语言学复习习题集
P a r t O n e Ex e r ci s es fo r P h o n et i c s
I. Fill in the blanks
1．________ phonetics studies the movement of the vocal organs of producing the sounds of speech.
2: Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound.
These movements have an effect on the _________ coming from the lungs.
3 . Consonant sounds can be either_________ or_________, while all vowel sounds
are_________.
4. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are
brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing _________..
5. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the _________ and the tips.
6. One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the_________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.
7. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without_________.
8. In phonological analysis the words fail-veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes/f/-/v/_________.
9. In English there are a number of _________, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.
10 _________refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbours.
11. _________ is the smallest linguistic unit.
12. According to_________, when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.
II . Choose the best answer.
13. Pitch variation is known as _________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.
A. intonation
B. tone
C. pronunciation
D. voice
14. Conventionally a_________ is put in slashes.
A. allophone
B. phone
C. phoneme
D. morpheme
15. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are _________ of the p phoneme.
A. analogues
B. tagmemes
C. morphemes
D. allophones
16. 'The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as_________.
A. gottis
B. vocal cavity
C. pharynx
D. uvula
17. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as_________ diphthongs.
A. wide
B. closing
C. narrow
D. centering
18. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called
A. minimal pairs
B. allomorphs
G. phones D. allophones
19. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?
A. Acoustic phonetics.
B. Articulatory phonetics.
C. Auditory phonetics.
D. Neither of them.
20. Which one is different from the others according to manners of articulation?
A. [z]
B. [w]
C. [?]
D. [v]
21. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?
A. [n] C. [1]
B. [m] D. [P]
22. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?
A. [i:]
B. [u]
C. [e]
D. [i]
23. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?
A. V oiceless
B. V oiced
C. Glottal stop
D. Consonant
24. Which consonant represents the following description: voiceless labiodental fricative?
A. [f]
B. [?]
C. [z]
D. [s]
III . Decide whether the following statements are true[T] or false [ F ] .–
______ 25. Of the three phonetics branches, the longest established one, and until recently the most highly developed, is acoustic phonetics. –
______ 26. Sound [p] in the word "spit" is an unaspirated stop.
______ 27. Supersegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.
______ 28. The airstream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound.
______ 29. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other.
______ 30. [ p ] is voiced bilabial stop.
______ 31. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.
______ 32. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.
______ 33.When pure or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.
______ 34. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be
divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.
______ 35. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.
______ 36. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to is where to place a consonant, it is put into the coda rather than the onset.
Explain the following terms.
37.Minimal pair38. Sound assimilation
39.Suprasegmental feature40. Free variation
41.Rounded vowel42. Pitch
43.V owel glides44. Anticipatory coarticulation
45.Allophones46. Complementary distribution
47.Distinctive features48. Sonority scale
V. Answer the following questions.
49. What is meant by phonetic transcription?
50. In which two ways may consonants be classified?
Keys
I . Fill in the blanks.
1. Articulatory
2. airstrem
3. voiced; voiceless; voiced
4. friction
5. tongue
6. height
7. obstruction 8. minimal pairs 9. diphthongs
10. Coarticulation 11. Phonemes 12. the maximal onset principle
II . Choose the best answer.
13. A 14. C 15. D 16. A 17. A 18. D
19. B 20. B 21. A 22. B 23. B 24. A
III. Decide whether the Mowing statements are true[T] or false[F].
35. [F] It should be articulatory phonetics.
26. [T] 27. [T] 28. [T] 29. [T]
30. [F] It is a voiceless bilabial stop.
31. [F] Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.
32. [T] 33. [T] 34. [T]
35. [F] In many cases the pronunciation of English depends on individual speaker's accent and personal preference. However, one form of English pronunciation is the most common model accent in the teaching of English as a foreign language. It is called Received Pronunciation.
36. [F] The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.
P a r t Tw o Ex e r ci s es fo r M o rp h o l o g y
E x e r ci s e s
I. Fill in the blanks.
1. Take is the ______ of taking, taken and took.
2. Bound morphemes are classified into two types; ______and ______ root.
3. An ______ is pronounced letter by letter, while an ______ is pronounced as a word.
4. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with______.
5. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: ______ , ______ and ______
6. All words may be said to contain a root______.
7. A snail set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belongs to______, class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to______ class.
8.______ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of ______
shortening.
9.______ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.
10. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the ______ level.
11. A word formed by derivation is called a______ , and a word formed by compounding is called a______ . (derivative; compound)
12..
II. Choose the best answer.
13. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as ______.
A. lexical words
B. grammatical words
C. function words
D. form words
14. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called ______ morpheme.
A. inflectional
B. free
C. bound
D. derivational
15. There are ______ morphemes in the word denationalization?
A. three
B. four
C. five
D. six
16. In English -ise and -tion are called ______.
A. prefixes
B. suffixes
C. infixes
D. free morphemes
17. Morphology is generally divided into two fields: the study of word-formation and______.
A. affixation
B. etymol ogy ?(46) ?
C. inflection
D. root
18．The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and _________.
A. derivational affix
B. inflectional affix
C. infix
D. back-formation
19. _________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.
A. Affixation
B. back-formation
C. Insertion
D. Addition
20. The word TB is formed in the way of _________ .
A. acronymy
B. clipping D mation
C. imitialism
D. acronymy
21. There are different types of affixes or morphemes. The affix word "learned" is known as
a(n) _________ .
A. derivational morpheme
B. free morpheme
C. inflectional morpheme
D. free form
22. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by _______.
A. blending
B. clipping
C. backformation
D. acronymy
23. The.stem of disagreements is _________ .
A. agreement
B. agree
C. disagree
D. disagreement
24. All of them are meaningful except for _______.
A. lexeme
B. phoneme
C. morpheme
D. allomorph
F. Decide whether the following statements are true[T] or false [ F ] . –
______ 25. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.
_______ 26. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.
_______ 27. Base refers to the part of word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.
_______28. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.
_______29. Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of conversion.
_______30. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word. _______31. The word; whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of
onomatop-(eia).
_______32. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.
_______ 33: Backformation is a productive way of forming nouns in Modern English.
_______ 34. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations.
_______ 35. We can always tell by the words a compound contains what it means because the meaning of a compound is always the sum of the meanings of its parts.
_______ 36. All roots are free and all affixes are bound.
IV . Explain the following term.
37. Morphophonology 38. Allomorph
39. Bound morpheme 40. Back clipping
41. Derivation 42. Morphological rule
43. Closed-class word 44. Analogy
45. Full conversion 46. Blending
47. Base 48. Hybrid
V . Answer the following questions.
49. Of all the word-formations, which involve the process. of addition? Which the process of subtraction? And which the process of transition?
50. Illustrate the axiom, “The actual grammatical classification of any word is dependent upon its use.”
Keys
1 . Fill in the blanks.
1. lexeme
2.affix. b,ur.,,:
3. initialism; acronym
4. vocabulary
5. solid; hyphenated; open
6. morpheme
7. close; open 8. Backformation
9. Conversion 10. morphemic
11. derivative; compound 12. partial
II - Choose the best answer.
13. A 14. A 15. C 16. B
19. B 20. C 21. C 22. A
III. Decide whether the following statements are True[T] or False[F]
25. [F] Phonetically, a compound usually has a s element, or a main stress on the first element on the second element.
26. [T]
27. [F] Stem is the part of word that remains %s:o:r. removed.
28. [T] 29. [T]
30. [F] Reduplicative compound is formed b_v repeat almost identical word.
31. [T]
32. [F] The number of syllables of a word is not necex morphemes.
33. [F] Backformation is a productive way of forming v
34. [F] Inflection and word-formation are two sub-fields of morphology.
35 .[F] The meaning of a compound cannot always be inferred from the meaning of its component parts, and sometimes is
36. [F] Roots are divided into free roots and bound always free.
P a r t Tw o Ex e r ci s es fo r S y n t a x
Exercises
I . Fill in the blanks.
1. A _______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.
2. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called _______ rules, whose operation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.
3. A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone is known as a _______ clause.
4. _______ construction is just the opposite of endocentric construction.
5. Phrase structure rules can generate an infinite number of sentences and sentences with infinite length, due to their ________ properties.
6. The level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place is commonly termed_______ structure.
7. The term_______ refers to the relation between an element and another of the same level and under the same node in a tree diagram, and any other; under the latter element as well. 8. _______ construction refers to two or more words, phrases or clauses having equivalent
syntactic status.
9. IC analysis emphasizes the_______ structure of a sentence, seeing it as consisting of word groups first.
10. Surface structure can become the sole responsible structure for semantic ?interpretation by the introduction of the_______ theory.
11. XP may contain more than just X. e. g. the "NP" "the girl who is watering the flowers" consists of Det, N and S, with Det _______ being the , N the head, and S the complement. 12. _______ relations refer to the structural and logical functional relations between every noun phrase and sentence.
II. Choose the best answer.
13. The head of the phrase "the city Rome" is _______.
A. the city
B. Rome
C. city
D. the city and Rome
14. The phrase "on the shelf" belongs to_______ construction.
A. endocentric
B. exocentric
C. subordinate
D. coordinate
15. The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves”is a
_______ sentence.
*A. simple B. coordinate
C. compound
D. complex
16. In a complete sentence, the incorporated, or subordinate clause is normally called a(n)
_______ clause.
A. finite
B. non-infinite
C. embedded
D. matrix
17. _______ is a sub-field of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.
A . Morphology B. Syntax
C. Semantics
D. Pragmatics
18. _______ does not belong to major syntactic categories.
A. Auxiliary
B. NP
C. N
D. PP
19. _______ refers to construction where one clause is coordinated or conjoined with another.
A. Conjoining
B. Embedding
C. Concord
D. Government
20. The term_______ is used in a narrow sense to conclude only reflexives like myself and reciprocals like each other.
A. pronominal
B. anaphor
C. r-expression
D. binding
21. In Halliday' s view, the _______ function of language is realized as the transitivity system in clauses as a representation of experience.
A, ideational B. interpersonal
C. textual
D. social
22. The criterion used in IC analysis is _________. .
A. transformation
B. conjoining
C. grouping
D. substitutability
23.______ is a type of control over the form of some words by other words in certain syntactic constructions and in terms of certain category.
A. Concord
B. Government
C. Binding
D. C-command
24. The phrase "my small child's cot" is an ambiguous phrase, revealed by tree diagrams -
A. one
B. two
C. three
D. four
III . Decide whether the following statements are true[ T] or false[F] .
_______ 25. Application of the transformational rules yields deep structure.
_______ 26. An endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction. It has just one head.
_______ 27. Move a rule itself can rule out ungrammatical forms and result in. grammatical strings.
_______28. Number and gender are categories of noun and pronoun.
_______ 29. Words in a paradigmatic relation are comparable in terms of syntax: they have the same syntactic features, so they are replaceable witn each other semantically. -(F)
_______ 30. The relationship between an embedded clause and its matrix clause one of a part to a whole.(T)
_______ 31.A constituent which is not at the same time a construction is a morpheme, and a construction which is not at the same time a constituent is a sentence.
_______32. IC analysis can be used to analyze all kinds of ambiguous structures. _______ _______33. Transformational rules do not change the basic meaning of sentences. A sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of discourse.
_______ 34. The goal of discourse presents the very information that is to be parted to the hearer. This is called the theme.
_______ 35. Syntactic category refers to all phrasal syntactic categories such as NP, VP, and PP, and word-level syntactic categories that serve as heads of phrasal syntactic categories such as N and V.
_______ 35. S-structure is a level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement.
IV . Explain the following terms.
37. Syntax 38. C-command
39. Hierarchical structure 40. Syntactic category
41. Phrase structure rules 42. IC analysis
43. Concord 44. X-bar theory
45. Subordinate construction 46. Deep structure
47. Trace theory 48. Move-a Answer the following questions.
V. Answer the following questions:
49. What is a sentence? What is grammaticality? Please explain with examples what is a grammatical sentence?
50. Consider the following sentence, and then, answer questions (1) to (3). The boy saw the man with the telescope.
(1) Is this sentence ambiguous? If so, describe the ambiguity briefly in your own words.
(2) Draw the constituent structure trees for each possible interpretation.
(3) What can be known about tree diagrams from (1) and (2)?
Keys
I . Fill in the blanks.
1. sentence
2. transformational
3. finite
4. Exocentric
5. recursive
6. deep
7. C-command
8. Coordinate
9. hierarchical 10. trace 11. specifier 12. Grammatical
II . Choose the best answer.
13. D 14. B 15. A 16. C 17. B
19. A 20. B 21. A 22. D 23. B
III. Decide whether the following statements are true[T] or false [F] .
25. [F] Application of the transformational rules yields surface structure.
26. [F] Endocentric constructions may be further divided into two subtypes: ' subordinate and coordinate constructions. Coordinate constructions have more than one head.
27. [F] Move-a rule together with other syntactic principles.
28. [T]
29. [F] They are not replaceable with each other semantically.
30. [T] 31. [T]
32. [F] For example, IC analysis cannot be used to analyze the phrase "t love of God".
33. [T]
34. [F] This is called the rheme.
35. [ F] Major syntactic category refers to all phrasal syntactic categories s as NP, VP, and PP, and word-level syntactic categories that servt heads of phrasal syntactic categories such as N and V.
36. [T]
P a r t T h r e e E x er c i s e s fo r S e ma n t i cs
Exercises
I . Fill in the blanks.
1. _______ is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.
2. _______is the fact that would have to obtain in reality to make a proposition true or false.
3. "Charge" and "accuse" are said to be _______ synonyms.
4. Sentence meaning is the combination of the compound words and ________.
5. _________ opposites may be seen in terms of degrees of quality involved.
6. Predication analysis is to break down predications and into their constituents: _________ and _________
7. _________ sentences express judgment.
8. The ambiguity of a sentence may arise from _________ and _________.
9. "mean" and "frugal" are said to be ________ synonyms.
10. We call the relation between "animal" and "cow" as_________.
11. The hyponyms under the same superordinate are called _________.
12. "Words are names of labels for things." This view is called _________ theory in semantic studies.
II. Choose the best answer.
13. _________ in a person's speech, or writing, usually ranges on a continuum from casual to
formal according to the type of communicative context.
A. Stylistic variation
B. Ideolectal variation
C. Social variation antonyms.
D. Regional variation
14. Cold and hot are a pair of _________
A. gradable
B. complementary
D. converseness C. reversal
15. Idioms are_________..
A. sentences
B. naming units
C. phrases
D. communication units
16. _________ describes whether a proposition is true or false.
D. Truth B. Truth value
C. Truth condition
D. falsehood
17. “John hit Peter” and “Peter was hit by John” are the same _________.
A. proposition
B. sentence
C. Utterance
D. truth
18. Bull: ( BOVINE) (MALE) ( ADULT) is an example of _________.
A. componential analysis
B. predication analysis
C. compositionality
D. selection restriction
19. The semantic triangle holds that the meaning of a word_________.
A. is interpreted through the mediation of concept.
B. is related to the thing it refers to.
C. is the idea associated with that word in the minds of speakers.
D. is the image it is represented in the mind.
20. When the truth of sentence (a) guarantees the truth of sentence (b) and the falsity of sentence (b) guarantees the falsity of sentence (a) , we can say that _________.
A. sentence ( a ) presupposes sentence (b)，
B. sentence (a ) entails sentence (b)
C. sentence (a ) is inconsistent with sentence (b)
D. sentence (a ) contradicts sentence (b)
21. "Socrates is a man" is a case of _________.
A. two-place predicate
B. one-place predicate
C. two-place argument
D. one-place argument
22. "John killed Bill but Bill didn' t die" is a(n) _________.
A. entailment
B. presupposition
C. anomaly
D. contradiction
23. The particular words or constructions that produce presuppositions is called _________.
A. presupposition condition
B. truth condition
C. presupposition trigger
D. Truth value
24. Lexical ambiguity arises from polysemy or _________ which can not be
determined by the context.
A. homonymy
B. antonymy
C. metonymy
D. synonymy
III . Decide whether the following statements are true[T] or false[F] .
_________ 25. Interrogative and imperative sentences do not have truth value.
_______ 26. The relationship between " human body " and " face/nose " is hyponymy. _________ 27. Componential analysis is based on the belief that the meaning of a word cannot be dissected into meaning components, called semantic feature.
_________ 28. Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship of the two items are said to be relational opposites.
_________ 29. One merit of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning.
_________ 30. Hyponymy is a matter of class membership, so it is the same a; meronymy.
_________ 31. "Either it is raining here or it isn't raining here" is empirically true.
_______ 32. Two sentences using the same words may mean quite differently.
_________ 33. The linguistic context considers the probability of one word' s rnoccurrenee or collocation with another, which forms part of the meaning, and an important factor in communication.
_________ 34. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations while linguistic forms with the same referenae always have the same sense.
_________ 35. An important difference between presupposition and entailment is presupposition, unlike entailment, is not vulnerable to neg. That is to say, if a sentence is negated, the original presupposition still true.
_________ 36. Conceptualists maintain that there is no direct link between lingu form and what it refers to. This view can be seen by the Semantic triangle. ?90 ?
IV. Explain the following terms.
37. Reference 38. Conceptualism
39. Synonymy 40. Entailment
41. Componential analysis 42.`Sense
43. Homonymy 44. Semantics
45. Proposition 46. Semantic field
47. prediction analysis 48. Truth condition
V. Answer the following questions.
49. In what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis into distinctive features?
50. What is sense and what is reference? How are they related?
Keys.
I . Fill in the blanks.
1. sense
2. Truth condition
3.collocational
4. the meaning of its structure
5. gradable
6. argument; predicate
7. Declarative
8. lexical ambiguity 9. emotive
10. hyponymy 11.co-hyponymy
12. naming
II . Choose the best answer.
13. A 14. A 15. B 16. B 17. A 18. A 19. A 20. B
21. B 22. D 23.C 24. A
III. Decide whether the following statements are true[T] or false[F]:
25. [T]
26. [F] The relationship should be meronymy.
27. [F] Componential analysis is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic feature. :.
28. [T] 29. [T]
30. [F] Meronymy is a term used to describe a part-whole relationship. 31. [F] It is linguistically true.
32. [T] 33. [T]
34. [F] Linguistic forms with the same reference may also differ in sense. A case in point is the two expressions "morning star" and "evening star". They refer to the same star but differ in sense.
35. [T] 36. [T]
IV. Explain the following terms.
37. Reference: It is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of the relationship between the form and the reality.
38. Conceptualism: It is the view which holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the rind. 39. Synonymy: It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Synonyms can be divided into dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive synonyms, collocational synonyms and semantic synonyms.
40. Entailment: It is basically a semantic relation (or logical implication), and it can be clarified with the following sentences: (a) Tom divorced Jane. (b) Jane was Tom's wife.
In terms of truth value, the following relationships exist between these two sentences: when A is true, B must be also true; when B is false, A must also be false. When B is true, A may be true or false. Therefore we can say A entails B.
41. Componential analysis: It defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components, or semantic features. For example, the meaning of the word boy may be analyzed into three components: HUMAN, YOUNG and MALE. Similarly girl may be analyzed ink HUMAN, YOUNG and FEMALE.
42. Sense: It is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It i> the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.
C h a p t e r 7Exercises for Language, Culture and Society
I . Fill in the blanks.
1. Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or_________ , language.
2. A speech _________ is a group of people who share the same language or a particular variety of language.
3. Wherever the standard language can use a contraction (he + is he’s). Black English can
_________ the form of “be”.
4.The _________ superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language.
5. A_________ language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech communities.
6. A linguistic_________ refers to a word or the "polite" society from general use.
7. Taboo and _________ are two faces of the same communicative coin.
8. Whorf proposed that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on _________.
9. Language itself is not sexist, but its use may reflect the _________ attitude connoted in the language that is sexist.
10. An ethnic _______(dialect is spoken mainly by a less experienced privileged population that has experienced some sort of social isolation, such as_________ discrimination.
11. In terms of sociolinguistics, _________ is sometimes used to refer to the whole of a person's language.
12. In many societies of the world, we find a large number of people who speak more than one language. As a characteristic of societies, _________ inevitably results from the coming into cultures and different languages. (bilingualism)
II. . Choose the best answer.
13. _________ are language varieties for use in particular speech situations.
A. Slang
B. Address terms
C. Registers
D. Education varieties
14. In sociolinguistics, _________ refers to situations typically constrained by a common set of behaviour rules.
A. domain
B. . situation
C. society
D. community
15. _________ is defined as any regionally or socially definable human group identified by shared linguistic system.
A. A speech community
B. A race
C. A society
D. A country
16. _________ variation of language is the most discernible and definable in speech variation.
A. Regional
B. Social
C. Stylistic
D. Idiolectal
17. _________ is not a typical example of official bilingualism.
A. Canada
B. Finland
C. Belgium
D. Germany
18. _________ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straight forward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication.
A. Lingua franca
B. Creole
C. Pidgin
D. Standard language
19. The most recognizable differences between American English and British English are in
__________ and vocabulary.
A. diglossia
B. bilingualism
C. pidginization
D. blending
20. _________ is a causal use of language that nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, coinages and figures of speech.
A. Language taboo
B. Slang
C. Address terms
D. Register variety
21. _________ variety refers to speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.
A. Regional
B. Social
C. Stylistic
D. Ideolectal
22. In a speech community people have something in common __________ a language or a particular variety of language and rules for using it.
A. socially
B. linguistically
C. culturally
D. pragmatically
23. Probably the most wide-spread and familiar ethnic variety of the English language is_________.
A. British English
B. American English
C. Black English
D. Australian English
24. __________ in a language or a particular variety of language in a person's speech, or writing, usually ranges on a from casual to formal according to the type of communicative context.
A. Regional variation
B. American English
C. Stylistic variation
D. Ideolectal variation
II. . Decide whether the following statements are true[T] or false[F]. In most bilingual communities, two languages have the same speech situations known as domains.
__________ 25. In most bilingual communities, two languages have the same in speech situation known as domains.
_________ 26. A regional variety of a language is intrinsically inferior to the standard variety of that language.
_________ 27. The standardization of a particular dialect in relation to one or more vernaculars is the result of a deliberate governmental policy.
_________ 28. A pidgin is not a native language of a particular region.
_________ 29. When a bilingual speaker switches between the two languages concerned, he is converting one mode of thinking into the other.
_________ 30. Pidgins are rule-governed, like any human language.
_________31. According to the strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, speaker's perceptions deternune language and pattern their way of life.
_________ 32. Diglossia is a universal phenomenon.
_________ 33. Diglossia refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers.
_________ 34. The sentences "He crazy" and "He be sick all the time" are both acceptable in Black English vernacular because copula deletion and habitual be are two famous features of Black English.
_________ 35. Speakers of different languages are capable of distinguishing and recognizing experiences of the same objective world according to their respective different linguistic coding system.
_________ 36. There are words of more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects.
Explain the following terms.
37. Register 38. Pigin
39. Slang 40. Communicative competence
41. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 42 . Lingua franca
43. Diglossia 44. Sociolect
45. Sociolinguistics 46. Speech community
47. Standard language 48: Speech variety questions.
V. Answer the following questions.
49. What is the difference official language?
50. What distinction, if any, can you draw between standard language, national language Keys
I . Fill in the blanks.
1. vernacular
2. community
3. delete
4. standard
5. creole
6. taboo
7. euphemism 8. language 9. social 10. racial 11. idiolect 12. bilingualism II . Choose the best answer.
13. C 14. A 15. A 16. A 17. D 18.C
19. C 20. B 21. A 22. B 23. C 24. D
III. Decide whether the following statements are true[T] or false [ F ] .
25. [F] They have a fairly clear functional differentiation, i. e. one language or a particular variety of language and rules for using it.
26. [F] It is not justifiable to say that one variety of a language is better than any other.
27. [F] The standardization is not necessarily the result of a governmental policy, but of a historical and cultural tradition.
28. [T]
29. [F] When a bilingual speaker switches between the two languages, he is making transitions between the two linguistic coding systems.
30. [Tl,
31.[F] The true statement is "According to the strong version of the SapirWhorf hypothesis, language determines speaker's perceptions and patterns their way of life.
32. [F] Diglossia is not a universal phenomenon.
33. [F] Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers.
34. [F] Only "he crazy" is acceptable in Black English vernacular because of copula deletion.
35. [T]
36. [T]
C h a p t e r 9Exercises for Psycholinguistics
Exercises
I.Fill in the blanks.
1. The localization of co gnitive hemisphere of the brain is called _________.
2. The brain is divided into two roughly symmetrical halves, called _________, one on the right and one on the left.
3. The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called _________ cortex.
4. Lying under the skull, the human brain nerve cells called _________.
5. The left hemisphere may be dominant for more than the phonetic structure of language. In fact, the left hemisphere may be dominant for a number of nonlinguistic functions. Besides having a superior capacity for processing _________ ordered stimuli and programming complex motor sequences such as playing a violin, the left hemisphere is believed to be specialized for _________.
6. Psychological research suggests that the two hemispheres differ in the manner in which they treat incoming stimuli, the right hemisphere processing stimuli_________ and the
left_________ .
7. In addition to the motor area which is responsible for physical articulation of utterances, three areas of the left hemisphere are vital to language：_________: area, _________ and angular_________.
8. PET scans and MRI have greatly increased our ability to look inside the
working brain, but as sophisticated as these techniques are, they merely measure _________.. ERP research offers a new and exciting approach to the study of the_________ activity of the brain, data from which can be linked to specific structural and meaning properties of human language.
9. The acts of comprehending and producing language are performed within the constraints of our information processing system. This system consists of three structural components: sensory stores, _________ memory, and _________ memory, along with a set of control processes that govern the flow-of information within the system.
10. Of particular importance to speech and language function is the massive transverse fiber tract called the_________ , by means of which the N, hemispheres are able to communicate with each other in the form of electrical impulses.
11. When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as "_______ speech , " and speech as " overt-thought." In such a case, speaking and thinking take place simultaneously.
12. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis has two thrusts: linguistic _________and linguistic
_________.
II . Choose the best answer.
13. _________deals with how language is acquired understood and produced.
A. Sociolinguistics
B. Psycholinguistics
C. Pragmatics
D. Morphology
14. Which of the major mental functions listed below is not under the control d the left hemisphere in most people?
A. Language and speech.
B. Visual and spatial skills.
C. Reading and writing.
D. Analytic reasoning.
15. Psychologists, neurologists and linguists have concluded that, in addition to the motor area, three areas of the left brain are vital to language, named. _______.
A. Broca’s area, Wemicke’s area and the angular gyrus
B. Bmca' s area, Wernicke' s area and cerebral cortex
C. Broca' s area, Wemicke' s area and neurons
D. Broca' s area, Wernicke' s area and Fxner' s area
16. When we speak, words are sent to _________, which determines the details of their form and pronunciation.
A. Broca' s area
B. Wemicke' s area
C. the angular gynas
D. motor area
17. What kind of patients cannot convert a visual stimulus into an auditory form and vice versa?
A. The linguistic deprivation
B. Broca' s aphasics
C. Wemicke' s aphasics
D. The damage on the angular gyms
18. When we listen, the word is heard and comprehended via _________ area.
A. Broca' s
B. motor
C. neurons
D. Wemicke' s
19. _________ is the mental functions under the control of the right hemisphere.
A. Language and speech
B. Calculation
C. Holistic reasoning
D. Associative thought
20. Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right ear. This phenomenon is known as the _________.
A. brain lateralization
B. linguistic lateralization
C. right ear advantage
D. cerebral plasticity
21. A child acquires his/her mother tongue invariably through these phases: _________,
one-word, two-word and multiword.
A. no-word
B. babbling
C. talking
D. uttering
22.. At the age of four, children _________.
A. can master the essentials of their mother tongue
B. can only babble several sounds
C. can name the things around them only
D. can write out the grammatical rules of their language
23. _________ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.
A. Learning
B. Competence
C. Performance *
D. Acquisition
24. Whorf believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, that is relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of _________.
A. linguistic determinism
B. linguistic relativism
C. linguistic nativism
D. linguistic behaviorism
III . Decide whether the following statements are true[T] or false[F].
________25. The right ear advantage (REA) is true no matter whether people have the left hemispheric dominance for speech or the less common right hemispheric dominance for speech.
_________ 26. In general, the left hemisphere controls voluntary movements of, and responds to signals from, the right side of the body.
_________ 27. The left hemisphere is superior to the right hemisphere.
_________ 28. The adaptability of the nervous system decreases with age, and when left hemisphere injury occurs after puberty, the danger of permanent aphasia is great.
_________ 29. Although the age at which children will pass through a given stage can vary significantly from child to child, the particular sequence stages seems to be the same for all children acquiring a gic language.
_________ 30. At the multiword stage, simple prepositions, especially those .
indicate positions such as ::m?, ::on… and "up", begin to turn up children's speech.
_________ 31. Children acquiring their first language beyond the critical age hardly successful, such as the case of "Genie."
_________ 32. Children acquiring a language simply as internalizing individual expressions of language.
_________ 33. In first language acquisition children's grammar models exactly after the grammar of adult language.
_________ 34. Modern linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written.
_________ 35. The presence of a grammatical distinction in a language
the ease of some cognitive processes, while the absence distinctions prevents these processes. _________ 36. A weak version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis states that the pre- -of linguistic categories influences the ease with which va-.cognitive operations are performed.
IV. . Explain the following terms.
37. Psycholinguistics 38. Arcuate fasciculus
39. Brain lateralization 40. Right-ear advantage
41. Modularity 42. Bottom-up processing
43. Cohort theory 44. Frequency effect
45. Spoonerism 46. Critical period
47. Behaviorist learning theory 48. Universal Grammar
V . Answer the following questions.
49. What is dichotic listening research?
50. What evidence can be given for the view that there is a critical period for language acquisition?
Keys
I. FIll in the blanks.
1. lateralization
2. hemispheres
3. cerebral
4. neurons
5. temporally; associative thought
6. holistically; analytically
7. Broea' s; Werrucke' s; gyrus
8. blood flow; electrical 9. working; permanent 10. corpus callosum
11. subvocal 12. determinism; relativism
II . Choose the best answer.
13. B 14. B 15. A 16. A 17. D 18. D 19. C 20. C 21. B
22. A 23. D 24. B
III Decide whether the following statements are true[T] or faLse[F].
25. [F] The right ear advantage i s true for people who have the left hemispheric dominance for speech, and the left ear advantage is observed for people who have the right hemispheric dominance for speech.
26. [T]
27. [F] Both hemispheres perform important mental functions and they differ only in the manner in which they treat incoming stimuli.
28. [T] 29. [T] 30. [T] 31. [T]
32. [F] In fact what is acquired is not a bunch of utterances but a set of rules, condition and elements that allow one to speak and understand speech. 33. [F] In first language acquisition children' s grammar does not model exactly after the grammar of adult language.
34. [T]
35. [F] The presence of a grammatical distinction in a language may increase the ease of some cognitive processes. However, the absence of such distinctions does not prevent these
processes.
36. [T]
C h a p t e r 11Exercises for Schools of Modern Linguistics
Exercises
I . Fill in the blanks.
1. The Prague School practiced a special style of _________.
2. The Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between ________ and phonology.
3. The man who turned linguistics proper into a recognized subject in Britain was ________ .
4. Halliday' s Systemic Grammar contains a functional theory behind his Functional Grammar is________ .
5. Systemic-Functional Grammar is a ( n ) ________ oriented functional linguistic approach.
6. Structuralism is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be defined not in terms of meaning but in terms of________ .
7. In the history of American linguistics, the period between 1933 and 1950 is also known as the ________ Age.
8. ________ in language theories is characteristic of America.
9. The starting point of Chomsky’s TG Grammar is his ________ hypothesis.
10. Chomsky argues that LAD probably consists of three elements, that is a ________, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure.
11. Systemic-Functional Grammar takes the actual uses of language as the object of study, while Chomsky' s TG Grammar takes the ideal speaker's linguistic ________ as the object of study.
12. The specific method of Relational Grammar in describing language structure is the
multi-level analysis of ________ relations.
II . Choose the best answer.
13. The person who is often described as "father of modern linguistics" is ________.
A. Firth
B. Saussure
C. Halliday
D. Chomsky
14. The most important contribution of the Prague School to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of________.
A. function
B. meaning
C. signs
D. system
15. The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is ________.
A. Boas
B. Sapir
C. Bloomfield
D. Harris
16. The theory of ________ considers that all sentences are generated from a semantic structure.
A. Case Grammar
B. Stratificational Grammar
C. Relational Grammar
D. Generative Semantics
17.Generally speaking, the specifies ________ whether a certain tarmeme is in the position of the Nucleus or of the Margin in the structure.
A. Slot
B. Class
C. Role
D. Cohesion
18. ________ Grammar is the most widespread and the best understood method of discussing Indo-European languages.
A. Traditional
B. Structural
C. Functional
D. Generative
19. Hjelmslev is a Danish linguist and the central figure of the ________ .
A. Prague School
B. Copenhagen School
C. London School
D. Generative Semantics
20. ________ Grammar started from the American linguist Sydney M. Leach late 1950s and the early 1960s.
A. Stratificational
B. Case
C. Relational
D. Montague
21. In Halliday's view, the ________ function is the function that the uses to know about his surroundings.
A. personal
B. heuristic
C. imaginative
D. informative
22. The rheme in the sentence "On it stood Jane" is________ . .
A. On it
B. stood
C. On it stood
D. Jane
23. Chomsky follows ________ in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.
A. empiricism
B. behaviourism
C. rationalism
D. mentalism
24. TG Grammar has seen ________ stages of development.
A. three
B. four
C. five
D. six
III. Decide whether the following statements are true[T] or fa1se[F].
________ 25. Following Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole, Tnibetzkoy argued that phonetics belonged to langue whereas phonology belonged to parole.
________ 26. The subject-predicate distinction is the same as the theme and rheme contrast. ________ 27. London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics. ________ 28. According to Firth, a system is a set of mutually exclusive options that come into play at some point in a linguistic structure.
________ 29. American Structuralism is a branch of diachronic linguistics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century.
________ 30. The Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar.
________ 31. American descriptive linguistics is empiricist and focuses on diversities of languages.
________ 32. Chomsky' s concept of linguistic performance is similar to Saussure' s concept of parole, while his use of linguistic competence is somewhat different from Saussure' s langue.
________ 33. Glossematics emphasizes the nature and status of linguistic theory and its relation to description.
北外刘润清教授 寄语英语专业学生 我（刘润清）今天跟大家谈谈我在英语学习中的一些经历和感受，希望能给大家一点启发。 我在中学学的是俄语，1960年报考北京外国语学院（现北京外国语大学）的俄语系。但报到时却得知我被分到了英语系。我的同班同学都学过英语，至少知道800个英语单词，发音也没有太大问题。 惟独我这个农村孩子一个英语单词也不知道，一切都要从头学起。更可笑的是，别人说yes时，我会不自觉地说出俄语“是”的音/da/；别人说no 时，我会说/niet/。发英语的几个元音时，我也遇到很多困难，经常在班上引起哄堂大笑。 好在我在班上年纪最大，脸皮也厚，又是团干部，因此无论别人怎么笑，我也没太在乎。幸运的是，我遇到了一位好老师。夏祖煃老师，不仅有丰富的教学经验，又有真诚、热情的工作态度；他经常鼓励我这个最落后的学生。老师和同学
的帮助，给了我极大的信心，因此我从来没有被困难吓倒过。 我把周末的时间都用在了学习上。对着镜子练发音，一练就是几个小时，有时嗓子都练哑了。当时全班只有一个大型录音机，要听大家都听，不听谁也别听，录音机死沉死沉的，也不可能搬到宿舍去。录音里只有精读课文和生词，除此之外，就再也没有任何其他听力材料了。 我还经常在黑板上练拼写，写满一黑板，就擦掉又写。单单这发音和拼法，就不知道花去了我多少时间。我的语法还算好，当时没有什么专门的语法课，精读课文中出现什么语法现象，老师就顺便讲一下。但总的来说，在第一学年，我一直是班上的最后一名。到一年级结束的时候，我才算入了门。 【北外求学第二年】 二年级仍以精读课为主，它既是英语输入的主要来源，也是口语、笔语练习的主要场所。同时，还开了泛读课，让我们读最简单的英语小故事。从二年级起，老师还要求我们用英英词典。我记得第一次拿到Advanced Learners Dictionary 时，查了一两个词，心里就十分激动：我可以用英文解释英文了！初用英英词典时，当然也遇到不少困难。为了查一个
第4章句法 I.Fill in the blanks. 1.IC is the short form of immediate_____used in the study of syntax.（北二外2003研） 【答案】constituent 【解析】直接成分分析法是一种句法分析方法。它指先把句子分析为直接成分——词组（或短语），再把这些直接成分依次切分，得到各自的直接成分，层层切分，直到最终 成分为止。 2.______refers to ties and connections which exist within texts.They are also called formal links between sentences and between clauses.（人大2007研） 【答案】Cohesion 【解析】衔接不是一个句法概念，它指文本中存在的一种意义上的联系或关系，也包括句子或分句之间存在的一种形式上的联系。 3.A______sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word，such as“and”,“but”,“or”. 【答案】coordinate 【解析】并列从句是指一个句子由两个分句组成，这两个分句通常是由如but,and,or这些并列连词来连接的。
4.A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb,and at the same time stands structurally alone is known as a______clause. 【答案】finite 【解析】限定性从句通常有一个主语和一个限定性动词，且在结构上是独立的。 5.Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called_____rules,whose operation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. 【答案】transformational 【解析】句法移位是一种转换规则，指一个句子的任意成分从原来的位置移到另一个新位置。 它可能会引起句子句法的变化。 6.The level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place is commonly termed______structure. 【答案】deep 【解析】深层结构是指一个结构体的句法属性的抽象表述，即不同成分之间的结构关系，深层结构一般指移位前的结构。 7.A______is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement,question or command. 【答案】sentence 【解析】句子在结构上是一个独立的单位，通常包括许多词用以构成一个完整的陈述，提问或者命令。
下文的作者是北京外国语大学刘润清教授，寄语所有英语专业的朋友。静下心来，看完本文，尤其注意大学这看似漫长实则短暂的几年时光中，刘润清教授是如何提高英语水平的。诚然，刘教授当年经历的教学法、师资、学习环境已经经历了较大的变革，但不变的是学习英语的过程，若想追寻的大师的足迹，必须抛却浮躁，脚踏实地地走上这条漫长的学习道路（当然，对于广大英语爱好者来说，这篇文章也具有极高的指导意义）： 我在中学学的是俄语，1960年报考北京外国语学院（现北京外国语大学）的俄语系。但报到时却得知我被分到了英语系。我的同班同学都学过英语，至少知道800个英语单词，发音也没有太大问题。惟独我这个农村孩子一个英语单词也不知道，一切都要从头学起。更可笑的是，别人说yes时，我会不自觉地说出俄语“是”的音/da/；别人说no时，我会说/niet/。发英语的几个元音时，我也遇到很多困难，经常在班上引起哄堂大笑。好在我在班上年纪最大，脸皮也厚，又是团干部，因此无论别人怎么笑，我也没太在乎。幸运的是，我遇到了一位好老师。夏祖煃老师，不仅有丰富的教学经验，又有真诚、热情的工作态度；他经常鼓励我这个最落后的学生。老师和同学的帮助，给了我极大的信心，因此我从来没有被困难吓倒过。我把周末的时间都用在了学习上。对着镜子练发音，一练就是几个小时，有时嗓子都练哑了。当时全班只有一个大型录音机，要听大家都听，不听谁也别听，录音机死沉死沉的，也不可能搬到宿舍去。录音里只有精读课文和生词，除此之外，就再也没有任何其他听力材料了。我还经常
在黑板上练拼写，写满一黑板，就擦掉又写。单单这发音和拼法，就不知道花去了我多少时间。我的语法还算好，当时没有什么专门的语法课，精读课文中出现什么语法现象，老师就顺便讲一下。但总的来说，在第一学年，我一直是班上的最后一名。到一年级结束的时候，我才算入了门。 二年级仍以精读课为主，它既是英语输入的主要来源，也是口语、笔语练习的主要场所。同时，还开了泛读课，让我们读最简单的英语小故事。从二年级起，老师还要求我们用英英词典。我记得第一次拿到Advanced Learners Dictionary时，查了一两个词，心里就十分激动：我可以用英文解释英文了！初用英英词典时，当然也遇到不少困难。为了查一个词，不知道要查多少其他词。有时查来查去，就忘了最初是要查哪一个词了。但是，英英词典使我们看到了英汉词典中解释的局限性和误导性。从根本上说，查完英汉词典和汉英词典，并不能够真正学会使用一个词。只有查一部好的英英词典，才能真正搞清一个词的确切含义和用法。随着词汇量的扩大，使用英语词典的兴致也越来越高。有时，查上瘾来，会查上个把小时，忘记了正在读的文章。那时，我们都把Advanced Learners Dictionary上标的25个句型背得滚瓜烂熟。总之，查英英词典本身就是在学地道的英文。 就我个人的经验而言，精读课的作用是最大的，一切基础知识都来自于精读课。此外，给我留下较深印象的是那些简易读物。这些小书深深地吸引了我，并让我眼界大开，因为里面有一种全新的文化。与此同时，我还惊叹于其中简单、地道的英文所包含的极强的表达力。那
克拉申输入假说及其对英语教学的启示(2009-05-01 11:42:10) 标签：校园分类：英语 摘要：克拉申输入假说对英语教学和英语学习有着重要的启发和指导意义，本文通过对该假说的提出和验证，探讨其对中、小学英语教学产生的影响。 这么多人学英语，却这么多人学不好，如何提高中、小学英语教学质量的问题一直困扰着中国英语教育界。中、小学英语教育是基础，其教学质量的好坏直接影响着大学的英语教学。在英语教育界流传着这样一个故事：有一位过了大学英语六级的大学毕业生，到外资企业应聘，面试时招聘者用英语问了应聘者几个问题，他却不知如何回答，最后他向招聘者说：“我听不懂，不知如何回答，你能不能出几道选择题给我做？”其结果可想而知。无独有偶，笔者的一位同事曾抱怨，他在上英语课时因讲英语太多，捱学生告他的状。由此可见，我国英语教学存在着许多问题，要改变目前的状况，抓好中、小学英语基础教育是关键。本文试图通过对克拉申输入假说的提出和验证，探讨其对中、小学英语教学的启示，从而引起广大中、小学英语教师的重视，以便能运用该理论指导英语教学，达到提高教学质量的目的。 1、克拉申输入假说 克拉申的输入假说（Input Hypothesis）是第二语言习得的一种理论。第二语言习得理论作为一门独立的学科形成于20世纪60年代末、70年代初。在这方面的研究中成就最大、影响最广的要算克拉申（S. D. Krashen）。克拉申是美国南加州大学的教师，他从70年代初开始研究第二语言习得，并多次在他的著作及文章中阐述他的输入假说。克拉申认为，只有当习得者接触到可理解的语言输入（comprehensive input），即略高于他现有语言技能水平的第二语言输入，而他又能把注意力集中于对意义或信息的理解而不是对形式的理解时，才能产生习得。如果习得者现有水平为“i”，能促进他习得就是“i+1”的输入。根据克拉申的观点，这种“i+1”的输入并不需要人们故意地去提供，只要习得者能理解输入，而他又有足够的量时，就自动地提供了这种输入。按照输入假设，说话的流利程度是随时间的流逝自然而然地达到。[1][P122] 克拉申的理想输入应具备四个特点：可理解性（comprehensibility）；既有趣，又有关联（interesting and relevant）；非语法程序安排（not grammatically sequenced）和要有足够的量（i+1）。 可理解性，是指理解输入的语言是语言习得的必要条件，不可理解的输入对学习者无用，只是一种噪音。对初学者来说，输入那些不理解的语言等于浪费时间。 既有趣又有关联，指的是使语言输入对语言的习得有利，必须对它的意义进行加工，输入的语言材料越有趣，越有关联，学习者就会在不知不觉中轻松地习得语言。 非语法程序安排，指的是语言习得重要的是足够的可理解的输入，按语法程序安排的教学是不足的也是不必要的。 要有足够的输入量，指的是克拉申提出的i+1原理。[2][P9] 2.输入假说对英语教学的启示 克拉申在美国对外国移民第二语言习得进行多年的研究后，提出他的输入假说，然后在西
第10章认知语言学 10.1 复习笔记 本章要点: 1. Cognitive linguistics 认知语言学 2. Categorization and categories 范畴化与范畴 3. Conceptual metaphor and metonymy 概念隐喻与转喻 4. Iconicity and grammaticalization 象似性与语法化 常考考点： 认知语言学定义；范畴化与范畴定义分类等；概念隐喻与转喻的定义，层次分类；象似性的分类以及语法化等。 本章内容索引： I. Definition of cognitive linguistics II. Categorization and categories
1. Definition of categorization 2. The classical theory 3. The prototype theory 4. Levels of categorization III. Conceptual metaphor and metonymy 1. Conceptual metaphor 2. Conceptual metonymy IV. Iconicity 1. Iconicity of order 2. Iconicity of distance 3. Iconicity of complexity V. Grammaticalization I. Definition of cognitive linguistics (认知语言学定义) 【考点：名词解释】 Cognitive linguistics is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information. 认知语言学是一种研究自然语言的方法，集中研究语言组织，处理与传达信息的作用。 II. Categorization and categories (范畴化与范畴) 1. Definition of categorization and categories (定义)
波罗的海国家的语言政策与民族整合 戴曼纯刘润清 【内容提要】由于历史原因及政治因素,波罗的海国家的语言政策带有浓厚的政治色彩。语言政策被当作一种政治工具,为民族整合服务。语言法照顾到人们的语言能力和兴趣,调动了不同群体,在一定程度上起到了权利再分配的作用;对入籍者提出语言要求很好地表达了民族标准。这些国家的语言政策在政治和外交上都蕴含着丰富的启示。 【关键词】波罗的海国家语言政策民族整合 【作者简介】戴曼纯,1964年生,北京外国语大学中国外语教育研究中心教授、博士、博士生导师;刘润清,1939年生,北京外国语大学中国外语教育研究中心教授、博士生导师。(北京100089) 一引言 波罗的海国家(立陶宛、爱沙尼亚、拉脱维亚)在20世纪经历了至少六次大的语言政策变化:(1)沙皇时期严重的俄语化及随后短暂的自由化;(2)第一次独立后重申民族语言地位;(3)1940~1941年苏联统治第一阶段的俄语 化;(4)1941~1944年德国纳粹占领时期强制推行德语;(5)1944年至20世纪八九十年代苏联解体期间回归“社会主义语言平等”的俄语化;(6)成为独立主权国家后将民族语言确立为唯一的国语[1]。20世纪的波罗的海国家几乎成了语言政策的试验场,民族语言受到一次又一次的生存威胁。 波罗的海国家与原苏联、现今的俄罗斯有着复杂的历史渊源,20世纪初同为沙皇帝国的行省,在十月革命和第一次世界大战德国战败的混局中争取独立,此后在1940年进入原苏联的版图,在1991苏联解体变革中又重获独立。三国在20
世纪的历史基本相同或极其相似。它们的语言渊源略有不同,拉脱维亚语和立陶宛语是印欧语的近亲;与斯拉夫语系、日耳曼语系不同,爱沙尼亚语则是芬兰-乌戈尔语的一支。不过,三种语言都使用拉丁文字,立陶宛语据称是保存最完善的古印欧语之一。拉脱维亚语和立陶宛语是硕果仅存的现代波罗的语言(另一最大的波罗的语言普鲁士语,18世纪末期已经消亡),虽然它们在斯拉夫语及日耳曼语环境包围中生存下来,但是后两种语言对其词汇和结构产生了一定的影响。 语言的变迁在很大程度上取决于周边语言环境和语言接触。 原苏联时期,其他共和国的一些民众迁徙进入波罗的海国家,在一定程度上改变了这里的人口结构。爱沙尼亚的原住民族由战前的88%降低至1989年的61.3%,拉脱维亚从77%降至52%,立陶宛变化不大,由80.6%降至79.6%。 人口变化必然带来语言使用者群体结构的变化,本地人为了更好地生活下去开始学习俄语,少部分俄语移民开始学习本地语言[2]。俄语成为该地原苏联时期的主要语言。当地开设俄文学校,非本地共和国语言使用者的子女只好在俄文学校和共和国语言学校就读,但是通常会倾向于前者。 俄文学校不教授当地语言,而俄语是当地语言学校的必修课,这就导致了一边倒的双语制[3]。当地人不得不掌握俄语,比如在爱沙尼亚,俄语成了工作场所和行政机构使用的语言。有政策规定要求人们在提交学位论文时使用俄语;俄语甚至成了获得职业资质或入党资格的条件;俄语在银行、统计、机场、采矿、能源、军事、国家计划、克格勃等许多行业或机构取代了当地语言。 苏联解体后,波罗的海国家重新独立。从语言和政治角度讲,三国开始重建其社会格局,原有的少数民族通过政治主权的变化转变为语言多数民族[4]。
美联英语提供：英语阅读：如何选择正确的英语课外阅读材料 小编给你一个美联英语官方试听课申请链接：https://www.doczj.com/doc/7c5419258.html,/?tid=16-73374-0我们常说的英语阅读就是读者利用相关的英语知识和非英语知识去解读包含一定英语知识和非英语知识的阅读材料。英语知识是指读者英语语音、词汇、语法以及篇章知识的总和，而非英语知识是指读者英语知识以外的背景知识，即直接或间接获取的知识经验的总和。 在培养学生的英语语言综合运用能力听说读写过程中，阅读能力的提高对于英语学习者来说是重中之重。诚如刘润清教授所总结的那样“正式的外语教学与其他学科教学一样，要想真正掌握一门外语，需要大量的阅读，有独立的思维过程和分析总结过程”。 课外阅读是高中英语教学的必要补充。高中英语大纲明确指出：要提高学生的阅读能力，单纯通过教科书的课文教学是远远不够的，还要根据学生的具体情况，有计划地指导学生在课外阅读一定数量的课外读物。理由是：第一，现行的课文教学篇目少，篇幅短，不能保证充分的阅读活动;第二，精读教学担负着语言知识教学的任务，所以，课文生词和新的语言结构的密度大，不适用于流畅阅读的训练;第三，精读实际上综合训练，大量的时间用于为语言点的掌握而安排的听、说、读、写操练上，读的专门训练不够。因此，大纲的指出实际上对我们的外语教师提出了更高的、更全面的要求。 我们的理解是，这里的课外阅读即泛读，让学生独立阅读，但又不是“放羊式”的阅读，而是在教师有计划的指导下进行的课外阅读。因此，我们认为泛读既是阅读材料的问题，也是阅读方法的问题，老师应做到以下几点： 首先，给学生选择时应掌握以下原则：(1)思想性强,内容健康; (2)材料难易适合学生的实际水平; (3)题材涉及面广，材料新颖，具有趣味性; (4)文章体载多样化; (5)语言地道、规范。
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Definition : linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is always guided by the three cannons of science:exhaustiveness, consistency and economy. Linguistics Linguistics versus traditional grammar: Scope Microlinguistics Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics Macrolinguistics Sociolinguistics Psycholinguistics Neurolinguistics Stylistics Discourse analysis Computational linguistics Cognitive linguistics Definition: Ding-Dong Theory: human speech developed from primitive man giving vocal expression to the objects he encountered. Sing-Song Theory: language developed from primitive ritual songs of praise. Pooh-Pooh Theory: language came from interjections, which express he speaker ’s emotions. Origins Yo-He-Ho Theory: language came from the cries uttered, during strain of work. Ta-Ta Theory : language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongues movements. Bow-Wow Theory: language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature. Design features Linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness while traditional grammar emphasizes correctness. Linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written while traditional grammar emphasizes the priority of written language. Traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages. Linguistics describes each language on its language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system---elements in it are not arranged and combined randomly, but according to some rules and principles. Language is arbitrary --- there is no intrinsic connection between the word . pen) and the thing. what we write with).Language is vocal---the primary medium for all languages is sound. Language is used for human communication ---it is human-specific, very different form Arbitrarines s: this refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, English should use the sounds/d?g/ to refer to the animal dog, but Chinese should use “gou ” to refer to te same animal. A dog may be called a pig if the first man happens to name it as a “pig ”. So, the relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental. Of course, onomatopoetic words such as “quack-quack ” and “bang ” are exceptions, but words these are relatively few compared withe the total number of words in language. Duality: language operates on two levels of structure. At one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. Productivity : productivity or creativity refers to man ’s linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before. Interchangeability : interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease. Displacement: displacement is a property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time. Specialization : specialization refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. Cultural transmission : language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity. A human being brought up in isolations simply doesn ’t acquire language, as is demonstrated by the studies of children brought up by animals without human contact. Animals transmit their cries simply from parent to child, while human baby doesn ’t speak any language at birth. What language a baby is going to speak
北京外国语大学中国外语教育研究中心 普通语言学 授课对象：全校硕士生 授课语言：汉语 授课时间：2010年春季学期周三下午16:00-18:00 授课地点：逸夫楼第三阶梯教室 课程组织：陈国华 课程秘书：谢娟（电话88816824） 课程内容与安排 课程参考书 George Yule (1996/2000). The Study of Language (语言研究). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press/Cambridge University Press. 考核方式 (1)每一次讲课最后留10分钟做一小测验，共15次，每次5分，共75分。 测试成绩占总成绩的50%。 (2)每人提交一篇课程论文，题目须选自每一讲所给的思考题，长度为5000 字左右，格式遵照《中国外语教育研究中心论文格式手册》。提交日期 最迟不晚于第17周周五下午5:00，提交地点是中国外语教育研究中心 学生作业信箱。 论文成绩占总成绩的50%。
课程简介 1 什么是语言和语言学？ 首先介绍语言的定义。‘语言’一词有多个用法，如，指讲话行为；指某人的语言；指某种文体的语言；指某国的语言；泛指人类语言。由于对语言的认识还不很全面，下一个大家都能接受的定义很难。到目前为止，能被许多人接受的定义是：‘语言是用于人类交际的一种任意的声音符号系统。’区别人类语言与动物的呼叫系统时，常用语言的设计特征。如：语言是人类所特有的；语言即来自物种本能，也来自后天教养；语言具有任意性；语言有创造性；语言有位移性；语言有双重性；语言有系统性。 然后介绍什么是语言学。定义：语言学是对语言的科学研究。科学性有5条原则：系统性；客观性；前后一致性；语料充分性；简单明了等。语言学中的几个重要区分：描写性与规定性；共时研究与历时研究；语言与言语；语言能力与语言运用；形式与功能；语言的社会性与心理因素；语言的可变性与不变性。语言学有许多分支，其实就是研究语言的不同层次或语言与其他学科的关系。语言学还有许多流派，就是用不同的理论观点去观察语言。 推荐参考书 王德春（2001），《语言学概论》。上海：上海外语教育出版社。 思考题： (1) 讨论4条语言的设计特征，要用具体例子说明。 (2) 讨论4条语言学中的科学性原则，要用例子说明。 2 语言的起源与演化 语言起源部分从介绍关于语言起源的各种传说（包括《圣经·创世纪》里的相关传说）、猜测和理论（包括“汪汪理论”）入手，进而综述近30年来对语言起源的科学考察，包括古人类学、考古学、遗传学、人体解剖学的相关研究，论证语言的起源与人类起源的同步性。 语言演化部分介绍语言谱系的发现和语言的进化，包括语言的演变和语法化。语言的演变从语言的区域变异、社会变异和历时变异这三方面加以介绍。 推荐参考书 Jean Aitchison (2000/2002). The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution（言语的萌发：语言起源与进化）. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press/Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press/ 思考题 (1) “语言符号的任意性”理论与语言起源是否相容？“汪汪理论”和“语言的图标性（iconicity，又称“相似性”）”能在多大程度上解释语言的起源？ (2) 语言演变的动因是什么？有什么规律可循？ (3) 什么是语法化？语法化是否有方向性？ 3 语言、文化与认知 本讲从介绍萨皮尔-沃尔夫假说入手，侧重探索语言与民族文化和认知的关系，涉及民族学、语言类型学和跨文化交际。本讲以词汇和语法方面的实例论证语言发展的根本驱动力是人类和各民族文化的发展，语言是人类认识世界的最重要的工具，所以各语言有许多共同
下文的作者是北京外国语大学刘润清教授，我转载于此，是想寄语所有英语专业的朋友。静下心来，看完本文，尤其注意大学这看似漫长实则短暂的几年时光中，刘润清教授是如何提高英语水平的。诚然，刘教授当年经历的教学法、师资、学习环境已经经历了较大的变革，但不变的是学习英语的过程，若想追寻的大师的足迹，必须抛却浮躁，脚踏实地地走上这条漫长的学习道路（当然，对于广大英语爱好者来说，这篇文章也具有极高的指导意义）： 我在中学学的是俄语，1960年报考北京外国语学院（现北京外国语大学）的俄语系。但报到时却得知我被分到了英语系。我的同班同学都学过英语，至少知道800个英语单词，发音也没有太大问题。惟独我这个农村孩子一个英语单词也不知道，一切都要从头学起。更可笑的是，别人说yes时，我会不自觉地说出俄语“是”的音/da/；别人说no 时，我会说/niet/。发英语的几个元音时，我也遇到很多困难，经常在班上引起哄堂大笑。好在我在班上年纪最大，脸皮也厚，又是团干部，因此无论别人怎么笑，我也没太在乎。幸运的是，我遇到了一位好老师。夏祖煃老师，不仅有丰富的教学经验，又有真诚、热情的工作态度；他经常鼓励我这个最落后的学生。老师和同学的帮助，给了我极大的信心，因此我从来没有被困难吓倒过。我把周末的时间都用在了学习上。对着镜子练发音，一练就是几个小时，有时嗓子都练哑了。当时全班只有一个大型录音机，要听大家都听，不听谁也别听，录音机死沉死沉的，也不可能搬到宿舍去。录音里只有精读课文和生词，除此之外，就再也没有任何其他听力材料了。我还经常在黑板上练拼写，写满一黑板，就擦掉又写。单单这发音和拼法，就不知道花去了我多少时间。我的语法还算好，当时没有什么专门的语法课，精读课文中出现什么语法现象，老师就顺便讲一下。但总的来说，在第一学年，我一直是班上的最后一名。到一年级结束的时候，我才算入了门。 二年级仍以精读课为主，它既是英语输入的主要来源，也是口语、笔语练习的主要场所。同时，还开了泛读课，让我们读最简单的英语小故事。从二年级起，老师还要求我们用英英词典。我记得第一次拿到 Advanced Learners Dictionary时，查了一两个词，心里就十分激动：我可以用英文解释英文了！初用英英词典时，当然也遇到不少困难。为了查一个词，不知道要查多少其他词。有时查来查去，就忘了最初是要查哪一个词了。但是，英英词典使我们看到了英汉词典中解释的局限性和误导性。从根本上说，查完英汉词典和汉英词典，并不能够真正学会使用一个词。只有查一部好的英英词典，才能真正搞清一个词的确切含义和用法。随着词汇量的扩大，使用英语词典的兴致也越来越高。有时，查上瘾来，会查上个把小时，忘记了正在读的文章。那时，我们都把Advanced Learners Dictionary上标的25个句型背得滚瓜烂熟。总之，查英英词典本身就是在学地道的英文。
从少儿英语看心理语言学对英语教学的启 示- 从少儿英语看心理语言学对英语教学的启示 如刘润清教授所指出的：学生如何学外语，教师如何教外语，中间涉及何种心理过程，值得深入研究。社会心理语言学是一门新兴语言学边缘学科，是一个由语言学家和社会心理学家共同努力、互相配合、互相启发的交叉学科。心理学与语言学结合产生了心理语言学，使人们开始注意习得语言和使用语言时的心理过程。心理语言学是研究语言活动中的心理过程的学科，它涉及人类个体如何掌握和运用语言系统，如何在实际交往中使语言系统发挥作用，以及为了掌握和运用这个系统应具有什么知识和能力。心理语言学就是研究语言与大脑的关系，研究记忆、言语知觉（speech perception）、概念及其它心理过程在语言运用中的作用，研究社会和心理因素对语言的运用有什么影响。英语教学中强调以应用为中心，重视语言应用能力的培养，我们希望学生能够学一点、会一点、用一点，这与心理语言学在研究外语教学的过程中着重研究学习者的能力是一致的。乔姆斯基把人类学习语言的才能叫做语言习得机制。人类是具有一种天赋的学习语言的质体，人脑可以对信息加工，归纳。儿童在讲话的过程中，一方面注意观察，另一方面进行记忆，通过思维，慢慢得出一些规则。这一点告诉我们，语言学习就是要进行创造性的模仿，要从小在交际中不断运用和磨练。 一、心理语言学的定义及其与英语教学的关系 Charles Osgood 和Thomas Sebeok 于1954 年写的《心理语
言学：理论与研究问题调查》标志着心理语言学的诞生。心理语言学或语言心理学是认知科学的分支。它综合了心理学和语言学。其任务是发现语言如何在理解，产出和习得三个心理过程中作用的。实验心理语言学关注语言理解和产出的过程，而发展心理语言学就关注语言的习得。 心理语言学把语言学习当做从理解到最终产出的心理过程。英语教学关注如何吸收，理解最后产出英语。显然这两方都关注语言的习得，理解和产出。心理语言学把语言学习过程与其他各种心理学理论联系起来，帮助教师理解语言学习的本质，分析学生和教材的特点，然后选择适合的教学方法。相反，语言教学提供真实的数据来支持心理语言学更深的研究，并作为试金石检验研究成果的价值。 二、少儿的生理和心理特征 少儿时期是一个人语言发展非常重要的时期。少儿时期学期外语具有一定优势：第一，这一时期少儿大脑发育迅速，听觉器官和发音器官相应成熟，能分辨和模仿成人的语言，具备了语言迅速发展的生理基础；第二，这一阶段的少儿，好奇心强，对自己周围的新事物有浓厚的兴趣，愿意接受新知识。英语对他们来说是完全陌生和新鲜的，会引起他们极大的学习兴趣；第三，处于这个时期的少儿能够接受渗入语言中的不同思想、文化、历史和传统等，因此英语学习中文化差异对他们影响较小。第四，这个阶段的少儿模仿能力强，机械记忆能力强、喜欢表现、不怕出丑和出错。英语学习需要大胆的尝试、交流，成年人往往害怕出错、出丑，因而羞于开口；而少儿在学习英语时，较少因害羞、胆怯而不愿开口，大多数少儿愿意积极开口说英语，乐于开口讲所学到的语言以及参与各项活动，不怕犯错误。但同时少儿学习
北京外国语大学刘润清教授写给报考英语专业的同学。。来源：邢淇治English的日志 来源：王姝燕的日志 下文的作者是北京外国语大学刘润清教授，我转载于此，是想寄语所有英语专业的朋友。静下心来，看完本文，尤其注意大学这看似漫长实则短暂的几年时光中，刘润清教授是如何提高英语水平的。诚然，刘教授当年经历的教学法、师资、学习环境已经经历了较大的变革，但不变的是学习英语的过程，若想追寻的大师的足迹，必须抛却浮躁，脚踏实地地走上这条漫长的学习道路（当然，对于广大英语爱好者来说，这篇文章也具有极高的指导意义）： 我在中学学的是俄语，1960年报考北京外国语学院（现北京外国语大学）的俄语系。但报到时却得知我被分到了英语系。我的同班同学都学过英语，至少知道800个英语单词，发音也没有太大问题。惟独我这个农村孩子一个英语单词也不知道，一切都要从头学起。更可笑的是，别人说yes时，我会不自觉地说出俄语“是”的音/da/；别人说no 时，我会说/niet/。发英语的几个元音时，我也遇到很多困难，经常在班上引起哄堂大笑。好在我在班上年纪最大，脸皮也厚，又是团干部，因此无论别人怎么笑，我也没太在乎。幸运的是，我遇到了一位好老师。夏祖煃老师，不仅有丰富的教学经验，又有真诚、热情的工作态度；他经常鼓励我这个最落后的学生。老师和同学的帮助，给了我极大的信心，因此我从来没有被困难吓倒过。我把周末的时间都用在了学习上。对着镜子练发音，一练就是几个小时，有时嗓子都练哑了。当时全班只有一个大型录音机，要听大家都听，不听谁也别听，录音机死沉死沉的，也不可能搬到宿舍去。录音里只有精读课文和生词，除此之外，就再也没有任何其他听力材料了。我还经常在黑板上练
艰苦的科研历程 北京外国语大学外国语言研究所教授、博士生导师刘润清 [说明：本文最初发表在大连外国语学院的《外语与外语教学》2003年第6期，题目为“外语中的实证研究”。我写“漫长的学习道路”后，感到余言未尽；学习写了，科研还没写，于是又写了“艰苦的科研历程”，成为“漫长的学习道路”的姊妹篇。但是，我不好意思都让《外国语》给我发表，于是就投到《外语与外语教学》那里去了。发表时题目改为“谈外语的实证研究”，这次收录时又改为“艰苦的科研历程”。这里记载的，与其说是我自己的体会，不如说是许国璋、王佐良等前辈的关于科研的教导，也是北外多年来形成的重视科研的伟大传统。] 一所大学的学术地位和教学质量取决于其教师的科研水平。一位优秀的大学教师能够把教学和科研有机地结合起来。研究者从事教学活动是有益的，因为教学给他以灵感，让他发现课题，验证理论或开展实验。而科研活动又能保证教学的科学性、前沿性及时代感。一定量的科研活动能使教师保持对教学的高度兴趣，这样，他就不会有“教书匠”的感觉。科研使教师在学术上永葆青春。 然而，教师在业余时间搞科研有不少困难。例如，没有足够的时间，没有足够的资料，没有机会参加学术研讨会等。最主要的是，有没有懂行的老师指导你，你自己又没有兴趣，决心和适当的科研方法。其中，起关键作用的还是主观因素：你有没有兴趣和吃苦的精神。有了这两样，其他条件都可以争取或创造。 从1980年写第一篇文章起，我的科研历史已经有23年了。这段科研历程的每一步都是艰辛的、坎坷的，但同时也是给人教益的，令人欣慰的。 我最深切的感受是：名师指点至关重要。1980年，通过许国璋先生，我结识了赵世开先生。赵先生当时在《动态语言学》（《当代语言学》的前身）编辑部工作。他知道我当时在读许老的语言学研究生，就把他刚刚得到的肯尼思·派克(Kenneth Pike)（美国著名的法位学理论的创始人）的《语法分析》（Grammatical Analysis）一书转给我，让我写篇评介。我当时是初生牛犊不怕虎，拿来就啃，费了九牛二虎之力，终于写出一篇像样的评介文章发表了。当时自己很得意，现在回忆起来才知道，首先是老师选题选得好。赵世开先生知道，那时，法位学理论在中国还不曾有人介绍过，但在美国已经出了不少书和文章。出乎意料的是，这篇文章发表后不久，我就与派克先生取得了联系，很快，他就来信表示希望来中国讲学。我把邀请派克先生的报告打上去，王佐良先生立刻就批准了。就这样，派克先生就来北外讲学了。派克先生的讲座给我印象最深的是，他调查生疏语言有一套高超的技术，这是传教士语言学家所接受的训练使然。一是他有办法准确地记录下生疏语言的发音。如，他让我们用中文说“我有一个苹果”，几遍之后，他就可以准确地重复出来。二是他有一套调查语法系统的方法。如，他让我们说“我打他”、“他打我”、“我有两个苹果”、“我有三个苹果”等，他就知道了中文宾语不变化，多数不变化的规律。派克先生知道我国的语言学家王力，并提出与他见面的想法。我陪他去见王力时，这两个大学者交流起来，我只能听懂只言片语。他们二人关于语音学和音系学的谈话，也远远超出我的理解能力。与派克先生在一起的日子让我懂得，在语言学的探索中，我还有很长很长的路要走。此后，我又写出好几篇关于法位学理论的文章。赵世开先生的指点不仅让我发表了多篇文章，而且引导我进入了一个全新的领域，我也碰巧成了第一个把法位学语法理论介绍到中国的人。