16. 听力题：A ______ is a type of animal that has a pouch.Many plants have adapted to survive in ______ climates. (许多植物已适应在极端气候中生存。
NATIONAL ANIMOSITY AND CROSS-BORDER ALLIANCESILGAZ ARIKAN ODED SHENKARThe Ohio State UniversityWe extend the cross-border strategic alliance knowledge base by introducing dyad-specific antagonism (animosity between nation pairs)and hold that the formation and the type of firm-level cross-border alliances are nontrivially impacted by conflicting relations and animosity between their home nations.We examine the formation of alliances between firms among nation-dyads with and without a history of conflicts.The frequency and magnitude of conflicts increase the perception of likelihood of opportunism,and dyad-specific risks materially affect the context in which firms make alliance decisions.As animosity between two nations increases,the number and the probability of forming alliances within the dyad the nations form decreases.Conditional on the expected number of alliances,increased antagonistic actions of nations outside the dyad and dissimilarity in the historical conflicts that each nation has engaged in outside the dyad (i)increase the number of equity alliances and (ii)decrease the number of nonequity alliances as a proportion of total alliances.We find positive main effects of learning to contract through prior experience only for equity (vs.nonequity)alliances.The reputation effects of antagonism based on relationships with nations outside of the dyad negatively moderate the positive learning effects of prior equity alliance experience.Cross-border strategic alliance research in man-agement and international business borrows exten-sively from economics and sociology;however,po-litical science and international relations have not been a substantial source until recently (Delios &Henisz,2003;King &Zheng,2001).This is surpris-ing,given the rich interface between political sci-ence and international business in such areas as institutional analysis,governance choices under political risk,government role,and evolving dy-namics in geopolitical settings.We propose that strategic alliances research can further benefit from political science and international relations litera-tures on conflicts between nation-states in which interfirm alliances are embedded and look beyond nation-specific risk factors by focusing on factors that are nation-dyad-specific and that affect firms.In this article,we connect these two literatures to shed light on the alliance partner selection process.We hold that the formation and type of alliances are nontrivially impacted by conflict relations between their home nations when firms perceive a greater likelihood of opportunism.We extend the current work on political hazards that looks at nation-spe-cific risk factors and introduce a new approach by studying dyadic factors (i.e.,the nation of the firm seeking to enter an alliance).Numerous explanations have been advanced to elucidate the motives for alliance formation,in-cluding learning,asset leveraging,partner knowl-edge search (Cohen &Levinthal,1990;Kale,Singh,&Perlmutter,2000;Lane,Salk,&Lyles,2001),knowledge creation (Reuer,Zollo,&Singh,2002),new market entry,transaction costs economizing (Hennart,1988;Mowery,Oxley,&Silverman,1996),interest alignment (Harrigan,1985),and tap-ping overlapping market segments (Peteraf &Shan-ley,1997).Worries about alliance underperfor-mance,such as misalignment of partner interests and lack of skills for managing partnership in un-familiar foreign environments (Shenkar &Zeira,1987),have also been proposed as influences on formation decisions.(Hamel,1991;Hill &Hellrie-gel,1994).Further,partner selection has been stud-We are indebted to associate editor Kyle Mayer and three anonymous reviewers for their help in improving this study.We are also grateful to Asli Arikan,Lorraine Eden,Witold Henisz,Joe Mahoney,Edward Mansfield,Anita McGahan,Jackson Nickerson,Joanne Oxley,Jor-dan Siegel,and Bernard Yeung for discussions and feed-back on earlier versions.We gratefully acknowledge the generous research support from the Mershon Center for International Security Studies at the Ohio State Univer-sity,and the OSU CIBER.The usual caveats apply.1516Academy of Management Journal 2013,Vol.56,No.6,1516–1544./10.5465/amj.2011.0210Copyright of the Academy of Management,all rights reserved.Contents may not be copied,emailed,posted to a listserv,or otherwise transmitted without the copyright holder’s express written ers may print,download,or email articles for individual use only.ied as a transactional feature(Reuer et al.,2002), wherein previous cooperative experiences favor friends over strangers and strangers over acquain-tances(Li,Eden,Hitt,&Ireland,2008).Trust was identified as the operative construct that distin-guished potential partners,given exchange vulner-abilities and firms’governance mechanisms(Bar-ney&Hansen,1994).In this study,we advance the argument that na-tional animosity,for which we use past national conflict as proxy,can materially bias alliance for-mation.In particular,we argue that firms’decision to form alliances and the level of commitment em-bedded in organizational boundary choices will be strongly influenced by the existence of antagonism between nation-dyads because firms perceive a greater likelihood of opportunism in these con-texts.During alliance formation,a complex and multilevel process occurs.A variety of economic and quasi-rational noneconomic assessments of costs and benefits,filtered through behavioral pro-cesses of perception and interpretation(Tallman& Shenkar,1994),guide this process.Therefore,de-cisions for or against forming alliances with partic-ular partners are influenced by both macrolevel determinants,such as societal,political,institu-tional,and national context(Henisz,2000a),and microlevel determinants,such as individual deci-sion-making heuristics,stereotypes,and prejudices (Cyert&March,1963).These effects extend to par-ticular country selection,entry mode,and level of commitment in new alliances.Thus,we focus on how political,cultural,and historical factors shape cross-border alliance formation.Noting endogeneity concerns(Shaver,1998),we offer that the context of conflict between partners’nations biases executives toward a preselected set of partners hailing from“friendly”nations rather than from the full pool that an optimizing approach would indicate.Therefore,we start with the entire population of countries available at the time of transaction and focus on initial decisions to form alliances with firms in each nation-pair(nation-dyad).We assert that,other things being equal,the existence(or lack thereof)of animosity within a dyad impacts partner choice.We empirically tested our arguments using comprehensive panel data that combine various data sources that cover over-lapping time periods:nation-dyad trade levels,na-tion-dyad conflict,and firm-level alliances aggre-gated at the nation-dyad level.This article is organized as follows.First,we explain the nature of the dyadic political hazards,define nation-level conflict,and examine the ef-fects of animosity in the form of political and eco-nomic conflicts on alliance formation decisions. We then hypothesize the formation of cross-border alliances between firms that belong to nation-dy-ads,given the differences in historical and current conflicts.These nation-dyads constitute a network of conflicting,as well as of nonconflicting,nations. We distinguish between equity and nonequity alli-ances because level of commitment made by firms entering each type differs significantly(Henisz, 2000a),and equity alliances are more clearly de-fined structures with direct implications for learn-ing(Anand&Khanna,2000).Furthermore,build-ing on Mayer and Argyres(2004),we posit that firms’experiences in learning to contract may mit-igate the effects of animosity;both direct and indi-rect experience may moderate relationships in alli-ance formation.We present our results and discuss the implications of the findings.THEORY DEVELOPMENTHistory matters in international business.History not only helps uncover the pattern by which firms behave,but also contributes to explanation of tem-poral effects—in particular,firm choices(Jones& Khanna,2006).A very significant component of history,and directly relevant for cross-border firm behavior,is conflict.Past or current conflicts be-tween nations affect firm choices because firms are nested in nation-states(Shenkar&Arikan,2009). Firms ally with other firms among these nests,after they select a partner for partner-specific(Kogut& Singh,1988)and context-specific attributes(Lane et al.,2001).Here,we focus on conflict among nations,defined as divergence of interests and op-posing actions(Deutsch,1973).An extensive body of research explores the causal relationship be-tween political and economic conflicts and their consequences for international trade and relations. Political and economic conflicts are interrelated and,over time,as conflicts turn from simple com-petition to threat,display,and use of force,they often deteriorate into military confrontation.When conflicts are frequent or when they escalate,“con-siderable animosity,hatred and prejudice are im-printed”in the memories of the parties(Bar-Tal, 2000:355).Animosity,defined by the Oxford En-glish Dictionary as“hostility of mind tending to break out into action,active hatred or enmity,”then becomes part of the parties’societal beliefs and cultures,passed from generation to generation,be-20131517Arikan and Shenkarcoming a self-fulfilling reality(Bar-Tal,2000).An-imosity increases as the severity and violence of a conflict increase,affecting more people.In political science and international relations research,attention has been paid to the justification of conflict and the actions taken to legitimize its outcome.Perceptions of fairness of conduct during a conflict,especially in aggravated cases such as wars,shape the setting in which cross-border busi-ness is subsequently conducted.Conflicts disrupt economic activity for a long time(Anderton& Carter,2001),but the duration and severity of im-pact vary by conflict motivation.A conflict about gaining tangibles(e.g.,access to land and re-sources)versus intangibles(e.g.,honor,prestige) (Hirshleifer,1998),can be resolved without re-course to war since the cost of aggression is deemed to outweigh potential gain.Gaining intangibles will have longer-term impact,not only because it is a zero-sum game but also because conflicting parties soon discover alternatives to war when they realize the potential losses(Hirshleifer,1998).In international economics,animosity and con-flict have been discussed primarily in relation to trade,in work showing that prolonged economic conflict leads to economic animosity between na-tions(Barbieri&Levy,1999).Nations with limited resources are dependent on their partners and im-port goods and services from nations that have resources in abundance.Economic animosity re-sults from increased imbalance of trade and creates perceptions of economic dominance or aggression of the exporting countries(Nijssen&Douglas, 2004).Some suggest that geographic proximity in-creases conflict and war propensity(Pollins,1989); others offer the view that by enhancing the fre-quency of exchange and cultural interaction,prox-imity reduces conflict and boosts trade(Polachek, 1980).Historically,international trade has pre-ceded governance mechanisms between firms.In the17th century,trade was led by state-owned firms(e.g.,England’s East India Company),which enabled nations to exert monopoly power over trade routes and colonies;firms represented their nations and were directly affected by interna-tional relations,which were interrupted by con-flicts and resumed at the end of hostilities(Lake &O’Mahony,2004).In research in business and management,appli-cations of the concept of animosity have been largely confined to consumer behavior(Klein, 2002)and negotiations(Gruder,1971).For exam-ple,“country-of-origin effect”and“consumer eth-nocentrism”are used to explain why consumers are less inclined to buy foreign goods and services originating in countries they feel animosity toward (Klein&Ettenson,1999).In negotiations and social identity research,animosity has been shown to im-pact in-versus out-group identification as well as negotiation dynamics and outcomes(Tse,Francis, &Walls,1994),social perceptions(Brewer,1979), conflict resolution models,and cognitive biases (Pruitt&Rubin,1986).Only very recently has firm-level international research begun to cast partner selection not as an exogenous process,but as a dimension of the deci-sions and choices firms make(e.g.,Li et al.,2008). Despite its salient effects in creating socioeco-nomic,political,and contractual hazards(Henisz, 2000a),the impact of animosity on the formation of alliances has been largely neglected.The field has developed theoretical precursors(e.g.,Henisz, 2000a,2000b;Kogut&Singh,1988),but those have not been extended to the nation-firm interactional level,though institutional,cultural,and contract-ing hazards around governance choices have been studied in general terms(Delios&Beamish,1999; Roberts&Greenwood,1997).Effects of Conflict on Alliance Formation Managers make decisions in the context of inter-national relations and sentiments,and it is reason-able to assume that some of the considerations they make as individuals or consumers also influence their corporate decisions(Hutzschenreuter,Peder-sen,&Volberda,2007).Firms that do business where contracting parties feel animosity toward one another will lose trust and observe increased exchange hazards.A wide spectrum of hazards can increase the transaction costs of collaborative ex-change(Williamson,1983),including appropria-tion(Oxley,1997),environmental uncertainty (Luo,2007),and coordination difficulties(Hennart, 1988).A broad range of research on governance choices has,in explaining how firms organize transaction risks and costs,focused on how re-peated transactions increase trust and familiarity in alliances(Gulati,1995)and in acquisitions(Walker &Weber,1984).In volatile environments,such as contexts in which national antagonism exists,in-creased perceptions of opportunistic behavior and appropriability hazards may require firms to seek mutual hostages and credible commitments to off-set potential hazards in newly formed agreements (Williamson,1983).1518DecemberAcademy of Management JournalGovernance forms,ranging from unilateral(e.g., supply contracts)to bilateral contractual agree-ments such as alliances and joint ventures(Oxley, 1997)would follow from least to most hierarchical categories.While wholly owned subsidiaries or ac-quisitions represent more credible commitments, firms would shy away from them in favor of alli-ances and equity alliances as a way to mitigate the risk of full ownership and control(Reuer,2001). Compared to looser alliances,equity alliances rep-resent higher partner commitment(Inkpen&Cur-rall,2004)and lower relational risks,as a result of mutual forbearance(Tallman&Shenkar,1994).In addition,exchange hazards are closely intertwined with political hazards(Anderson&Gatignon, 1986).These hazards are implicitly present in ev-ery exchange in a foreign country and pose a threat to firms through taxation of earnings,instability and unpredictability of regulatory environments, expropriation of economic rents,and lack of pro-tection of property rights(Madhok,1997). Magnified by political hazards,firms entering nations with known and existing antagonism may face increased transaction costs and exchange hazards(Le Billon,2001)and perceive greater likelihood of opportunism due to heightened ad-versarial relations(Kastner,2007).For example, firms entering hostile markets(unlike their domestic counterparts entering friendly nations)may face in-creased risks,such as trade barriers and embargoes (Morrow,1999),discouraging security externalities (Gowa,1994),and postentry trade sanctions (Gartzke,Li,&Boehmer,2001).When firms operate in a hostile environment,retention of flexibility may gain salience,and commitments in specific assets may decrease(Henisz,2000b).Firms orga-nize to avoid ownership and seek to retain flexibil-ity(Williamson,1979).If a firm is already in such an environment,flexibility may be lost,and it be-comes desirable to control transactions(Anderson &Gatignon,1986).Hence,external tensions exas-perate the friction that asset specificity brings and impacts a firm’s decision to organize an exchange. Thus the pressure to maintain credibility in an institutional environment among political jurisdic-tions of varying statures,availability,and enforce-ment credibility gain salience(Williamson,2010). If firms mistrust a potential partner from an adversarial nation and think their counterpart will be more opportunistic(Williamson,1993), governance choices will reflect precautionary moves for the ex post possibility of hazards and the likelihood of opportunism.Firms would then base organization of their governance on mutual hos-tages,highlighting credible commitments ex ante (Henisz&Williamson,1999),and write contracts to deter opportunism and safeguard exchange.How-ever,to view contracts as the only safeguard against opportunism underestimates the“psychological impacts of contracts on the exchange and ongoing relationships”(Weber&Mayer,2011:69),because proper framing of contracts to engender trust be-tween potential partners in nations with known animosity or conflicts is critical in the formation of alliances.Prior research has focused on how multinational corporations(MNCs)operate in foreign markets in which political hazards increase transaction costs (e.g.,Luo,2007).We propose that the historical relation between two nations creates additional transactional hazards for firms from these nations. Instead of focusing only on the political hazards due to foreignness,we introduce a new construct—nation-dyad conflict—that directly impacts histor-ical context and transactions between two nations. Hence,when firms from Japan and China form an alliance and decide to enter Russia,these firms both will evaluate the potential exchange hazards in Russia,and on the basis of the history of con-flicts,will require different levels of safeguards against varied perceptions of opportunism.Further-more,the existence of hostilities(or lack thereof) between two nations impacts the administrative and political distance between them.When two nations have hostility between them,the distance between them is higher,and the ties are weaker, which inhibits trade(Ghemawat,2001),and the perceived likelihood of opportunism would in-crease for firms from both nations.National con-flicts would require credible commitments pro-tecting potential partners against opportunistic behavior(Williamson,1983).Despite credible commitments and reciprocal exposure between two partners,should conflicts increase into na-tional hostilities,or escalate into military action, high possible exchange hazards and perceived likelihood of opportunism(e.g.,expropriation risks,breach of property and control rights,con-tract enforcement issues)strongly deter firms from forming alliances.Hence:Hypothesis1.As the animosity between two nations increases,the number of cross-border firm-level alliances within the dyad they form decreases.20131519Arikan and ShenkarMechanisms That Influence Conflict and IndividualsThe underlying mechanisms that influence how conflict impacts individuals can be examined on two levels:the societal,which affects the nations of which individuals are members,and the individ-ual,which contributes to how an individual views and interprets exogenous factors.Individuals are inherently affected by social sentiments,which are affected by cultural aspects,history,and how his-tory is retained in the minds of people as collective memory(Klein,2002).The sentiments that affect individuals’level of trust and decision making hence affect economic exchange.As individuals who share common attributes and experiences ac-quire and accumulate memories,remembrance of these collective assets gains validity in a group context(Mannheim,1997).At the societal level,the collective memories in-fluence and shape national policies.At the individ-ual level,the collective memory manifests itself as stereotyping and directly applies to formation of in-and out-group perceptions(Linville,Salovey,& Fischer,1986).Individuals base generalizations about a category on attributes pertaining to a group identity,and categorizations aggregate into group identities.Individuals use these cognitive catego-rizations,or stereotypes,to process information about others they interact with(Hamilton&Trolier, 1986).On the basis of how similar the traits of a perceiver and a focal group are,categories of in-group and out-group are formed.Individuals per-ceive,retain,and process information with more favorable attributes about in-group than out-group members(Hamilton&Trolier,1986).In the context of firms,if managers have negative collective memory about a potential partner,and if they differentiate between their own and the poten-tial partner’s attributes in view of historical con-flicts and cultural facets,they would label the part-ner as out-group.The homogeneous categorizations most often would be biased and prejudiced,result-ing in strict contracting parameters or outright dis-missal of potential alliances.Thus,when two par-ties have the potential to interact,one party’s prior beliefs about the other party will have a strong impact on a decision to ally.For instance,if infor-mation gathering and processing occur under the shadow of suspicion of future friction due to con-trasting values and beliefs(Bar-Tal,1997),stereo-types,and national prejudices(Desivilya,1998), either contracts will reflect such precautionary mo-tivations,or partners will seek transaction cost–reducing substitutes such as trust(Gulati,1995;Li et al.,2008).Network Effects on Conflicts and Alliances Nations constitute a network through institu-tional,financial,ideological,and security ties among them that are such that the global network is composed of many“smaller worlds.”The dynamic nature of the global network is provisional on the complex interactions within and between these smaller worlds.Ideological and economic conflicts, as well as concords between nations,influence the patterns by which firms operate and organize their ownership structures(Kogut&Walker,2001).Just like firms,nations in a global network expect pre-dictability,reliability,and competence from each other(Kilgour&Zagare,1991).As nations have information about others’past actions,the predict-ability of future conduct increases.Foresight based on credibility improves concerns about vulnerabil-ity to future opportunistic behavior.Nations deter each other by promising a punishment that is deemed a credible threat,under the assumption that nations do not often change their ideologies but do vary in their economic dominance over time,creating an imbalance in each dyad in the network comprising the nations(Powell,1989). Imbalanced dyadic relations1arise from complex interactions between nations and may result in in-tended or unintended conflict(Maoz,1990).Imbal-ance in a dyad occurs when(i)a nation experiences economic dominance or aggression on the part of another country,for instance in the form of trade imbalance(Nijssen&Douglas,2004),or(ii)is im-pacted by the opportunistic and exploitative nature of military or economic alliances by other nations (Maoz,Terris,Kuperman,&Talmud,2007).Imbal-anced dyadic relations often increase conflict pro-pensity and are characterized by“uncertainty and mistrust”(Maoz et al.,2007:104).Therefore,while historical conflict patterns are a result of imbal-anced dyadic relations,they also determine the likelihood of future conflict both within and out-side of a dyad(Beck,Katz,&Tucker,1998).Hence, the dissimilarity in the historical patterns of con-1In international economics,political science,and in-ternational relations,the term“imbalance”is clearly de-fined and used.In business and management,the term “asymmetry”is used with similar meaning.1520DecemberAcademy of Management Journalflict between nations can serve as a source of infor-mation for firms and impact the perceived threat of opportunism in cross-border contracting.Historical conflict also provides information about the type of antagonism a nation has demonstrated toward other nations.Nations engage in either one-sided or two-sided antagonistic conflicts(Maoz et al.,2007). For firms on the antagonistic side,resource depen-dence and credible commitments create power dis-parities,resulting in their calculating the costs of the safeguards against hazards of opportunism (Williamson,1993).When one nation observes that another displays one-sided antagonistic behavior toward a third nation,the focal nation might assign a higher probability of conflict occurrence to its future relationship with that antagonistic nation. Especially for firms in nation-dyads in which prior within-dyad conflicts are nonexistent or are out-dated,because of the changed conditions of the newly occurring imbalance,a serious void arises, one that inhibits trust,predictability,and reliabil-ity among exchange partners.Prior to forming alliances,a potential partner has expectations of predictability,reliability,and com-petence about the other(Dyer&Chu,2003),and it has concerns for control,dependence,and vulner-ability to opportunistic behaviors.These expecta-tions and concerns impact its governance choice. While most alliances are susceptible to appropriation hazard,well-crafted contracts safeguard against partner-related hazards and risks,whereas equity alliances require stronger ties and trust as an effi-cient governance mechanism for control.Political hazards also play a key role in governance choice between wholly owned and equity alliance ar-rangements(Henisz,2000a).While conflicts are part of political risk,their prevailing and persisting nature exacerbates the contractual hazards between firms in conflicting nations(Macher&Richman, 2008).Prior relationships and interactions under-pin trust(Gulati,1995);in imbalanced dyadic rela-tionships between nations,where opportunism be-tween nations and firms that belong to those nations is prevalent,firms will observe weaker forms of trust.Trust is built over time by develop-ing shared bonds and values,but when a nation has historically participated in more conflicts,per-ceived threat of opportunism by firms from such a nation might be higher.Hence,these firms will be at a disadvantage in building trust as a substitute for contractual safeguards compared to firms from a na-tion with fewer historical conflicts(Gulati,1995).Effect of Historical Reputation for One-Sided Antagonism on Alliance TypeIn the absence of a record of interaction between two nations,given the information asymmetries that result,firms in that nation-dyad will infer what other nations think about the historical context of a particular nation by extrapolating with respect to a third nation.The transitive logic is based on third-party inferences and“updating,”as captured in the saying“The friend of my friend is my friend,the friend of my enemy is my enemy,the enemy of my enemy is my friend,and the enemy of my friend is my enemy”(Crescenzi,2007;Dyer&Chu,2003). Through this extrapolation,firms evaluate the pos-sibility of opportunism(Williamson,1983).When first-hand experience is lacking or limited to de-termining how a perceived imbalance would af-fect nations and firms from those nations,the relations of nations with other nations gains sa-lience(Deutsch,1973).Therefore,when information about a future part-ner is lacking,and learning more about this partner is prohibitively costly,a referent entity is used as a proxy.The vicarious experiential dimension of ob-served reputation improves informational gaps (Crescenzi,2007).The use of referents increases both the legitimacy of extrapolation and the accu-racy of prediction as a form of learning activity (Deephouse,1996).Therefore,even if an aggressor nation has not displayed aggression to a focal na-tion in the past,it might still bring up notions of greater likelihood of opportunism for the focal na-tion.Just as nations observe a referent nation’s con-flict patterns within the network of nations,firms draw inferences about their potential partners(e.g., Gulati,1998;Terlaak&Gong,2008).Consequently, firms may use prior antagonistic relationships between a partner firm’s nation and other nations as a signal.Inference from that signal relates to whether the partner firm from the antagonistic nation will also be antagonistic toward a focal firm from a nation that is less antagonistic in its prior relations with other nations outside of the dyad.Hence:Hypothesis2.In a network of nations,as dis-similarity in the degree of prior conflicting re-lationships of nations i versus j with other na-tions in the network increases,the proportion of cross-border equity alliances relative to other types of alliances increases.20131521Arikan and Shenkar。
