文化背景知识和翻译
[Abstract] It is agreed that language is a component of culture and reflects it; translation is not only the linguistic but also the communication of cultures. Culture background knowledge is concerned with geographic chatacteristics,historical ,tradition, social customs ,religion arts and other aspects of a society. Also it conditions the psychological make-up of individuals. Therefore, target language readers may experience culture shock from translations do not properly deal with the factors of cultures as a result of their lack of cultural background knowledge, This paper discusses the influence of knowledge of cultures on translation, and concludes that translators should have a vast and precise understanding of the two cultures concerned.
[Key Words] culture; translation; cultural background knowledge
[摘要] 语言不仅是文化的组成部分，也是文化的反映形式。翻译不仅仅是语言间的转换，而且是文化间的交流活动。文化背景知识涉及历史、地理特征、传统、社会风俗、宗教、艺术以及社会的各个方面。同时，文化背景知识也影响了社会成员的心理结构。因此，如果翻译者缺乏文化背景知识并因此不能恰当处理好原文中的文化因素，译文读者可能要面对激烈的文化冲击。本文将主要讨论译者文化背景知识对翻译的影响。最后得出结论：翻译者应该对相关的两种文化都有广泛而深入的认识。
[关键词] 文化；翻译；文化背景知识
1. Introduction
According to the tradition theory of translation, people considered translating activities as a process of transfer between two languages. In the 1970s, the study of translation tended to develop in several directions. It was no longer restricted to the tradition aesthetic and linguistic study and become cultural rethinking.
According to the theories of Mary Snell-Hornby, Bassnett and Lefevere, we can conclude that translation is to present in another culture the meaning and implication that the text has in a specific cultural context. In nature, translation is a kind of communication between cultures. During the process of translation, the interpretation and expression of the connotation of culture emerge as problems to be solved at the first place. That requires the translators not only should have bilingual abilities but also should have the knowledge of two cultures of, even several cultures. In 1993, Nida pointed out that, for the truly successful translation, the knowledge of two cultures is more important than the bilingual ability. [1]
E.B.Tylor, an anthropologist, thought culture is a complicated gathering, including knowledge, belief, arts, moral standards, law, customs and all the abilities and habits of individuals as members of a society.[2] The scope of culture is extremely wide-ranging .Language is the reflection of culture .Any kind of language bases on the ground of certain culture. So, the cultural characteristics of language include the way of thinking, psychological make-up, historical,
tradition, social customs, believes and geographic features that the language reflects. To understand the source language and the original text, translators have to analyze those cultural characteristics of a language.
2. Culture and language
Culture is a complicated system including and influencing almost all the aspects of life in a society. The language that the society uses is no exception. However, language also influences culture. Language and culture influences each other and reflects each other.
2.1 Culture and language
E. B. Tylor, an anthropologist, said that culture is a complicated combination including knowledge, belief, arts, ethics, laws, customs and the ability and habits of individuals as members of a society. Here knowledge refers to academic subjects, both scientific and not scientific, for example, mathematics and linguistics. Belief could be divided into two sorts, political and religious, which are different among peoples and often course different comprehension and even conflicts. Examples are Christianity in the west countries and Islam in the Muslin countries. Arts comprise painting, architecture, sculpture, literature, opera, dancing, music etc. (Some people maintain that film is also a sort of the arts.) Ethics is a set of principles that people use to decide what is right and what is wrong.
The scope of culture is not measurable. Language is a part of it. All languages grow on the ground of certain cultures.[3] Different languages are not just used, but also created in different cultural situations. Thus languages bear their characteristics in accordance with those of specific cultures. To understand the language appropriately, we have to analyze the cultural characteristics of it. Language is a system of sounds, words, patterns, ect used by human?s to communicate thoughts and feelings. We begin our preview of language by noting that it is impossible to separate our use of language from our culture. In its most basic sense, language is a set of symbols and the rules for combining those symbols that are used and understood by a large community of people. When we study another language, we soon discover that not only are the symbols (words) and sounds for those symbols different, but also are the rules (phonology, grammar, syntax and intonation) for using those symbols and sounds.
Word differences are obvious in various languages. In English, we live in a house. In Spanish, we live in a casa. In Tai, we live in a ban. Phonology also varies culturally. In English, we have 21 consonants and 5 vowels and combine to form 38 various phonemes. Vietnamese has 34 segmental phonemes consisting of vowels, semi-vowels and consonants. The Filipino language has 21 consonants and 13 vowels that form 26 phonemes. Grammatical structures are unique to each language as well. In English, we have singular and plural nouns and pronouns, but in Korean, the distinction between singular and plural is made by the context of the sentence. In English, verb tenses express contrast between past, present, and future acts, but in Vietnamese, the same verb reflects all three and the time of the action is inferred from the context. Syntax, or the word order and structure in the sentence, also varies depending on the language. The normal word order for simple sentences in Vietnamese is the reverse of the word order in English. That is, the predicate is followed by the subject. For example, the English sentence "The teacher died" would be
"Namatay ang guro" or "Died the teacher" in Filipino. In English the subject is followed by a verb and then an object, but in Japanese, the subject is followed by the object and then the verb. So in English we might say, "John saw the dog." but in Japanese, "John the dog saw" would be correct.
[4]
These examples indicate that if we want to communicate in another language, it is important for us to know not only the symbols (words) of that language, but also the rules for using those symbols. As we know, language is much more than symbol and rule system that allow us to communicate with other person——language also shape the process by which people become introduced to the order of the physical and social environment.
2.2 Relationship between language and culture
Language and culture influence each other, reflect each other and co-exist with each other. Different cultures result in different language. Different languages in turn cause different communicative patterns and finally differences between cultures.
Language and its cultural influence are exemplified in the theoretical formulations of the
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which states that Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people?s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This hypothesis implies that proclaimed that the structure of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave. That is to say, different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently [5]. Sapir wrote: Human beings do not live in the objective world alone, nor in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of the expression of their society... The real world is to a large extent unconsciously built on the language habits of the group. No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same world with different labels attached.
A good illustration of this point is the word snow in Eskimo and English. The Eskimos have countless words for snow. For them snow is extremely important and so crucial to life that each of its various forms and conditions is named. In English-speaking cultures, snow is far less important and the simple word snow usually suffices the needs. When some needs become more specific, however, longer phrases can be made up to meet these needs: "corn snow", "fine powder snow ", and "drifting snow". Once again this proves that there is a connection between the words a culture selects and the ideas and things of that culture. In short, each culture presents to its members, either consciously or subconsciously through words, the ideas and concepts that culture transmits from generation to generation [6].
Another instance of how language defines experience can be seen in the Navajo language, which emphasis the nature and the direction of movement. Rather than saying, "One dresses," the Navajo would say, one move into clothing." Instead of saying, "One is young," the Navajo would say, "One moves about newly." Language is one aspect of the Navajo nature that coincides with the notion of universe in motion.
Although complete acceptance of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis may be controversial, its application of culture and language is clear: language is the reflection of culture, and culture is a shape of
language. We have seen that culture influences language by way of symbols and rules as well as our perception of the universe. Equally important is the fact that meaning shifts from culture to culture.
2.3 Different language and culture lead to different communicative pattern
Chinese communication pattern and use of language are similar to those of Japanese and Koreans. The Chinese tend to be situation-oriented and to view events in relation to the totality. For the Chinese, this total view, an is-or-is-not polarity is avoided. In English, people and thing are placed in a continuum—big and small, good and bad, black and white. For the Chinese, middle values are articulated and a reciprocal relationship between the two extremes is emphasized. For example, the Chinese may refer to love and hate as deference and politeness, they would like to say:”我对
她有点意思!”instead of “我爱她!”, and”我懒得理他!”instead of “我讨厌他!”. This focus on the quality of the continuum is a reflection of the Chinese belief in the principle of nature, yin (passive) and yang (active). This polite principle combines to produce everything that comes to be. It makes people more concordant and avoids the communication conflict.
We have alluded to the fact that the use of direct and indirect language is a major linguistic difference between North Americans and many Asian cultures, such as the Chinese. Most North Americans learn to say yes and no as a means of expressing their individual views. Being a collective culture, the Chinese usually use yes and no to express the respect for the feeling of the others. In other words, to say yes for no or no for yes is largely a reflection of the indirect approach to communication. For example, Chinese and English have a different answer for “you are not a student, are you?” For the Chinese students, he will answer:“不，我是学生。”For the English student, he will answer: " yes, I am " That is because the western people chose "question-oriented ", and the Chinese chose fact-oriented through which undesirable interpersonal communication can be avoided. This contrary-to-face-value aspect of Asian verbal language behavior can be confusing to North Americans.
The indirect use of language is evident in ways other than the use of yes and no. For example, an American host or hostess, when complimented on his of her cooking, is likely to respond, "Oh, I am so glad you like it. I cooked it especially for you." In contrast, the Chinese host and hostess
will instead apologize profusely for giving you nothing even slightly edible and for not showing you enough honor for not providing enough dishes.
Another example of Chinese indirect language is evident in their practice of politely refusing an offer three times before they accept. It has also left many Chinese hungry at an American table.
An American hostess commented on this situation:
Once you have learnt the signal and how to respond, life becomes infinitely easier. When Chinese guest comes, I know I should immediately ask if they'd like a cup of tea. They will respond, "Please don't bother,” which is my signal to fetch tea.
The language of English is used differently as we move among many English-speaking countries. In Great Britain, the language is interspersed with euphemisms that enable the speakers to avoid expressing strong feelings. For instance, when English persons wish to disagree with someone, they are liable to preface a request, as in "I'd be awfully grateful if ???" of "Thank you very much indeed. This restraint is also very evident in the differences between American and British word
choice". Compare the following signs in the United States and in England:
U.S.: "No dogs allowed."
England: "We regret that in the interest of hygiene, dogs are not allowed in the
premises."
U.S.: "Video controlled."
England: "Notice: In the interest of our regular customers, these premises are
now equipped with central security-circuit television. "
U.S.: "Please keep hands off door.”
England: "Obstructing the door causes delay and can be dangerous.”
From the above discussion, we may conclude that how the British uses English reflects their pursuing of politeness and friendliness, while the Americans stress accuracy and simplicity. Comparatively, the Chinese prefers middle value and try to avoid polarity.
Our goal in this section has been to convey the fact that, different language and culture lead to different communicative pattern, language and culture is inseparable from each other in communicative pattern. Culture influences language symbols and rules for using those symbols. As we have also seen, meaning is culturally determined. At the same time language is the carrier
of culture. Language in communicative pattern also is one of the elements in culture-nativized of translation. In fact, translation just set the influence on readers by language.
3. Culture and translation
Cross-cultural communication is communication between people from different cultures. With the study of translation going further, the idea that translation is for cross-cultural communication was put forth by linguists and translators. Newmark has two statements: "translation is the most economical method of explaining one culture's way to another" and "translation mediates cultures". Snell-Hornby states “translation is not …interlingual transfer? but …cross-cultural transfe r?"
(Snell-Hornby, 1988:39) [7]. Lame Hewson and Jacky Martin (1993:25) also state that translation is the exploration of an unbridgeable gap and of a tension between cultures, and its function is to develop cross-cultural construction while at the same time bridging and underlying the differences. As a significant medium for cultural exchange, translation aims to promote understanding among different countries and nations, hence to improve communication cross cultures.
Translation from language to language is in fact translation from culture to culture. Bassnett (1991:13) [8] believes that translation must take place in a framework of culture. Translation, as cross—cultural communication must be made on a lingual basis and on a cultural one, because language and culture are so interdependent that the one implies the other. Culture finds its expression in the language and through the language. Cultural specifics influence the way the language unites are used and understood. The translator renders into another language what the language with the original message means in the culture. And therefore, linguistic theories of translation must incorporate cultural aspects as well.
Translation as cross-cultural communication is associated with two cultural contexts in which their cultural content is conveyed in two different languages, and it lays emphasis on how to convey in a precise way the original cultural connotation and how to interpret it on the native cultural perspective so as to achieve effective communication, and requires the translators should transfer
the cultural message of the source language to the target readers, both faithfully and validly. And therefore, translator should not only respect the source culture, but also the target culture, and help bring about communication between the members of different linguistic and cultural communities. In order to achieve faithful and valid communication, translators should take seriously into consideration the cultural psychological factors concerned. Cultural psychological, which underlines the variety of language usage and language habits, come to the most important area of translation studies. The way of thinking, beliefs, attitude, and values of different cultures not only give rise to failure of misunderstanding in cross-culture communication, but also pose headaches to translators and translation theorists who are trying to bridge the gaps between source language texts and target language texts, and intention of source language authors and receiving capacity of target language readers.
4. Influence of Cultural Background On translation
Culture can be divided into several parts, so for cultural background knowledge. Study those parts one by one is a reasonable method of understanding a specific culture.
4.1The influence of knowledge of history on translation
History of a country may last for thousands of years. Even natives know not all the past events, not to mention the foreigners. To fulfill the obligation of translation as a cross-cultural communication, translators should have extensive knowledge of history, especially that of the source culture.
Knowledge of history affects the accurate translation of political terms. For example, 香港回归has two official translations because of different cognitions of history. Proceeding from their own position on the question, British government used the expression "Hongkong Handover". [9] On the contrary, the official translation of China is "to resume the exercise of sovereignty over Hongkong". That is because Hongkong has been a part of China in the long process of history. Britain only seized the "sovereignty" of Hongkong from the declining government of the Qing Dynasty by the means of war.
The certain words in a certain age are difficult to translator. For example, in t he period of “the revolution of culture” of China, people usually like to say the sentence: “我们不搞实用主义” . We can?t translate “we do not advocate pragmatism.” In western countries, “pragmatism is praised” a method of philosophy in which the truth of a propos ition is measured by its correspondence with experimental results and by its practical outcome”(the new Colombia encyclopedia.3rd ed) 实用主义is a derogatory term in china, but in western countries ,it has the extended meaning in philosophy as follow; “an excellent plan which can get expediency.”(有利可图的权宜之计)So ,we can translate the sentence: We never base our policies on expediency. This sentence not only shows the word exact use in Chinese but also give the correct meaning to the foreigner who do not know the certain meaning in china at that certain ages. [10]
4.2The influence of knowledge of geographic characteristics on translation
Geographic characteristics not only influence the material life of a country, they also influence the language and the culture.
Differences between geographic characteristics cause differences between languages. England is
an island surrounded by waters. Because of the rich fish resources, fishing is an important economic activity and many English expressions are associated with fish. For example, a fish out of fish, big fish in a pound, drink like a fish, all is fish that comes to one's net, feed the fish etc. It is easy to see geographic characteristics have a influence on language. It reflects on the pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and so on. It has a importance function on playing up the nation?s language and culture when we want to translate the sense of reality in those geographic characteristics.
China is rich in mountain and forest and bamboo is very common there. In Chinese people say 雨后春笋(spring up like bamboo shoot after a spring rain), while in English, people use "spring up like mushrooms" to express the same meaning. That is because the British are much familiar with mushroom instead of bamboo. And that is because it often rains in England and the wet condition is very suitable for the growth of mushrooms. [11]
Climate differences also result in cultural differences between languages. The Chinese poet, Yang Juyuan, wrote in ?城东早春? :" 诗家清景在新春，绿柳才黄半未均。若待上林话似锦，出门俱是看花人。"The following is the translation of Herbert A. Giles, a British sinologist:
The landscape which the poet loves is that of early May,
When budding greenness half concealed enwraps each willow spray,
The beautiful embroidery the days of summer yield,
Appeals to every bumpkin who may take his walk afield.
"Early May" is not the proper translation of早春(early spring). Because it is already late spring in early May in China. Although the translator used it to achieve rhyming and did succeed, the translation took with it the wrong information. It may course the western readers to misunderstand that in China the early spring comes in early May.
Geographic characteristics cause specific natural phenomenon that exists only in a specific area. Readers in a different cultural context may never understand it if the translators don't make necessary explanation. Because of the special geographic condition of Chongqing, 棒棒军exists as something distinctive in the city. It is translated in some foreign journals as "porters". On China Daily, the translation is" shoulder-pole corps------porters in Chongqing are called the
shoulder-pole corps.”The former didn't express the regional characteristics of the word. It is in lack of humor and vividness that are found in the translation on China Daily. "Should-pole" catches the exact image of棒棒军, and "corps" reflects the bold and uninhibited character of people in the mountain city. [12]
4.3The influence of knowledge of tradition on translation
Traditions are the long-established method of practice. Most Chinese traditional modes of thought in the feudal society originate from Confucianism.
In the forth chapter of "The True Story of Ah Q", Luxun wrote: "夫…不孝有三无后为大?" . It is a concept most Chinese are familiar with. The influence of it is so far-reaching that the idea of men being superior to woman, which is the result of the above sentence, is still maintained by many Chinese. But a reader whose native language is English doesn't necessarily know what "unfilial conducts" are. To make the original text be accepted by the English readers, Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang and William A. Lyell provided information related in the footnote:
"There are three forms of unfilial conducts, of which the worst is to have no descendants.” *A quotation from Menciu (Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang) [13]
"Of three things which do unfilial be/ The worst is to lackposteritie " (William A. Lyell). Footnote: The other two are following parents' orders when one knows that such a course will sink them into unrighteousness and refusing to become an official when one's parents are old and poor.(Lyell)
Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang pointed the source of the quotation in the footnote. Readers can get more information from Mencius. Lyell directly explained the other two "filial conducts" of the Chinese people. Translation is the tie of international cultural exchange. For literature translation, it serves foreign readers who don't speak Chinese and can't get any original cultural for reference. Lyell has taken into consideration the needs of readers and made detailed explanation in the translation. Lyell?s translation shows out the cultural background knowledge in Chinese tradition .He shakes off the language?s trammels and expresses the deep meaning.
In the feudal society of China, there were strict rules for the contacts between male and female. It is mentioned in the forth chapter in "The True Story of Ah Q":“啊Q本来也是正人，我们虽然不知道他蒙什么明师指授，但他对于…男女之大防?却也历来非常严。”What are the great barriers between men and women? If you ask a Chinese, he/she may soon think of "a man and a woman should touch hands when giving or receiving things. But to the common English readers, it is a mystery. By studying Chinese culture, Lyell introduced the traditional modes of thought to the readers.
Footnote:Now our Ah Q started out as an upright man too. Though we don't know this was because he had been shown the way by some enlightened teacher, we do know that he rigorously observed the great barriers that should take more attention on it. (William A. Lyell) Footnote: According to the puritanical ethics of traditional Confucian morality, any contact between an unrelated man and woman was potentially, if not actually, immoral. A populous proverb decreed "that a man and woman, unless related, should not touch hands when giving or receiving things " (男女授受不亲). (Lyell)
The explanation made by Lyell is helpful for the understanding of western readers. The introduction of that background knowledge of Chinese culture surely will be favorable to get a deeper understanding. While translating texts in the native language, translators often take for granted that foreign readers should have the same general knowledge. As a result the necessity for noting is neglected.
Lots of traditional Chinese modes of thoughts are about family. There is a typical instance in "The Story of the Stone". Wang Xifeng said: "...竟不象老祖宗的外孙女，竟是嫡亲的孙女似的。"In China, it is generally accepted that the ties of blood between the mother and her son's children is closer than those with her daughter's. Wang meant that Daiyu was fine in temperament. Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang, who are familiar with the Chinese tradition, translated it as: "She doesn 't take after her father, son-in-law of our old Ancestress, but looks more like a Jia".[14] The translation revealed precisely the ulterior motive of Wang, to compliment Daiyu in order to win Grannie's favor. Thus, the traditional consciousness of feudal family was loyally transferred.
4.4 The influence of knowledge of customs on translation
Some general knowledge of the customs of the original culture will be good for our translation undertaking. Different languages have different history, cultural backgrounds and social situation. It is impossible for the readers to know all the details of a foreign works, especially those of social customs and way of life. "The True Story of Ah Q" is a novel full of national characteristics with many traditional Chinese customs.
In the third chapter of the story, when Ah Q met the fake foreign devil, whom he hated most, Luxun wrote: " 不料这秃儿却拿了一支黄漆的棒子—就是啊Q所谓的哭丧棒------大踏步走了过来" People familiar with traditional Chinese culture should know that, in the past, son should have a "filial stick" on his hand while attending his parent' s funeral to show that he was overwhelmed with grief. （注：哭丧棒：旧时在为父母发丧时，孝子须手扶一根…孝棒?以表示悲痛难支) Ah Q hated the fake foreign devil, so he cursed his stick to be 哭丧棒. Four translations of "The True Story of Ah Q" have four different ways to translate.
the stick of wails---George Kin Leung
the funeral stick---Chi-Chan Wang
a staff carried by a mourner[15] ---Yang Hsien-Gladys Yang
a wailing stick---Lyell
There are defects in all the 4 translations. Those of Leung and Lyell are similar to each other, but both of them did not translated the meaning of "funeral"; the translation of Wang is in lack of the meaning of "wailing"; Yang explained the use of 哭丧棒, but they did not point out why it's used. What's more, the translation of Yang is not proper also because哭丧棒was generally used by a son, not by a common mourner. However, with the help of Lyell's footnote, foreign readers can get a clear concept of 哭丧棒：
Young foreign gentlemen of the time often carried canes and young Chinese who have studied abroad often emulate them even after returning home. The "wailing stick"(哭丧棒) had been traditionally carried by filial sons in funeral processions; The idea it represented was that the son was so overwhelmed with grief that he would have been otherwise unable to walk.
Lyell explained the Chinese tradition and at the same time pointed out the social background of the story. Meanwhile, he compared the situation in China with that in the western countries and pointed out that 哭丧棒is like canes that carried by the foreign gentlemen.
In the description of Ah Q's behavior on the ex ecution ground (the 9 chapter), it is written:“…过了二十年又是一……?阿Q在百忙之中，…无师自通?地说出从来不说的话。”
Footnotes of the three translations are as follows:
Footnote: Common formula of defiance used by desperadoes on their way to the execution ground and signifying a sure return, in another incarnation, to carry on what they left off.( Chi-Chan Wang)
"In another twenty years I shall be another stout young fellow.” was a phrase often used by criminals, before execution, to show their scorn of death.(Leung)
Footnote: To show contempt for authority and indifference to death, condemned criminals would shout just before execution. "Twenty years from now, I'll come back as big and bad as ever." The idea, based on the Buddhist doctrine of rebirth, was that the criminal's spirit would enter a fetus ledged inside a pregnant mother's womb at the moment of his death.(Lyell)
The original of what Ah Q said on the execution ground is explained in all the three footnotes. It will help the readers to overcome the inconvenience caused by cultural gap and to get a deeper understanding of the original text and the Chinese culture in the ancient society. (Comparatively, information provided by Lyell is the most abundant.) In conclusion, from the translations of Lyell, we can see translation is not reproduction but culture mediation and manipulation--we just call cultural shift. (Gentzler, 1993) culture shift emphasizes the situation of culture in translation and the significance of translation for culture. It focuses on culture but not the words, sentences even sections and chapters. [16]
4.5 The influence of knowledge of religion on translation
China and England have different religious beliefs. It will be naturally reflected in the two languages. The main cultural factors in the language of English belong to the Christian culture. The Bible influenced the establishment and development of western civilization. In China, Buddhism and Taoism cultures are the most influential. Both English and Chinese have their own characteristics in thinking pattern, form of lingual expression and the implication of words and images. All of those should be noticed in during the process of translation.
For example, in Hawke?s translation of 《红楼梦》, 阿弥陀佛became "God bless my soul" and 无星寿佛became God. Because of such kind of translation, westerners may think that Chinese also believe in God. It seriously reduced the Chinese cultural connotation. In the Chinese idiom
天诛地灭，天and 地means heaven and earth respectively. They represent the supreme power. But it is applicable only in China as people here believe in believe in Buddhism. It should not be replaced by "God", which is an expression reflects the Christian belief.
As Christianity and the Bible prevail in English-speaking countries, lots of English idioms are associated with characters in the Bible, for instance, as old as Melhuselah, as rich as a Jew, as wise as Solomon. Most Chinese readers may have no idea of who are they. To make sure they can convey the connotation, explanation is necessary. For the above-mentioned examples, Melhuselah is said to be 969 years' old when he died; Jews accumulated wealth by the means of practicing usury and become the synonym of the rich. All of them originated from the Bible.
4.6 The influence of knowledge of the arts on translation
Arts occupy a very important position in culture. It reflects the reality of life and at the same time shapes it. With Shaoxin of Zhejian province, Luxun's hometown, as the background place, "The True Story of Ah Q" reflected the local arts there. If translators can explain clearly the background knowledge of them, readers can acquire the information that native readers get from the original and achieve better understanding. Careful readers may have discovered that the protagonist Ah Q is very fond of saying " 我手执钢鞭将你打" It is exactly from the libretto of The Battle of Dragon and Tiger(《龙虎斗》), a local opera of Shaoxin. It is about a battle fought by Zhao
Differential Calculus Newton and Leibniz,quite independently of one another,were largely responsible for developing the ideas of integral calculus to the point where hitherto insurmountable problems could be solved by more or less routine methods.The successful accomplishments of these men were primarily due to the fact that they were able to fuse together the integral calculus with the second main branch of calculus,differential calculus. In this article, we give su ?cient conditions for controllability of some partial neutral functional di ?erential equations with in?nite delay. We suppose that the linear part is not necessarily densely de?ned but satis?es the resolvent estimates of the Hille -Yosida theorem. The results are obtained using the integrated semigroups theory. An application is given to illustrate our abstract result. Key words Controllability; integrated semigroup; integral solution; in?nity delay 1 Introduction In this article, we establish a result about controllability to the following class of partial neutral functional di ?erential equations with in?nite delay: 0,) ,()(0≥?? ???∈=++=?? t x xt t F t Cu ADxt Dxt t βφ (1) where the state variable (.)x takes values in a Banach space ).,(E and the control (.)u is given in []0),,,0(2>T U T L ,the Banach space of admissible control functions with U a Banach space. C is a bounded linear operator from U into E, A : D(A) ? E → E is a linear operator on E, B is the phase space of functions mapping (?∞, 0] into E, which will be speci?ed later, D is a bounded linear operator from B into E de?ned by B D D ∈-=????,)0(0 0D is a bounded linear operator from B into E and for each x : (?∞, T ] → E, T > 0, and t ∈ [0, T ], xt represents, as usual, the mapping from (?∞, 0] into E de?ned by ]0,(),()(-∞∈+=θθθt x xt F is an E-valued nonlinear continuous mapping on B ??+. The problem of controllability of linear and nonlinear systems repr esented by ODE in ?nit dimensional space was extensively studied. Many authors extended the controllability concept to in?nite dimensional systems in Banach space with unbounded operators. Up to now, there are a lot of works on this topic, see, for example, [4, 7, 10, 21]. There are many systems that can be written as abstract neutral evolution equations with in?nite delay to study [23]. In recent years, the theory of neutral functional di ?erential equations with in?nite delay in in?nite dimension was deve loped and it is still a ?eld of research (see, for instance, [2, 9, 14, 15] and the references therein). Meanwhile, the controllability problem of such systems was also discussed by many mathematicians, see, for example, [5, 8]. The objective of this article is to discuss the controllability for Eq. (1), where the linear part is supposed to be non-densely de?ned but satis?es the resolvent estimates of the Hille-Yosida theorem. We shall assume conditions that assure global existence and give the su ?cient conditions for controllability of some partial neutral functional di ?erential equations with in?nite delay. The results are obtained using the integrated semigroups theory and Banach ?xed point theorem. Besides, we make use of the notion of integral solution and we do not use the analytic semigroups theory. Treating equations with in?nite delay such as Eq. (1), we need to introduce the phase space B. To avoid repetitions and understand the interesting properties of the phase space, suppose that ).,(B B is a (semi)normed abstract linear space of functions mapping (?∞, 0] into E, and satis?es the following fundamental axioms that were ?rst introduced in [13] and widely discussed
Inventory management Inventory Control On the so-called "inventory control", many people will interpret it as a "storage management", which is actually a big distortion. The traditional narrow view, mainly for warehouse inventory control of materials for inventory, data processing, storage, distribution, etc., through the implementation of anti-corrosion, temperature and humidity control means, to make the custody of the physical inventory to maintain optimum purposes. This is just a form of inventory control, or can be defined as the physical inventory control. How, then, from a broad perspective to understand inventory control? Inventory control should be related to the company's financial and operational objectives, in particular operating cash flow by optimizing the entire demand and supply chain management processes (DSCM), a reasonable set of ERP control strategy, and supported by appropriate information processing tools, tools to achieved in ensuring the timely delivery of the premise, as far as possible to reduce inventory levels, reducing inventory and obsolescence, the risk of devaluation. In this sense, the physical inventory control to achieve financial goals is just a means to control the entire inventory or just a necessary part; from the perspective of organizational functions, physical inventory control, warehouse management is mainly the responsibility of The broad inventory control is the demand and supply chain management, and the whole company's responsibility. Why until now many people's understanding of inventory control, limited physical inventory control? The following two reasons can not be ignored: First, our enterprises do not attach importance to inventory control. Especially those who benefit relatively good business, as long as there is money on the few people to consider the problem of inventory turnover. Inventory control is simply interpreted as warehouse management, unless the time to spend money, it may have been to see the inventory problem, and see the results are often very simple procurement to buy more, or did not do warehouse departments . Second, ERP misleading. Invoicing software is simple audacity to call it ERP, companies on their so-called ERP can reduce the number of inventory, inventory control, seems to rely on their small software can get. Even as SAP, BAAN ERP world, the field of
电厂蒸汽动力的基础和使用 1.1 为何需要了解蒸汽 对于目前为止最大的发电工业部门来说, 蒸汽动力是最为基础性的。 若没有蒸汽动力, 社会的样子将会变得和现在大为不同。我们将不得已的去依靠水力发电厂、风车、电池、太阳能蓄电池和燃料电池,这些方法只能为我们平日用电提供很小的一部分。 蒸汽是很重要的,产生和使用蒸汽的安全与效率取决于怎样控制和应用仪表,在术语中通常被简写成C&I(控制和仪表 。此书旨在在发电厂的工程规程和电子学、仪器仪表以 及控制工程之间架设一座桥梁。 作为开篇,我将在本章大体描述由水到蒸汽的形态变化,然后将叙述蒸汽产生和使用的基本原则的概述。这看似简单的课题实际上却极为复杂。这里, 我们有必要做一个概述:这本书不是内容详尽的论文,有的时候甚至会掩盖一些细节, 而这些细节将会使热力学家 和燃烧物理学家都为之一震。但我们应该了解,这本书的目的是为了使控制仪表工程师充 分理解这一课题,从而可以安全的处理实用控制系统设计、运作、维护等方面的问题。1.2沸腾:水到蒸汽的状态变化 当水被加热时,其温度变化能通过某种途径被察觉(例如用温度计 。通过这种方式 得到的热量因为在某时水开始沸腾时其效果可被察觉,因而被称为感热。 然而,我们还需要更深的了解。“沸腾”究竟是什么含义?在深入了解之前,我们必须考虑到物质的三种状态:固态,液态,气态。 (当气体中的原子被电离时所产生的等离子气体经常被认为是物质的第四种状态, 但在实际应用中, 只需考虑以上三种状态固态,
物质由分子通过分子间的吸引力紧紧地靠在一起。当物质吸收热量,分子的能量升级并且 使得分子之间的间隙增大。当越来越多的能量被吸收,这种效果就会加剧,粒子之间相互脱离。这种由固态到液态的状态变化通常被称之为熔化。 当液体吸收了更多的热量时,一些分子获得了足够多的能量而从表面脱离,这个过程 被称为蒸发(凭此洒在地面的水会逐渐的消失在蒸发的过程中,一些分子是在相当低的 温度下脱离的,然而随着温度的上升,分子更加迅速的脱离,并且在某一温度上液体内部 变得非常剧烈,大量的气泡向液体表面升起。在这时我们称液体开始沸腾。这个过程是变为蒸汽的过程,也就是液体处于汽化状态。 让我们试想大量的水装在一个敞开的容器内。液体表面的空气对液体施加了一定的压 力,随着液体温度的上升,便会有足够的能量使得表面的分子挣脱出去,水这时开始改变 自身的状态,变成蒸汽。在此条件下获得更多的热量将不会引起温度上的明显变化。所增 加的能量只是被用来改变液体的状态。它的效用不能用温度计测量出来,但是它仍然发生 着。正因为如此,它被称为是潜在的,而不是可认知的热量。使这一现象发生的温度被称为是沸点。在常温常压下,水的沸点为100摄氏度。 如果液体表面的压力上升, 需要更多的能量才可以使得水变为蒸汽的状态。 换句话说, 必须使得温度更高才可以使它沸腾。总而言之,如果大气压力比正常值升高百分之十,水必须被加热到一百零二度才可以使之沸腾。
吉林化工学院理学院 毕业论文外文翻译English Title（Times New Roman ，三号） 学生学号：08810219 学生姓名：袁庚文 专业班级：信息与计算科学0802 指导教师：赵瑛 职称副教授 起止日期：2012.2.27～2012.3.14 吉林化工学院 Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology
1 外文翻译的基本内容 应选择与本课题密切相关的外文文献（学术期刊网上的），译成中文，与原文装订在一起并独立成册。在毕业答辩前，同论文一起上交。译文字数不应少于3000个汉字。 2 书写规范 2.1 外文翻译的正文格式 正文版心设置为：上边距：3.5厘米，下边距：2.5厘米，左边距：3.5厘米，右边距：2厘米，页眉：2.5厘米，页脚：2厘米。 中文部分正文选用模板中的样式所定义的“正文”，每段落首行缩进2字；或者手动设置成每段落首行缩进2字，字体：宋体，字号：小四，行距：多倍行距1.3，间距：前段、后段均为0行。 这部分工作模板中已经自动设置为缺省值。 2.2标题格式 特别注意：各级标题的具体形式可参照外文原文确定。 1．第一级标题（如：第1章绪论）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题1”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：三号，1.5倍行距，段后11磅，段前为11磅。 2．第二级标题（如：1.2 摘要与关键词）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题2”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：四号，1.5倍行距，段后为0，段前0.5行。 3．第三级标题（如：1.2.1 摘要）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题3”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：小四，1.5倍行距，段后为0，段前0.5行。 标题和后面文字之间空一格（半角）。 3 图表及公式等的格式说明 图表、公式、参考文献等的格式详见《吉林化工学院本科学生毕业设计说明书（论文）撰写规范及标准模版》中相关的说明。
Although dependence and independence are properties of sets of elements, we also apply these terms to the elements themselves. For example, the elements in an independent set are called independent elements. 虽然相关和无关是元素集的属性，我们也适用于这些元素本身。 例如，在一个独立设定的元素被称为独立元素。 If s is finite set, the foregoing definition agrees with that given in Chapter 8 for the space n V . However, the present definition is not restricted to finite sets. 如果S 是有限集，同意上述定义与第8章中给出的空间n V ，然而，目前的定义不局限于有限集。 If a subset T of a set S is dependent, then S itself is dependent. This is logically equivalent to the statement that every subset of an independent set is independent. 如果集合S 的子集T 是相关的，然后S 本身是相关的，这在逻辑上相当于每一个独立设置的子集是独立的语句。 If one element in S is a scalar multiple of another, then S is dependent. 如果S 中的一个元素是另一个集中的多个标量的，则S 是相关的。 If S ∈0,then S is dependent. 若S ∈0，则 S 是相关的。 The empty set is independent. 空集是无关的。 Many examples of dependent and independent sets of vectors in V were discussed in Chapter 8. The following examples illustrate these concepts in function spaces. In each case the underlying linear space V is the set of all real-valued function defined on the real line. V 中的向量的相关和无关设置的许多例子是在第8章讨论。下面的例子说明这些概念在函数空间。在每个 基本情况下，线性空间V 是实线定义的所有实值函数集。 Let 1)(),(sin )(,cos )(32221===t u t t u t t u for all real t. The Pythagorean identity show that 0321=-+u u u , so the three functions 321,,u u u are dependent. 321,,u u u 是相关的。 Let k k t t u =)(for k=0,1,2,…, and t real. The set ,...},,{210u u u S = is independent. To prove this, it suffices to show that for each n the n+1 polynomials n u u u ,...,,10 are independent. A relation of the form ∑=0k k u c means that
英语专业毕业论文翻译 类论文 Document number：NOCG-YUNOO-BUYTT-UU986-1986UT
毕业论文（设计）Title:The Application of the Iconicity to the Translation of Chinese Poetry 题目:象似性在中国诗歌翻译中的应用 学生姓名孔令霞 学号 BC09150201 指导教师祁晓菲助教 年级 2009级英语本科（翻译方向）二班 专业英语 系别外国语言文学系
黑龙江外国语学院本科生毕业论文（设计）任务书 摘要
索绪尔提出的语言符号任意性，近些年不断受到质疑，来自语言象似性的研究是最大的挑战。语言象似性理论是针对语言任意性理论提出来的，并在不断发展。象似性是当今认知语言学研究中的一个重要课题，是指语言符号的能指与所指之间的自然联系。本文以中国诗歌英译为例，探讨象似性在中国诗歌翻译中的应用，从以下几个部分阐述：（1）象似性的发展；（2）象似性的定义及分类；（3）中国诗歌翻译的标准；（4）象似性在中国诗歌翻译中的应用，主要从以下几个方面论述：声音象似、顺序象似、数量象似、对称象似方面。通过以上几个方面的探究，探讨了中国诗歌翻译中象似性原则的重大作用，在诗歌翻译过程中有助于得到“形神皆似”和“意美、音美、形美”的理想翻译效果。 关键词：象似性；诗歌；翻译
Abstract The arbitrariness theory of language signs proposed by Saussure is severely challenged by the study of language iconicity in recent years. The theory of iconicity is put forward in contrast to that of arbitrariness and has been developing gradually. Iconicity, which is an important subject in the research of cognitive linguistics, refers to a natural resemblance or analogy between the form of a sign and the object or concept. This thesis mainly discusses the application of the iconicity to the translation of Chinese poetry. The paper is better described from the following parts: (1) The development of the iconicity; (2) The definition and classification of the iconicity; (3) The standards of the translation to Chinese poetry; (4) The application of the iconicity to the translation of Chinese poetry, mainly discussed from the following aspects: sound iconicity, order iconicity, quantity iconicity, and symmetrical iconicity. Through in-depth discussion of the above aspects, this paper could come to the conclusion that the iconicity is very important in the translation of poetry. It is conductive to reach the ideal effect of “the similarity of form and spirit” and “the three beauties”. Key words: the iconicity; poetry; translation
软件专业毕业论文外文文献中英文翻译 Object landscapes and lifetimes Tech nically, OOP is just about abstract data typing, in herita nee, and polymorphism, but other issues can be at least as importa nt. The rema in der of this sect ion will cover these issues. One of the most importa nt factors is the way objects are created and destroyed. Where is the data for an object and how is the lifetime of the object con trolled? There are differe nt philosophies at work here. C++ takes the approach that con trol of efficie ncy is the most importa nt issue, so it gives the programmer a choice. For maximum run-time speed, the storage and lifetime can be determined while the program is being written, by placing the objects on the stack (these are sometimes called automatic or scoped variables) or in the static storage area. This places a priority on the speed of storage allocatio n and release, and con trol of these can be very valuable in some situati ons. However, you sacrifice flexibility because you must know the exact qua ntity, lifetime, and type of objects while you're writing the program. If you are trying to solve a more general problem such as computer-aided desig n, warehouse man ageme nt, or air-traffic con trol, this is too restrictive. The sec ond approach is to create objects dyn amically in a pool of memory called the heap. In this approach, you don't know un til run-time how many objects you n eed, what their lifetime is, or what their exact type is. Those are determined at the spur of the moment while the program is runnin g. If you n eed a new object, you simply make it on the heap at the point that you n eed it. Because the storage is man aged dyn amically, at run-time, the amount of time required to allocate storage on the heap is sig ni fica ntly Ion ger tha n the time to create storage on the stack. (Creat ing storage on the stack is ofte n a si ngle assembly in structio n to move the stack poin ter dow n, and ano ther to move it back up.) The dyn amic approach makes the gen erally logical assumpti on that objects tend to be complicated, so the extra overhead of finding storage and releas ing that storage will not have an importa nt impact on the creati on of an object .In additi on, the greater flexibility is esse ntial to solve the gen eral program ming problem. Java uses the sec ond approach, exclusive". Every time you want to create an object, you use the new keyword to build a dyn amic in sta nee of that object. There's ano ther issue, however, and that's the lifetime of an object. With Ian guages that allow objects to be created on the stack, the compiler determines how long the object lasts and can automatically destroy it. However, if you create it on the heap the compiler has no kno wledge of its lifetime. In a Ianguage like C++, you must determine programmatically when to destroy the
本科毕业论文（设计）文献综述和外文翻译 撰写要求与格式规范 一、毕业论文（设计）文献综述 （一）毕业论文（设计）文献综述的内容要求 1．封面：由学院统一设计，普通A4纸打印即可。 2.正文 综述正文部分需要阐述所选课题在相应学科领域中的发展进程和研究方向，特别是近年来的发展趋势和最新成果。通过与中外研究成果的比较和评论，说明自己的选题是符合当前的研究方向并有所进展，或采用了当前的最新技术并有所改进，目的是使读者进一步了解本课题的意义。文中的用语、图纸、表格、插图应规范、准确，量和单位的使用必须符合国家标准规定，引用他人资料要有标注。 文献综述字数在5000字以上。 正文前须附500字左右中文摘要，末尾须附参考文献。 参考文献的著录按在文献综述中出现的先后顺序编号。 期刊类文献书写方法:[序号]作者（不超过3人，多者用等表示）.题（篇）名[J].刊名,出版年,卷次（期次）:起止页次.
图书类文献书写方法:[序号]作者.书名[M].版本.出版地:出版者,出版年:起止页次. 论文集类文献书写方法:[序号]作者.篇名[C].论文集名.出版地:出版者,出版年:起止页次. 学位论文类书写方法:[序号]作者.篇名[D].出版地:单位名称,年份. 电子文献类书写方法:[序号]主要责任者. 题名:其他题名信息[文献类型标志/文献载体标志 ]出版地:出版者,出版年（更新或修改日期）[引用日期].获取和访问途径. 参考文献篇数应符合学院毕业论文（设计）工作的要求。 （二）毕业论文（设计）文献综述撰写与装订的格式规范 第一部分：封面 1.封面：由学院统一设计，“本科生毕业论文（设计）”根据作业实际明确为“论文”或“设计”，其它文本、表格遇此类情况同样处理。 第二部分：文献综述主题 1.中文摘要与关键词 摘要标题（五号，宋体，顶格，加粗）
2.4 整数、有理数与实数 4－A Integers and rational numbers There exist certain subsets of R which are distinguished because they have special properties not shared by all real numbers. In this section we shall discuss such subsets, the integers and the rational numbers. 有一些R 的子集很著名，因为他们具有实数所不具备的特殊性质。在本节我们将讨论这样的子集，整数集和有理数集。 To introduce the positive integers we begin with the number 1, whose existence is guaranteed by Axiom 4. The number 1+1 is denoted by 2, the number 2+1 by 3, and so on. The numbers 1,2,3,…, obtained in this way by repeated addition of 1 are all positive, and they are called the positive integers. 我们从数字 1 开始介绍正整数，公理 4 保证了 1 的存在性。1+1 用2 表示，2+1 用3 表示，以此类推，由 1 重复累加的方式得到的数字 1,2,3，…都是正的，它们被叫做正整数。 Strictly speaking, this description of the positive integers is not entirely complete because we have not explained in detail what we mean by the expressions “and so on”, or “repeated addition of 1”. 严格地说，这种关于正整数的描述是不完整的，因为我们没有详细解释“等等”或者“1的重复累加”的含义。 Although the intuitive meaning of expressions may seem clear, in careful treatment of the real-number system it is necessary to give a more precise definition of the positive integers. There are many ways to do this. One convenient method is to introduce first the notion of an inductive set. 虽然这些说法的直观意思似乎是清楚的，但是在认真处理实数系统时必须给出一个更准确的关于正整数的定义。有很多种方式来给出这个定义，一个简便的方法是先引进归纳集的概念。 DEFINITION OF AN INDUCTIVE SET. A set of real number s is cal led an i n ductiv e set if it has the following two properties: (a) The number 1 is in the set. (b) For every x in the set, the number x+1 is also in the set. For example, R is an inductive set. So is the set . Now we shall define the positive integers to be those real numbers which belong to every inductive set. 现在我们来定义正整数，就是属于每一个归纳集的实数。 Let P d enote t he s et o f a ll p ositive i ntegers. T hen P i s i tself a n i nductive set b ecause (a) i t contains 1, a nd (b) i t c ontains x+1 w henever i t c ontains x. Since the m embers o f P b elong t o e very inductive s et, w e r efer t o P a s t he s mallest i nductive set. 用 P 表示所有正整数的集合。那么 P 本身是一个归纳集，因为其中含 1，满足(a)；只要包含x 就包含x+1, 满足(b)。由于 P 中的元素属于每一个归纳集，因此 P 是最小的归纳集。 This property of P forms the logical basis for a type of reasoning that mathematicians call proof by induction, a detailed discussion of which is given in Part 4 of this introduction.
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