A Comparative Study of the Dragon Image in
Western and Eastern Culture
2013.湖南师范大学英本一班周才贵
Abstract：This thesis firstly compares the dragon culture and its historical process respectively in western and eastern countries, then gets the conclusion, although they are both the fake things that come from imagination, but they aren’t(are not )equal. They are with different cultural origination, images and the duties in legends, their symbolized meanings are also different. The dragon in China stands
for the Chinese national spirit and symbols, its cultural content is to some extent from the western dragon. The Chinese dragon is the symbol of mysterious and auspicious. It also stands for the empire right. However, in western countries, dragon stands for greedy and evil; they are considered as the souls that have been dead under the sword of the heroes. Just because of the cultural difference, the western and eastern people find difference in understanding and taking use of the image of dragon. In the communication of the western and eastern world, the Chinese dragon are directly translated into “Dragon”, which c aused the image of the Chinese dragon to be affected, thus, to discuss and research the important role that the dragon plays in western and eastern world while analyzing its effect on their national spirit and cultural life and well master its historical and cultural content will have people to really understand the content of the other culture. This thesis, just start from the historical and cultural origination together with dragon’s imagine and individualisms to analyze the cultural difference of dragon.
Keywords:dragon image cultural difference
Table of Contents
1. Introduction……….
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Purpose and significance of the study……….
2. Dragon image.
2.1 Image 6
2.2 Dragon image7
2.2.1 Symbolic meaning of the Eastern Dragon image.
2.2.2 Symbolic meaning of the Western Dragon image.
3. Differences between Western and Eastern dragon image (10)
3.1 In Poems 10
3.2 In Legends.11
3.3 In Festivals11
4. Reasons of the differences
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
5. Conclusion (14)
Works Cited.
1. Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
To the image of dragon, which doesn’t really exist, the western and eastern world
is maintaining different attitude to it. Thus different legends, stories were given birth to. In China, dragon is the main symbol of luck in the Chinese national culture. The dragon culture originates so far with much content, which reflect the psychological world of the Chinese nation. The Chinese people call themselves the sons of dragon, in festival of the dragon boating day, they would dance a “dragon”1, race the dragon boats. There is also fruit in China called “the dragon eye”(just Litchi chine sis), there is also tea called the dragon well tea, uron tea. The tool for dinner can be called dragon dishes or the dragon cup. However, in the western world, dragon is considered as a kind of fierce and attacking giant animal, the symbol of evil. There are many stories or novels describe just like in a castle, there is an evil dragon, the near people should donate it a young girl each month. In movies, there is also giant dragon like Godzilla. Thus, to understand the different dragon culture in western and the eastern world, we can understand different cultural background so as to learn the sense of dragon more clearly.
1.2 Purpose and significance of the study
The purpose of this study is to analyze clearly respectively the sense and meaning of both western and eastern dragon based on cultural difference. With the analysis about this animal that have been familiar with both western and eastern people, we can know better about the cultural difference between different countries. By researching it, we can experience more about the principles and the structure of cultural difference, so that the communication between different countries may to some extent find some helps.
Presently, the situation of globalization has been more and more common in the whole word, thus we find the need to know more about each other, the first thing that we should pay attention to is the cultural difference. A good method to achieve this is to find some good examples. The dragon can be considered as the best tool to represent the difference on this aspect; this is also the significance of this study.
1This is not really a dragon, just a silk or paper one, which is operated by tens of people to symbolize the luck or the wish toward tomorrow.
2. Dragon Image.
2.1 Image
The so called “Image”, is a kind of artistic profile that comes from objective things, added with the special feelings of the creators. To be simple, image is the “profile” that has been added with “senses”, such things is used to show the feelings and thoughts of the creators.
2.2 Dragon image
2.2.1 Symbolic meaning of the eastern dragon image.
In the Chinese legends, dragon is a kind of mysterious animal that can change itself and make winds and rain, which is good to everything, the leader of the nature. It’s a kind of totem, being not living in the living world, because it’s just the combination of many different totems.
The formal formation of the Chinese dragon started from the Xia Yu time. When he has strengthened its ruling location in the central plains, he combined the snake and the totems from other races, thus dragon was formed. Dragon was given birth to because of the need to rule a country. In the far ancient times, the race which admired snake was very common; snake has a very strong life force, it met the wish of the primitive peoples’. There was different kind of gods in
weather in the whole year, its mysterious history also give the Chinese dragon culture more attractions.
2.2.2 Symbolic meaning of the western dragon
There can be many legends about dragon in western countries; it was in most times described as a fierce and big monster. In the middle centuries, dragon was the symbol of evil, in the bible story, the demon Sadam was just called as the great dragon. In the western hero poems just like the Greek mythologies, Riemann mythologies and north European mythologies, there were all stores about killing dragons.
In the views of western people, dragon can be ugly, fierce, releasing smokes and fire which scares people. From below different English dictionaries which have defined dragon we can clearly compare the image of dragon in both western and eastern people.《The Oxford advanced dual explanation dictionary》defines dragon as “a large fierce animal with wings and a long tail，that can breathe out fire”。Thus we can imagine dragon as a kind of animal that is with the lion’s claws, snake’s tail, together with wings. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English explain dragon as “a large imaginary animal with wings and the power to breathe out fire. Webster’s Encyclopedic Unab6dged Dictionary of the English Language also records dragon as “a fabulous monster vari ously represented，generally as a huge, winged reptile with crested head and terrible claws and teeth，and often spouting fire。
Thus we can see that, in the eastern culture, the image of dragon is active, but in western culture, dragon is a terrible monster. Just because of the difference on racial history, religious faith, customs, thinking modes, living styles and the local habits, there is also great difference in the understanding of the understanding toward dragon in western and eastern countries.
3. Difference between the western and the eastern dragon
3.1 In poems
In China, poem is the earliest form of literature, in 《诗经》（The book of songs），there have already been the description toward the dragon: “龙旗十乘”、“龙旗阳阳”，
which showed to us that in large scaled sacrifice actions, the ancient people were using so many flags that were with the image of dragon. In 《楚辞》（The song of Chu）which was written in the spring and autumn warring state period in ancient China, dragon was also the objective for people to create poems. The great poet Qu Yuan, just described in his masterpiece 《离骚》（The complaint about leaving）that when he was going to leave his country because of its small region and wished to fly to the sky to search for the god, he imagined that he was just driving a dragon bogie to dash in the colorful cloud, (钱莉2007).为余驾飞龙兮，杂瑶象以为车，何离心之可用兮，吾将远适以自疏。屯余车其千乘兮，齐玉绂而奔驰。驾八龙之婉婉兮，载云旗之委蛇。（To drive the strong flying dragon for me, so that I can ride on the bogie that is decorated well. My ambition can’t be the same with y ou, so I would leave all by myself, far away from you. My bogie team is with thousands of ones, which are lined tidy, the rows are so powerful, flags are flying on it.）(顾雪梁，刘法公2007)
3.2 Legends
First, we can talk about the dragon king. Which is the king of the sea, in 《太上洞渊神咒经》, based on the location of seas, there were four dragon kings called “The dragon kings of four seas”. In the empire of Tang, the king Li Shimin often sacrificed to give with to the dragon king for a good weather to give a good life to the people, we can see that in their eyes, the dragon king was with the mysterious force to adjust the wind and rain, thus to control the weather, which would affect the life of common people, so people should often donate something just like animals, food, fruit even kids to send their wishes to the dragon king, so that the dragon king would full fill their wishes (蒋红红2007).
3.3 Festivals
About the festival, there is a famous one in China called the “Dragon Boating Day”, when the date has reached 5th May every year, the Chinese people all over the whole country would focus their boats which is called the dragon boats to race, when racing, one people would sit at the head of boat while punching the drum, other racers sit opposite to him and wave the quant to push the boat, each of the dragon boat
would try to gain the first place. This festival has been lasted for thousands of years since the great Chinese poet Qu Yuan was drowned in the river, he donated all of his life to create better conditions for the common people, but the whole situation made him desperate, so he just suicide himself, the people have remembered what he has done, so the “dragon boating day” was created for people in foll owing generations to remember him (Black J. S. Mendenhall M.1990).
3.4 Novels
As we all know, in western countries, there are many ancient legends about dragon, many categories. What we don’t know is that the really brilliant period for the western dragon culture is more than 30 years ago since today. In 60s to 70s last century, many computer games became popular; people transferred many classic battles in history from books to games. Their complete regulations enabled the players to finish their schedules and designs in the unlimited space on internet, and them they can feel achieved much. In the year 1966, the game
3.5 Games
In the year 1968, American people Gary. Jerry, together with his partner Andersons attempted to respectively play a role and to start a middle century battle. Just such a simple design, created the first fantastic role playing game in history, a period after this affair, these two partners gradually completed their game. In the year 1973, they founded their TSR game company (Tavical Studies Rules), and formally published a set of system with the name of “Dragon & Dungeon”, thus created the first game that involved giant dragon, giant human, giant devil or magic rules. Gary created the world background (Grey eagle world) for the game by his own, thus the “Dragon & Dunged” system started its first step. In the beginning, from the reflection of the market, this game didn’t seem so successful, but its playing forms with unlimited completeness, spreading potentials saved such a failing game system, when
the players have found its real attractions, the fantastic experience to be placed in the magic world just conquered all players. Thus the game
Actually, as the representative of the strong livings in western world, the dragon itself was the soul of this game, it was so mysterious, so unapproachable, thus players can gain pleasures from challenging it. In the world of dragon, players can experience the happiness and risks of adventures (Adler, Bartholomew 1992).
3.6 The imitated world
4. Reasons of the difference
The different image of the dragon in western and eastern world comes from many elements, the most significant aspects are the contents that from the information sources. Such sources can be schools, language, religions and so on, western and eastern people have received different education and effects from such aspects, so they would of coursed give the dragon image different contents and analysis, below can be the detailed elements:
4.1 Language difference.
Language is the tool that human specially owns to express their minds, is a common but also specially existing social phenomenon. Language is the root of culture; each language can be composed of its special cultural content. In the present situation of economy being globalized, in each action of foreign trade that is done between different countries, different languages should be unavoidable to have to be converted. And because of the difference in language, there are also difficulties in converting different languages, so that the global commercial contacting is also affected.
4.2 Religious difference.
Religion can be considered as a kind of social phenomenon and social action, it includes the contents such as guiding principles, organization and cultural. Religion is a kind of worship toward the observation of the nature, is a kind of cultural custom, and is a social historical phenomenon (Carol D. Raff, Corey Lee M. Keyes, 1995). Ever since humans become grouped living beings, and become the organization of sociality, religion was just used as an important social action; it trains and strengthens the sociality of humans, and is essential to the society.
4.3 Social habit difference.
Social habit is a kind of action, trend or social fashion which are developed in a long period, wouldn’t be changed in a short time. It not only affects the value of the consumers, but also will affect their working and thinking modes (Arthur W.,Bennett M, 1995). As the foreign trade being developed, the multi-national companies were also developed; a mature multi-national company must be a company that learns the culture of the objective country, and a company that pays great attention on the cultural difference (Zhile Wang, 2004).
The Hilton hotel is a world famous hotel; one of the reasons for its success is that it pays great attention on the social habit differences. Hilton emphasizes that each hotel must focus on some special points. Toward the locatio n or the domestic market’s need to make characterized decoration and service, meanwhile encourage the cookers to make food full of local aroma with local materials.
4.4 Political and philosophical difference
Politics is a tool for the up top levels to maintain their own benefit, so that they make up special relationships, we call it politics. It is an important social phenomenon by certain development of the human being history. Politics will affect much in each aspect of social lives. Because international marketing is being operated among different countries and regions, so it does will be also affected by political and philosophical differences from different countries.
In international marketing, because of the difference in ruling situation, political element of each country, the packages of the commodities will be request to have different material, structure, figures and characters or symbols. For example, the Arabian countries regulated that six angled figures are forbidden to be used on the package of the imported commodities, because six angled star shaped is the same as the symbols on their national flag. So we can see that only knowing well of the relative historical background of the objective countries can we realize export better.
4.5 Social structure difference.
Social structure is the organizational relationships between the basic components of a certain social rules. Social structure includes the layering of the society, and will also be together with different levels and racial levels. Social structure will greatly affect the operation of international marketing and the objective market positioning of the multi-national companies (Fukukawa, 1997).
The Lijing Hotel, as a famous enterprise in the world, makes accurate market positioning as per the different aging levels of the objective clients, so as to make different hotel decoration. The MAYFAIR hotel in New York, the building characteristics focus on attracting the old traditional clients who have strong security request, but the Lijing Hotel just emphasize their modern atmosphere to attract young and energetic commercial tourists.
4.6 Educational difference
Education as one of the branches of the culture, will affect the trading communication between different countries or districts through changing the compared advantage or sales mode (Arthur W.,Bennett M, 1995). If one country is in
a low level of education, their compared advantage will focus more on the labors, but if one country pays much attention on the education, the people are in a high level of education, this country will get advanced science, technology, innovative ability, their compared advantage will be focused on technology or capital.
As well, education also affects the mode of sales. On one hand, to the companies who are carrying out special sales strategies, the training and education to the staffs will means a lot to the development of the whole company. The famous multi-national companies such as Wal-mart, IBM and so on, all invest a lot in the training and education toward their workers. They even build specialized schools to train their own managers. On the other hand, the people who are going to receive the sales strategies will be in different educated levels, so they will have different need and request, so carrying out the international marketing, different sales strategies must be adopted (Carol D. Raff, Corey Lee M. Keyes 1995).
5. Conclusions
In western culture, dragon is the symbol of evil all the time, but the eastern dragon stands for kings and gods and is always admired by all Chinese people, why? Someone distribute it to the difference of language. Whatever, we can never avoid the fact that they are similar to each other, and they are all imagined by people, with great power and supreme intelligence. They live respectively in their own culture, as the combination of culture, from the difference of them; we can see the difference of culture from western and the eastern world.
The understanding toward the dragon, a kind of strong and fantastic thing, originated from different thoughts in western and eastern worlds and different human characterizes. The eastern country is hunger for a living in peace. They wish to maintain their own culture and live in the world. But the western people can be so ambitious, which was reflected by the dragon image, them, at least the ancient aged them, never surrender to power, they like freedom, they are hunger for legends. We can’t judge objectively which of them are false, above all, while being conflicted, two
kinds of cultures are to some extent maintaining their own reasons, and such different to some extent can compensate the weaknesses for each other.
What is worthy of being mentioned is that, no matter in western or eastern world, the consideration toward dragon won’t be absol ute. Because even in China, there are also legends about killing dragons, and there are also kind dragons in western legends. What we are discussion are the most common situations (Abe H., Wiseman 1983).
The living of dragon just lives in the culture, but because of the different cultural background, the western and eastern people are maintaining different considerations to it. In china, dragon is noble, is a lucky animal. However, in western world, dragon is the symbol of evil. Just because of this, the different dragon culture can be reflected in both western and eastern world, the essence of difference of the western and eastern dragon culture is actually just here.
Through the research to the dragon, and through the culture carrier of “dragon”, we have clearly learnt about the difference in western and eastern world.
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刘晓新．中西方的龙文化．世纪桥，2007，(1)．
第28卷 总第118期科学?经济?社会Vol.28,Su m No.118 2010年 第1期SC I ENCE?ECO NOMY?S OC I ET Y No.1,2010 【文化艺术】 中西方“文化”差异比较分析 雷兴长 (兰州商学院经济研究所,甘肃兰州 700020) 摘 要:不同的自然地理气候环境是导致东方文化多元化与西方文化一元化生成的主要因素。客观认识中国文化和西方文化的差异,有利于推进中华文化的国际化建设和扩大中华文化的世界影响力。 关键词:中西方;多元文化;一元文化 中图分类号:G04 文献标识码:A文章编号:1006-2815(2010)01-0173-04 The New Com para ti ve Theory of Ch i n ese and W estern“Culture” LE I Xing-chang (L anzhou Co mm ercial College,Institute of Econo m ic Research L anzhou,L anzhou730020,China) Abstract:D ifferent physical geography and cli m atic conditi ons led t o the the diversity of eastern culture and unitariness of western culture.An objective understanding of the differences of Chinese culture and W estern cultural will p r omote the internati onalizati on and world influence of Chinese culture. Key words:east and the west;multi-cultural;unitary culture 文化是人类社会发展的产物。国家、民族的生存环境不同,发展历程不一,必然导致文化之间存在较大差异。同样,不同的文化也对一个国家或民族的生存方式、发展方式产生巨大影响,而且这种影响不能小视。目前,文化的地位日益上升,已经被认为是国家经济社会不断持续发展的一种重要战略资源,这就更有必要探讨分析不同文化之间的差异。不同国家民族的文化都有优点与缺点、长处与短处。对中西方文化进行比较研究,中国文化的优势在哪里?西方文化的长处有哪些?这是一个难以搞清楚的老问题。 一、中西文化的环境差异 大自然对文化的影响力是不可小视的。不同的自然环境培植了不同的民族文化。中国文化诞生的自然环境与西方文化产生的自然环境是有很大差异的。中国文化的自然环境主要是河流,西方文化的自然环境主要是海洋。海洋无比广阔,是无法征服的,只能顺其势,利用海洋,欣赏海洋;河流相对狭窄,是有可能征服的,集中社会力量,利用人力,征服河流,利用河流,就成了中国古人的愿望和使命。 大自然决定着社会文化,生存的自然环境特性决定着社会文化特色。由于广阔的海洋成了西方文化的自然环境,就养育了西方人的自由个性、丰富想象力和大胆创造力的文化基因;由于奔腾的河流成了中国文化的自然环境,就培育了中国文化的社稷为上、循规蹈矩、顺势而为的文化基因。海洋变化无常、无法驯服,滋生了西方人自由奔放的个性文化;海洋的一望无际、变化多端,给予了西方人想象力丰富的思想文化;海洋的深不可测、无穷无尽,培植了西方人不断探索的创新文化。河流的可征服、可利用,滋生了中国人善于凝聚力量的社会文化;河流的顺势而流、不破不泛,培植了中国人善解人意、循规蹈矩的行为文化;河流的水到渠成、可堵可导,培育了中国人无为而治、灵活机动的哲学文化。 二、中西文化的含义差异 与西方文化相比,中国的“文化”含义更多的是教化人、规范人的言行。在汉语中,文化是一个词组。“文”是指文章、典籍,“化”是指教化、训化。用著名的文章、典籍教化、训化人,规范人的言行,就成了“文化”这一词汇的基本含义。 收稿日期:2009-09-06 基金项目:国家社会科学基金项目:西部文化资源产业可持续发展研究(西部项目———批准号08XZX020)的阶段性研究成果。 作者简介:雷兴长(1959—),男,陕西武功人,教授。研究方向:文化产业与国际经济研究。 371
中西“龙俗”差异及原因 摘要：本文首先对中西方的“龙俗”进行了简要描述，指出了东西方存在着两种截然不同的龙俗，即东方的崇龙习俗和西方的屠龙习俗；随后具体分析了中西方两种不同龙俗的起源，指出“毒蛇禁忌”是东西方龙俗的共同起源，并以此为基础对两种不同龙俗的产生原因进行了初步分析。 关键词：龙俗崇龙习俗屠龙习俗毒蛇禁忌 一、中西龙俗 “龙俗”，顾名思义就是关于龙的态度和习俗。这种习俗中西方都有，然而其内容却是大相径庭。在中国，人们对龙可谓是情有独钟，“龙凤呈祥”、“龙马精神”、“卧虎藏龙”……恐怕很难找出几个带“龙”字的具有贬义色彩的成语。中国人崇龙众所周知：在国人的眼中，龙是百虫之长，能驱毒虫；龙是水神，可利万民；龙是“瑞兽”，保四方平安。逢年过节喜欢舞龙灯，赛龙舟。中国人更是喜欢以“龙”自居，自己的国家是“龙”，自己的民族是“龙”，对自己也自豪得称为“龙的传人”。难怪我国著名文学家闻一多先生感言“龙和凤是我们民族发祥和文化肇端的象征”。[1]的确，龙文化是我们中华文化中的重要组成部分，“崇龙习俗”则可以说是中国文化中最有民族特色的方面之一。 然而在西方，龙却远没有在中国样的“风光”，西方人所持的是屠龙习俗。他们将龙看作是邪恶、黑暗、守财奴的象征，是一种严重威胁人类生存的异己力量，必须将其铲除。“屠龙习俗”有两个突出表现：一是丑化龙的形象，将龙描述为面目狰狞的蛇怪。这从各国词典对龙的解释中可见一斑：《英汉辞海》（1990）中将龙定义为“一种传说中的动物，一般被描绘成怪异的有翅和鳞的蛇或蜥蜴，头具有盔冠，爪强大”；《不列颠大百科全书》（2002）对龙的解释是“传说中的一种怪物。通常被想象成一只巨大的蜥蜴，长着蝙蝠的翅膀，身披鳞片，能吐火；也有人把它想象成一条蛇，有带刺的尾巴”。这与我国《现代汉语词典》（1996）中的解释“龙是我国古代传说中的神异动物，身体长，有鳞，有角，有脚，能走，能飞，能游泳，能兴云降雨”差别很大。二是非常崇拜征服龙的英雄。西方神话传说和民间故事中有不少这方面的例子：希腊神话中的勇敢夺取“金羊毛”的伊阿宋和美狄亚的故事，宙斯之子赫拉克勒斯斩杀九头巨龙许德拉的神话，以及被奉为英格兰、葡萄牙和南斯拉夫保护神的屠龙英雄圣乔治的英雄事迹等都描写了屠龙英雄，反映了人们对屠龙英雄的热爱。 二、中西龙俗的起源 如上所述，龙在中国是吉祥的象征，是人们崇拜的神灵，而在西方却成了恶魔。为什么东西方龙俗会有如此大的差异呢？在回答这个问题之前，笔者认为有必要首先对中西龙俗的起源做一些分析，从历史的角度对两种习俗的起源和发展作一下比较，只有这样我们才能得到更精确的结论和认识。
西方的龙文化揭秘，中西方的龙文化对比 龙在中西方人眼中的文化完全不同，在中国文化中，龙往往指的是一种能够升云起雨，神秘莫测的神兽。而在西方，dragon被描述为一种巨型怪兽，形似鳄鱼，身披鳞甲，长有巨爪和翅膀，能游水能飞行，还能喷火，凶猛异常，破坏力极大，因此龙在西方属于邪恶的动物。那么，中西方的龙文化到底存在着哪些差异呢？下面的文章就为您全面阐述。 西方的龙文化 西方的龙有着虚幻和事实的两种。但是西方的文化很大一部分源于现实，那就是说唯物主义比较严重，所以西方的龙是现代恐龙部分的延伸，乃至于意义也是如此。而且西方圣经中将龙作为了一种怪兽，所以西方很大意义上对圣经的依赖，导致了西方思想对龙的批判。我看到西方人对中国龙也进行了宣传片，将中国的龙按照我们历史上的描写和他们的想法，做出来了一个纪录片，当然，西方人的描写很现实，把龙描写成了一个真实的怪兽。中西方的龙文化对比中国的龙和西方的龙长相不一样，文化不一样。在中国，龙是吉祥的象征；在西方的神话传说中，龙却象征着一种需要靠力量和智慧征服的兽性。在中国，龙基本上被认为是一种祥瑞之兽。中国人心中的龙常常是神，或者是神人的
坐骑，《礼记·礼运篇》中，龙被称为“龙、麟、凤、龟”四灵之首。在中国，龙的历史源远流长。1987年在河南省淄 阳发掘了一处距今6000多年的仰韶文化早期的大墓，在男 性墓主人身边出土了一条用蚌壳堆塑的龙，人称“中华第一龙”。内蒙古还出土过一个样子很漂亮的玉龙，它的身体细长，弯曲成C形，龙头很像猪。这个猪头形玉龙也有5000多年的历史了。商周时期，龙常常出现在青铜器和骨器上。那时的甲玉龙（中国西北部的内蒙古出土）骨文中就有“龙”字，“龙”字的写法有100多种。2000多年前的战国时期，龙多次被生动地描绘在帛画上。到了汉代，龙的样子就跟我们今天见到的龙差不多了。以后，经过各个朝代的加工，龙的样子越来越威武神气了。“角似鹿、头似驼、眼似兔、项似蛇、腹似蜃、鳞似鱼、爪似鹰、掌似虎、形似牛”，龙的样子不同于自然界中的任何一种动物。这样的形象是怎么形成的呢？有人说这来源于鳄鱼，还有人说这来源于蛇，也有人认为来源于猪，甚至有说法称最早的龙就是下雨时天上的闪电。现在许多专家认为龙是以蛇为主体的图腾综合物。这种看法展示了一幅远古社会的生活图景：在远古氏族社会时，以蛇为图腾的黄河流域的华夏族战胜了其他氏族，组成了巨大的氏族部落联盟，同时吸收了其他氏族的图腾，组合成龙图腾。东方的龙，通常显得仁慈友善，恶龙的比例小于善龙。龙被赋予极高的地位，是一种神兽，带给人们雨
综 合 191 # 浅谈中西方文化差异 文/黄文娟 摘 要:中西方文化差异导致了中西方交流中的误解,引起了很多不便。本文针对日常生活中中西方文化交流中的典型现象如婚姻家庭,餐厅礼仪和日常招呼等进行分析,阐述了这些文化现象后所隐藏的文化内涵和其所植根的文化根基,从个人主义和集体主义,平等概念和等级观念,自我中心和牺牲精神等方面做出解释,为困顿于中西方文化的学习者提供参考。关键词:中西方文化;现象;文化内涵;文化根基作 者:湖南对外经济贸易职业学院 ?1Cited phenomena A 1Mar riage A Chinese gir l got mar ried with an Amer ican boy and sett led down in Los Angeles not far away from wher e her par ents-in -law lived.T he fir st few months went by much smoothly and the Chinese girl got along very well with her new family. Six months later,she got pr egnant and infor med her par ents -in-law at the fir st moment.The r eady grandparents blessed her and her baby and went to Europe where they planned to enjoy a half -year holiday.The Chinese gir l was surprised at their decision:/Don .t you stay to take car e of me and my baby?Don .t you think the baby is the most import ant thing in the family now?0T he parents-in-law also got confused:/We love this baby,but does it mean we should give up our own life and do everything for it?0 B 1Rest aur ant customs A young Chinese tourist sat in a Par is caf and or der ed tea.Twice he asked for more hot water to top it up while putting the saucer on the cup to keep the tea warm,as he would have done at home. T he waiter grew impatient./This Chinese is too stingy t o pay for mor e tea.And doesn .t he know t he saucer goes under the cup to cat ch the dr ips?0 T he Chinese man noticed the displeasure on the wait er .s face and lost pat ience himself./This Wester n waiter is r ea lly stingy and silly!Why is he so reluctant to serve me hot water?Why does he put the lid under the cup?0he got angry,and left the caf st eam ing with resent ment. C 1Greeting An American student Charlie went to China and continued his study in Peking University.Ever ything went well with him except that the Chinese people were hard to understand for him somet imes. One day afternoon,he was on his way back from the super market when he encounter ed two Chinese classmates./H i,Charlie,wher e are you going?0one of the Chinese classmates greeted him./I .m just back from the supermar ket.0H e answer ed./What did you buy?0T he Chinese student continued./Er ,0Char lie felt ver y awkward,/I bought a bar of bread,five apples,a bott le of salad jam and ,0/You don .t have to tell us all these specific t hings,we ar e just greeting you by asking you questions.0/What?You confused me!0 ò.Analysis on the cited phenomenon and the cor responding cultur al implications In the fir st case,both the Chinese girl and her par ents-in -law can keep their own opinion.In China,it is par ents .dut y t o be responsible for their childr en and this responsibility will last (4)勤巡视病房,观察生命体征、面色、意识及有无感染、周围组织坏死等。当出现因插管技术而导致的并发症(如穿破脐血管造成出血插进或堵塞腹主动脉分支、空气栓塞、血栓形成、误插在门静脉沟处、穿破肝实质等)时,应通知医生尽早拔管,同时给予对症治疗,使症状得以改善。 (5)细菌学检测。每周1次分别做外周血和脐部穿刺处皮肤的细菌培养。本组病例共做16次外周血和脐部穿刺处皮肤的细菌培养,无1例发生院内感染等插管并发症。 参考文献: [1]余波,李莎莎.新生儿126例脐静脉插管末端细菌培养的临床分析[J]中国新生儿科杂志,2007(4) [2]宋新志,曹明艳,何咏梅,等.新生儿窒息血肌钙蛋白T 变化[J ]湘南学院学报,2005(1) [3]周宇,周晓光.新生儿胎粪吸入综合征临床分型与特点的初步探讨[J]中国当代儿科杂志,2000(5) [4]高树辉,周杰,张映辉,等.早产儿血脂水平与出生体重的关系[J]中国当代儿科杂志,2003(3)
青春岁月 《中西法律文化比较研究》由法学博士张中秋先生编著。在不可摧、不可动摇的特性，因为皇权这一特性，也使它成为了造书中，作者通过对中西方法律文化及其所处历史社会背景的比较成中国法巨大时代落差的一个重要原因。 研究，主要探讨了中国的法律文化与西方的法律文化在形成、本中西法律文化在法律学术方面也存在着明显的差异，即律学位、属性、伦理、体系、学术、精神，价值等八个方面的差异，与法学的区别。中国古代到底有无法学，这个问题在学界有长期细致的描述了法律渊源、价值精神以及文化属性、学术体系的基的讨论。“律学”主要是从文字与逻辑上对法律条文进行详细的本形成以及内容，揭示了法律文化的差异，冲突及其协调的理论解释，所关注的问题集中在刑罚宽严与否、“律”“令”等法律和制度性安排，对这些差异的形成的过程作了详细的阐述，在每条文具体的运用上以及刑与礼的关系上。传统中国的法学家（实个差异的背后都细致的介绍了差异的来龙去脉和深层次的原因。质上可以称之为律学家）主要研究的是如何通过规则来治理民众书中得出的关于中西法律文化的各类差异并不是作者的凭空的描以及如何迎合统治阶级的需要和喜好。发展下来，则更加热衷于述，而是建立在充分的历史资料实证和分析的基础之上。作者清汇编总结历代的法典，并用主流的儒家思想解释现有条文，并不晰的勾勒出了中西方法律文化比较研究这一主体轮廓。这本书并进行创新，更谈不上批判、反思和升华，这些做法实际上是与法不追求或者意图给法律文化下一个科学性的具体的定义，而是给的内涵相违背的。所以，在官员审理案件中，主要是为了解决纠研究的问题设定了一个相对开放的逻辑框架，并使其最大化的挖纷，将一般民事、财产问题转化为了与道德相关的问题，他们希掘出其中的结构性要素，促使作者以及读者从多维角度去审视法望百姓能够淡薄名利、尽可能的减少物质的纠纷。“法学”则是律文化。 关于正义与否的科学，探讨的重点主要是自然法、法的本质、法在第一章“法的形成：部族征战与氏族斗争”中作者认为，的价值、法与自由、法与平等、法与权利、法与民主、法与政中国古代的法始于部族征战，而西方古代法始于氏族内部的斗治、法与道德和宗教的关系、法和法律的权威以及在社会中的地争，是贫民与贵族之间的冲突。地缘因素和地理政治对一个国家位与作用等。而这些问题都是围绕“正义与权利”这一核心而展法的传统和发展起着不可忽视的作用。中国从古以来特殊的地缘开，且进一步阐释和强化这一核心的。除此之外，法学为了实现因素使得血缘政治得到了较好的发展，依靠血缘关系建立起来的正义，还必须关注法和法律的形式以及表达方式，法律规范的分氏族部落在长期的互相征战中逐步形成了各种对付其他氏族的残析及系统归类等程序性问题。换言之，离开围绕正义与权利而进暴的制裁方式。随着氏族内部的发展，这些所谓对外族的制裁方行的探讨的学术，若称之为法学都是不甚妥当的。上述的这个判式或手段也适用于对氏族内部的严重违法犯罪行为，这些可以说断隐含了以西方为标准的思想，但是需要注意的是，法学能够成是中国法的最初的起源。另一方面，除了残暴的制裁手段以外，为一门科学，其产生于西方并不是主要原因，而是它坚持围绕正氏族部落还开始进行联姻用来维持部落间短暂的和平，这种方式义与权利所发展起来的一套理论是具有科学性的。虽然这不是绝更为温和，以及富有经济效益。所以，中国法最初的形式是从对对的，但它的价值依然具有某种超越时代的意义。在比较中西方外的具有暴力性的讨伐中形成的以刑为主的法，并且由于联姻的法律文化的差异时，没有必要放弃公认的科学标准，而是应该把关系，在家族内部和部落之间又有着千丝万缕的联系。这点就与其科学部分提取出来作为共同财富。所以，传统中国的法律学术古希腊（雅典）法不同，古希腊法的形成是由于氏族内部矛盾冲是实际上是“律学”而并非“法学”。至此，中国法律文化的价突所需要的，为了缓解冲突，就必须进行改革，进行就会打打破值取向就很大程度上确定了下来，造成了百姓对“法”的恐惧和血缘氏族关系，创造行的开始了漫长的权利斗争史，而这恰恰是排斥、以及对“法”的否定和淡漠，这些都造就了传统中国特殊法形成的必要基石和真正精神的体现。概括下来就是传统中国视的“法”的状态，也是一种历史的必然。 法为刑，把它作为一种暴力工具用以军事镇压。而西方的氏族内但我认为本书中略有不足的在于书中作者只对比较中发现的部的冲突导致的是一系列的改革，进而平衡各方的力量，所以是“异”进行了阐述，却没有阐述中西方法律文化的相同之处。如权力分散和相互妥协的过程。所以西方把法当作一种权利，对其张中秋教授在本书的第二版的序言中所说的，“这本著作的名加以管理，是自由、平等的表现。对于中国的氏族间的征战可以称，准确的说，应该是‘中西法律文化八大差异之比较’。”而看作它们是具有行动性的，但是氏族内部的改革是具有深刻的社中西法律文化之间虽有差异，但两者之间还是存在共同性的。所会性和开放性的，它是人类权利意识觉醒的铺垫，而权利意识的有的法律关系实质上都可以理解为人的关系，中西方的法律在协觉醒和争取就换取了民主与平等，这也是社会进步和人类发展的调人与神、人与人、人与社会、人与自然的关系中虽形成了不同一个深刻的转折点。 的法律文化，但人总是这两种差异文化的主体和原点，即便是中在本书的第四章中，认为传统中国将法定义为伦理纲常，它世纪的欧洲，上帝也是一个人格化的神。所以，不管这种关系表是为了维护社会秩序而制定的规则，比起古代西方的遵守上帝意现为哪一种形态，人始终是作为关系的主体和原点。 志的宗教法来说，它更具有世俗性，也可以称之为一种理智的进步。但由于传统中国的法是用以维护封建国家的统治秩序，是以【参考文献】 [1] 张中秋. 中西法律文化比较研究[M]. 北京: 中国政法大学出版社, 1991.集团为本位，“人治”的色彩越来越浓厚，加之等级和尊卑的分[2] 芹 夫. 关于中国法律文化的几个问题——张中秋著《中西法律文化明划分，使得人民对权威产生课恐惧以及对权力开始崇拜，而忽比较研究》若干观点商榷[J]. 比较法研究, 1993,(2). 略了对个体权利的追求。而在西方，随着生产力的发展和人民日[3] 柯伐江. 法律及其比较的意义——读张中秋《中西法律文化比较研益开拓的眼界，依附着上帝的宗教法就被瓦解了，随之催生了民究》感悟[J]. 南京大学法律评论, 1994,(2). 主、自由、平等这些具有现代性的精神，总体上说更倾向于个人本位。从法的文化属性来看，传统中国的法律文化实质上一种刑【作者简介】 事性或者是国家性的法律体系，而西方的法律文化则是具有民事曲扬（1988—），女，甘肃天水人，四川大学法学院2010级研究生。 性或者个人性的法律体系。在这一章的对比中，皇权显示出了牢 《中西法律文化比较研究》读后感 □ 曲 扬（四川大学法学院， 四川 成都 610065） 【摘要】《中西法律文化比较研究》由法学博士张中秋先生编著。在书中，作者通过对中西方法律文化及其所处历史社会背景的比较研究，主要探讨了中国的法律文化与西方的法律文化在形成、本位、属性、伦理、体系、学术、精神，价值等八个方面的差异，细致的描述了法律渊源、价值精神以及文化属性、学术体系的基本形成以及内容。本文是读完该书之后的一些感受。 【关键词】《中西法律文化比较研究》；张中秋；中西法律文化
T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n c h i n e s e a n d w e s t e r n c u l t u r e With the rapidly challging word, people throughout the world have found it increasingly necessary to minimize the rate of misunderstanding due to miscommunication in their contacts with another. In the oast most human beings were born, lived, and died within a limited geoographical area, never encountering people of other cultural backgrounds. It might be said that technological advances have been most effective in creating the borderless word, the global community. As our world shrinks and its inhabitants become interdependent, people from remot cultures increasingly come into contact on a daily basis. It is no longer hard to find situations in which membes of ince isolared groups of people. Now these people may live thousands of miles away or right next door to each other. So all the people are faced with the challenge of understand this world. So when the east meet west, there are many problems. Some problems are listed as follows. First of all, the way of eating. All huaman beings have certain basic needs. Our fundamental needs for things that keep us alive. This is the physioligical need. All individuals must eat in order to survive. But what people eat, when they eat, and the manners in which they eat are all patterned by culture. No society views everything in its environment that is edible and might provide nurishment as food. Americans eat oysters but not snail. The French eat snails but not locusts. The Jews eat fish but not pork. The Hindus eat pork but not beef. The Russiand eat beef but not snake. We all have ideas about what kinds of food are good to eat. We also have ideas about what kinds of food are bad to eat. As a result, people from one culture often think the food that people from another culture eat are disgusting or nauseating. Dislike is not the only reason why some culture will not eat a certain food. In some clture, certain foods are taboo. Sometimes the food taboos may be so strong thrat just the thought of eating forbidden foods can cause an indivdual to feel ill. We can also find culture difference in way of bring up children treating the early, greeting each other, saying and spending money before other people do in everyday, but in some English-speaking countries, people do not agree with us. We chinese may enjoy something that is not usually consider as edible by the English-speaking people. Generally we perfer to have thing hot and much emphasis on the taste. We eat from one plate when we are eating with others, and we like to seat one by one, and in the shape of a round. On the
中西方政治文化的比较研究及其意义 摘要：政治文化问题同人类社会政治生活息息相关，它对人类的政治行为的方式、方法起到指导和制约作用。因为政治文化是一种特殊形态的政治现象，因而只有进行比较才能得出更有利于我国政治文化发展的理论，为我国的政治经济发展提供正确的理论指导。因此对政治文化的比较研究显得尤其重要。通过政治文化的比较研究，即可反对排外主义，又可以抵制全盘西化理论；即可以弘扬中国传统文化的精华、吸收外来文化的可取之处，又可以抛弃中国传统文化中的糟粕，繁荣我国的政治文化。 关键词：比较政治文化意义 政治文化研究已成为当代政治文化领域的重要分支，它在经历了一个产生、发展、成熟的过程后形成了不同的学术流派，而中西方也在其发展中呈现了明显的政治文化差异。政治文化是一种特殊的社会现象、历史现象和文化现象。对于一个民族来说，历史积淀为一个民族的政治文化传统。而从历史过程来看就是传统政治文化。中华文化和西方文化构成人类文明的两大方面的文化传统。中国和西方的传统文化在历史进程、逻辑和体系等方面也不尽完全相同。 一、中西方政治文化差异 （一）中西方政治监督的差异 在中国古代传统社会，在专制王权的统治下，由各级政府分别主管各方面的政务。为了使其得得长期有序的发展，统治者建立强大的行政网络，以便加以防范和牵制。在这个行政网络中，人治起到了至
关重要的作用。在历史上监察工作主要是指连坐告密、牵制监督等形式。而且官吏也受到了严厉的监管和控制，以维护统治阶级的根本利益。而相比较同等时期的西方社会则讲究分权理论。试图通过政治权利内部分工以维持统治阶级内部的权力平衡。从而根本的防止权力的集中和腐败。政府划分为行政、立法、司法三部门。每一个部门都有自己的职权范围，不允许侵犯其他部门的权力。进而保证三个机构人员的合而不离。这样，每个部门对其他部门都是一个制约，没有任何一个部门沦为国家统治的阶级工具。 政治监督理论既是近代西方国家民主政体的理论基础，也是中国传统社会为了巩固专制统治的权术设计。西方的政治监督理论能有效的防止政府腐败和权力滥用，而且避免了权力的过度集中。现代政治文明要求现代政府的权力严格受法律的控制，要求政府行为必须以法律为界限得到价值肯定。以分权为核心的宪政是现代国家的最好制度设计。 政治文化既是一定历史时期，一定环境下在不同国家的产物，它必然呈现出两方面的态势。一方面：各个民族国家在其各自的自然环境和社会环境条件下确立了与本国国情相适应的政治文化，并形成了自己独特的政治文化体系。而这一民族国家独特的政治文化优势，在世界民族之林也会成为一面傲人的旗帜，构成人类文明宝库和人类政治文明的重要组成部分。 （二）中西方人权观的差异 从历史发展来看，西方是通过自然发展的方式走向现代化。而中
中西方龙文化差异对比研究 A Contrastive Study on the Differences between Chinese and Western Dragon Culture 摘要 上下数千年，龙已渗透了中国社会的各个方面，成为一种文化的凝聚和积淀。现如今，龙文化已是中华民族文化的象征，中国人也因身为“龙的传人”而骄傲。龙文化在中国传统文化中占有重要的地位，每一个致力于学习和传播中国文化的人都要对中国龙文化有一定的了解。然而，在西方的文化中，龙却是邪恶的代表，是撒旦的化身。尤其在二十世纪九十年代，西方人对于龙形象的误解。但是由于中国的国际地位的提升，中西方文化的交流变得更多，使得西方人对于中国龙的形象有了更加深入的认识。随着时间的变化，通过对于文学甚至电影中龙形象的了解，对于西方龙的认识也发生了改变。因此本文从东西方龙的起源、形象及其象征意义入手，对东西方龙文化进行对比。加强东西方文化的深入了解和探讨。 关键词：龙;起源;形象;象征意义
Abstract Up and down for thousands of years, the Chinese dragon which penetrated all aspects of society has become a culture of accumulation and cohesion. And nowadays, dragon culture is a symbol of Chinese culture, what`s more, Chinese around the world, proud ly proclaim themselves “the offspring of the dragon”. On the contrary, dragon in western culture is the representative of evil and the incarnation of Satan. What`s worse, westerner thinks that defeating the dragon is their mission. However, due to the prom otion of China’s international status, there are more and more communication between Chinese and western culture. These interactions give western people opportunities to deeply understanding images of Chinese dragon. With the time goes by, Chinese people also have new recognition of western dragon through literature and movies. Because of these differences, this thesis tries to make a contrastive study on the differences between Chinese and western dragon culture from their origins, images and symbolic meanings. It also introduces the different recognition of different dragon cultures. Key words: Dragon;Origin;Image;Symbolic Meaning
中西文化差异的研究开题报告 一、综述本课题国内外研究动态，说明选题的依据和意义： 动态： 20世纪90年代以来, 中西方文化差异对比的研究方兴未艾,不同层面,不同角度的全方位研究正在不断深入。近年来,国内外有关中西方文化差异专题研究的论文也相继公开发表,为中西方文化差异的进一步深入研究奠定了基础。 意义：中西文化承载着不同民族的文化特色和文化信息， 它们与传统文化紧密相连，不可分割。本选题以中西方文化差异为切入点，进行较为深入的文化对比研究，反映一个民族的礼仪、宗教信仰、风 俗习惯、饮食等特征的表现，有助于更好的了解和掌握中西方文化的差异。 二、研究的基本内容、难点和创新点： 基本内容：本选题重在研究礼仪文化、饮食观念、风俗习惯、宗教信仰、语言表达方式折射出的文化差异，理论说明与实例分析相结合。 难点：如何从多个角度分析归纳总结文化差异。 创新点：将礼仪作为一种文化现象重点加以研究。 三、研究步骤、方法及措施 步骤： 1.中西礼仪的差异 1.1称呼语 1.2感谢和答谢 1.3赞美 1.4节日 2.中西饮食观念得差异 2.1中西饮食对象的差异 2.2中西饮食方式、餐具不同 2.3中西饮食性质的差异 3.中西风俗习惯的差异 3.1称谓及称呼 3.2敬语谦词 4.中西宗教信仰的差异 5.中西语言表达方式的差异 研究方法和措施： 本篇研究的主要方法和措施是在选定课题后， 由小 组成员分工协作， 从图书馆查阅相关的书籍、 上网寻找资料和有价值
的参考文献，最后结合所学课程的相关内容做出总结。 四、研究工作进度： 11 月，查找相关资料。 12 月，结合所学课程的相关内容做出总结。 五、主要参考文献： 邓炎昌、刘润清 : 《语言与文化》 刘炳善 : 《英国文学简史》 王福祥、吴汉樱 : 《文化与语言》 胡文仲 : 《文化与交际》 朱维之、赵澧 : 《外国文学简编》 张今、陈云清 : 《英汉比较语法纲要》 沈福伟：《中西文化交流史》
2012届本科毕业论文 中西方饮食文化差异 姓名： 系别： 专业： 学号： 指导教师： 2012年5月
The Differences of Dietary Cultures Between China and the West Shangqiu Normal University May 2012
摘要 饮食是人们生存的根本，中西方都不例外。饮食文化是民族文化的重要组成部分。随着21世纪全球化进程，跨文化交际日益频繁，其中饮食文化成了东西方文化交流的最基本内容。但是由于长期以来形成的生活环境、风俗习惯、价值观念的不同，中西方形成了各自不同的饮食文化。由于饮食文化的不同，中西方人在交流的过程中有时会产生一些误解。本文主要从中西方饮食观念、烹饪取材、饮食结构、烹饪方式以及上菜顺序等方面来论述中西方饮食文化差异，以促进中西方文化交际的顺利进行。 关键词：饮食；饮食文化；差异
Abstract Diet is the base of living, with no exception in China or the West. Dietary culture is an important part of the national culture. With the entrance of the 21st century, cross-cultural communication has become more and more frequent, among which dietary culture has been the most basic content. However, because of the differences in living environments, customs and value concepts China and the West have formed their own different dietary cultures. As a result, there appears some misunderstandings sometimes between Chinese and the Westerners in their communication. This paper will analyze the differences of dietary cultures between China and the West from dietary concepts, raw materials, dietary structures, cooking patterns and the order of serving dishes so as to facilitate the efficient communication between Chinese and Westerners. Key words: diet；dietary culture; difference
中西文化比较研究学习心得 本学期我们上了《中西文化比较研究》这门课，跟着刘勃老师学习了中外各种文化，第一节课我就被刘老师生动幽默的讲课深深吸引了，通过一学期的学习让我受益匪浅。 老师一开始便提出了一系列的问题：人是谁？何谓文化？何谓中国？何谓西方？通过这些问题的讲解，让我明确了接下来的学习方向，让我以更为客观更为全面的看待问题。 学习这门课程的开始，我便碰到了一个陌生又熟悉的词——轴心时代。在公元前800至公元前200年之间，尤其是公元前600至前300年间是人类文明的“轴心时代”。这个“轴心时代”发生的地区大概是在北纬30度上下，就是北纬25度至35度区间。这段时期是人类文明精神的重大突破时期。在轴心时代里，各个文明都出现了伟大的精神导师——古希腊有苏格拉底、柏拉图、亚里士多德，以色列有犹太教的先知们，古印度有释迦牟尼，中国有孔子、老子、韩非子、墨子……他们提出的思想原则塑造了不同的文化传统，也一直影响着人类的生活。 中国春秋战国时期的制度，变法，各种局势的变化在高中上历史课时已有涉及，高中时的学习完全是为了应付考试，而这次的学习则充分调动了我的兴趣，课上老师各种生动的例子更是加深了我们的理解。接着讲的便是古希腊与希腊化世界，讲了希腊的城邦与希腊的民主制度。而最让我感兴趣的却是希腊的神话，希腊神话是古希腊民族关于神和英雄的故事总汇。它将现实生活与幻想交织在一起，为人们创造了一个包罗万象的瑰丽世界，生动地描绘了古希腊人的社会生活图景，并作为文学艺术的永恒题材而流传下来。 讲完制度变开始讲思想，中国的百家争鸣，希腊的哲学。虽说百家争鸣，但是在学说和流派上真正能称上“家”的，正如《汉书·艺文志》中所谓“其可观者九家而已”，即除了后来成为国家意识形态并影响到寻常百姓的儒家而外，还有道家、墨家、法家、纵横家、名家、阴阳家、杂家、农家(所谓“三教九流”之“九流”)。而值得注意的是：这八家在当时都是与儒家学说旗鼓相当影响相近的学派，并且和儒家一道成为中华文明的源头。说到古希腊哲学，则不得不推出古希腊三大哲学家：苏格拉底，柏拉图，亚里士多德。其中我最感兴趣的便是苏格拉底反诘法，他以不断提问的方式来不断的完善一个概念，达到定义的目的，由此可见西方哲学及其注重逻辑。 通过这次学习，让我懂得：不论中西文化存在什么样的差异，我们都应以开放的心态，取其精华，去其糟粕，学习和借鉴人类一切优秀文化成果，更好的为我们国家的繁荣发展服务。