《中国货币：经济问题分析》
概述
诸多经济学家争论着人民币升值是有助于恢复世界经济平衡的一个重要因素。他们还敦促中国实施政策使消费者要求，而非出口和固定资产投资，这一主要经济增长来源。有人认为人民币升值是促进中国进口额的一种方式，可以促成全球经济的快速复苏。中国官员承认再平衡经济的需求，他们强烈反对国际上对升值和通货的压力，称之为“贸易保护主义”。有人把这一政策归于关心中国政府实施政策改变过快导致社会不稳定。
当奥巴马政权已迫使中国升值其货币时，也鼓励它继续购买美国国债。截止2010年7月中国共持有8470亿美元国债，是美国最大的国债持有国。一些分析显示尽管中国的货币升值能够推动美国对中国的出口，它也可以减少中国购买美国国债的需要，能够提高美国的利率。这将导致中国制造产品提高对美国消费者的价格，同样提高对于中国制造的输入美国公司生产他们产品的价格。诸多经济学家分析，即使中国显著地升值其货币，美国也仍需增加其储备并减少国内需求（特别是预算赤字），为了减少长期的贸易不平衡，中国将不得不降低其储备并增加消费。
中国货币的历史背景
在1994年之前，中国保持着双重汇率制度。由一个官方的固定汇率制度（由政府使用）和由进出口商在外汇掉期市场使用的一篮子货币制度所构成，尽管为了进口管制极大地限制了外汇所得，导致出现大规模外汇黑市。这两个汇率有显著区别。1993年官方兑美元汇率为5.77元与此相对的是外汇掉期市场上的8.7元。中国的双重汇率制度（以及其他政策）因限制了中国在外国方面的进口而受美国批评。
1994年，中国政府统一了两种汇率制度，最初为兑美元8.7元，最后到1997年为止被允许升值到8.28并相对稳定到2005年7月。人民币在活期存款（交易）的基础上变得可自由兑换，但非固定资产账户，这意味着元对于投资目的而言不是通常可以获得的。自1994年至2005年，中国维持了人民币紧盯美元政策意图给中国的外贸和投资改善相对稳定的环境（这个政策防止汇率的大波动）———一个许多发展中国家在它们发展初级阶段所使用的政策。中国中央人民银行通过为新印刷的元买入（或卖出）同等以美元计价的资产作为交换，消除过度需求元（或
供给元）来维持这一固定汇率。因此，美元对人民币的汇率基本保持不变，尽管可能会转变经济要素，否则会引起人民币相对美元的升值（或贬值）。在浮动汇率机制下，对两国商品和资产的相关需求将决定人民币对美元的汇率。
汇率传递的角色
另一个需要考虑的因素是尝试评估人民币升值对贸易往来的影响，研究价格如何转嫁或分配。如果人民币兑美元升值，并非所有价格增加因其升值可能被转嫁到美国消费者。其中一些会被中国劳动力，生产商或出口商和一些美国进口商，批发商和零售商等等所吸收。按照美国劳动部门从2005年7月至2008年7月统计，美国从中国2005年7月至2008年7月的进口指数增长5.2%（同比美国非石油产品的进口指数增长13.2%），这将表明人民币升值转嫁给美国消费者的价格增加是很少的。如果价格没有完全地通过消费者转嫁，那么中国进口的消费者需求将低于实际需求，其他一切相同。
近期人民币发展
中国领导人们已表示强烈反对在他们货币政策上的外在压力，称之为是对中国的国内经济政策的一种保护和干涉形式，有人质疑中国货币是否一直被低估了。然而，在2010年6月19号，中国央行即中国中央人民银行（PBC）说，基于现阶段经济条件，已决定“进一步改革人民币汇率制度增强人民币汇率机制的灵活性。”排除任何一次性大评估，“为避免大量且密集的人民币汇率波动这十分重要，”在某种程度上一边与中国公司能够更容易的适应（例如通过改良升级）货币升值。很多观察者认为这次人民币的调整宣布时机是为了防止中国货币政策成为在2010年6月26至27日于多伦多举行的G-20峰会的焦点。
2010年6月22日，在之前一天人民币兑美元升值0.43%为6.80元，同时这是自2005年7月改革实施以来当日升值最大的一次。然而，在接下来的一天6月23日人民币贬值到6.81元。如图3所示是人民币汇率对美元在过去几个月的涨跌，但总体上，至道2010年10月1日升值了1.9%，大部分升值发生在9月。一些分析认为2010年9月的货币升值相比经济条件更重要的是中国人关心国会对货币可能的行动。
来源: 中国银行
备注: 截止（周五）时中间汇率. 2010年.
基于人民币升值对贸易往来和赤字影响的争论，许多政策决策者可能期望如果中国显著地升值其货币，美国出口至中国将增加，来自中国的进口将下跌，美国贸易赤字在相对短时期内将下降。例如，C·弗雷德·伯格斯坦认为以人民币为市场基础将会降低美国每年1000亿至1500亿的活期账户赤字。但是，人民币升值对美国经济影响的可能问题表现为短期和长期的人民币升值影响，汇率仅是诸多影响贸易往来的因素之一。下面讨论其他影响到双边贸易平衡的的因素。
人民币升值期间双边贸易赤字持续增长
为说明汇率仅是决定贸易往来的因素中其中一个，我们可以观察中美2005年7月至2008年7月人民币升值21%的影响。另一方面，美国在此期间，由中国的进口增值39%，同比2001年至2004年增加了92%（当汇率保持不变时）。此外，美国2005年-2008年出口至中国的速度不及2001-2004年（71%比81%）。不管2005到2008年的人民币升值，尽管美国全体活期账户赤字下降近6%，美国同中国的贸易赤字仍然提高了30.1%。人民币升值似乎对中国2005到2008年的总体贸易平衡产生细微影响。在这段时间内，中国商品贸易顺差从1020亿美元增至2970亿美元，增加191%，中国活期存款账户结余和外汇储备积累在此期间均增加了165%
本段翻译节选自：
《China’s Currency: An Analysis of the Economic Issues》Wayne M. Morrison
Specialist in Asian Trade and Finance
Marc Labonte
Specialist in Macroeconomic Policy
October 1, 2010
原文文献：
Summary
Many economists have argued that RMB appreciation is an important factor in helping to rebalance the world economy. They have also urged China to implement policies to make consumer demand, rather than exports and fixed investment, the main sources of economic growth. Some see RMB appreciation as a way of boosting China’s imports, which could contribute to a faster global economic recovery. While Chinese officials acknowledge the need to rebalance the economy, they have strongly resisted international pressure to appreciate and reform the currency, calling it “protectionism.” Some attribute this policy to concerns by the Chinese government that implementing policy changes too rapidly could lead to social instability.
While the Obama Administration has pushed China to appreciate its currency, it has also encouraged it to continue purchasing U.S. Treasury securities. China is the largest foreign holder of U.S. Treasury securities, which totaled $847 billion as of July 2010. Some analysts contend that, although an appreciation of China’s currency could help boost U.S. exports to China, it could also lessen China’s need to buy U.S. Treasury securities, which could push up U.S. interes t rates. It could result in higher prices of Chinese-made goods for U.S. consumers, as well as for Chinese-made inputs that U.S. firms use in their production. Many economists contend that, even if China significantly appreciated its currency, the United States would still need to increase its savings and reduce domestic demand (particularly the budget deficit), and China would have to lower its savings and increase consumption, in order to reduce trade imbalances in the long run.
Historical Background on China’s Currency
Prior to 1994, China maintained a dual exchange rate system. This consisted of an official fixed exchange rate system (which was used by the government), and a relatively market-based exchange rate system that was used by importers and ex porters in “swap markets,” although access to foreign exchange was
highly restricted in order to limit imports, resulting in a large black market for foreign exchange. The two exchange rates differed significantly. The official exchange rate with the dollar in 1993 was 5.77 yuan versus 8.70 yuan in the swap markets. China’s dual exchange rate system was criticized by the United States because of the restrictions it (and other policies) placed on foreign imports.
In 1994, the Chinese government unified the two exchange rate systems at an initial rate of 8.70 yuan to the dollar, which eventually was allowed to rise to 8.28 by 1997 and was then kept relatively constant until July 2005. The RMB became largely convertible on a current account (trade) basis, but not on a capital account basis, meaning that yuan are not regularly obtainable for investment purposes. From 1994 until July 2005, China maintained a policy of pegging the RMB to the U.S. dollar at an exchange rate of roughly 8.28 yuan to the dollar. The peg appears to have been largely intended to promote a relatively stable environment for foreign trade and investment in China (since such a policy prevents large swings in exchange rates)—a policy utilized by many developing countries in their early development stages. The Chinese central bank maintained this peg by buying (or selling) as many dollar-denominated assets in exchange for newly printed yuan as needed to eliminate excess demand (supply) for the yuan. As a result, the exchange rate between the RMB and the dollar basically stayed the same, despite changing economic factors which could have otherwise caused the yuan to appreciate (or depreciate) relative to the dollar. Under a floating exchange rate system, the relative demand for the two countries’ goods and assets would determine the exchange rate of the RMB to the dollar.
Another factor to consider in attempting to evaluate the effects of an RMB appreciation on trade flows is to examine how price changes would be passed on or distributed. If the RMB appreciates against the dollar, not all of the price increase resulting from the appreciation may be passed on to the U.S. consumer. Some of it may be absorbed by Chinese laborers, producers, or exporters, and some by U.S. importers, wholesalers, retailers, etc. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, from July 2005 to July 2008, the price index for U.S.
imports from China from July 2005 to July 2008, rose by 5.2% (compared to a 13.2% rise in import prices for total U.S. imports of non- petroleum products).46 This would suggest that very little of the price increase that might have resulted from the RMB’s appreciation was passed on to U.S. consumers.47 If prices are not completely passed through to consumers, then consumer demand for Chinese imports will fall less than if they were, all else equal.
Recent RMB Developments
Chinese leaders have expressed strong opposition to outside pressure on their currency policy, calling it a form of protectionism and interference in China’s domestic economic policy, and some have even questioned whether the currency is undervalued at all. However, on June 19, 2010, the Chinese central bank, the People’s Bank of China (PBC) stated that, based on current economic conditions, it had decided to “proceed further with r eform of the RMB exchange rate regime and to enhance the RMB exchange rate flexibility.” It ruled out any large one-time revaluations, stating “it is important to avoid any sharp and massive fluctuations of the RMB exchange rate,” in part so that Chinese corporations could more easily adjust (such as through upgrading) to an appreciation of the currency. Many observers contend the timing of the RMB announcement was intended in part to prevent China’s currency policy from being a central focus of the G-20 summit in Toronto from June 26-27, 2010.
On June 22, 2010, the RMB appreciated by 0.43% against the dollar (to 6.80 yuan) over the previous day, which, at the time, was the largest daily rise since reforms were implemented in July 2005. However, on the following day (June 23) it depreciated to 6.81 yuan. As indicated in Figure 3, the yuan’s exchange rate with the dollar has gone up and down over the past few months, but overall, it has appreciated by 1.9% through October 1, 2010, with most of that appreciation occurring in September. 3 Some analysts contend that the appreciation of the currency in September 2010 has had more to do with Chinese concerns over possible congressional action on the currency than economic considerations.
The Debate over the Effects of Exchange Rate Appreciation on Trade Flows and the Deficit
Many policymakers might expect that if China significantly appreciated its currency, U.S. exports to China would rise, imports from China would fall, and the U.S. trade deficit would decline within a relatively short period of time. For example, C. Fred Bergsten contends that a market- based RMB would lower the annual U.S. current account deficit by $100 billion to $150 billion. But the issue of the possible effects of an RMB appreciation on the U.S. economy is complicated by the fact that there are short-term and long-term implications of RMB appreciation, and that exchange rates are but one of many factors that affect trade flows. Other factors affecting the bilateral trade balance are discussed below.
The Bilateral Trade Deficit Continued to Grow during the Previous Period of RMB Appreciation
To illustrate that exchange rates are only one factor that determine trade flows, one can look at the effect of the 21% RMB appreciation of the RMB to the dollar from July 2005 to July 2008 on U.S.-China trade flows. On the one hand, during this period U.S. imports from China increased by 39%, compared to a 92% increase from 2001 to 2004 (when the exchange rate remained constant).42 On the other hand, U.S. exports to China during the 2005-2008 period did not grow as fast as during the 2001-2004 period (71% versus 81%).43 Despite the RMB’s appreciation from 2005 to 2008, the U.S. trade deficit with China still rose by 30.1%, although the overall U.S. current account deficit declined by nearly 6%.44 The appr eciation of the RMB appears to have little effect on China’s overall trade balance from 2005 to 2008. During this time, China’s merchandise trade surplus increased from $102 billion to $297 billion, an increase of 191%, and China’s current account surplus and accumulation of foreign exchange reserves both increased by 165% over this period.
Inventory management Inventory Control On the so-called "inventory control", many people will interpret it as a "storage management", which is actually a big distortion. The traditional narrow view, mainly for warehouse inventory control of materials for inventory, data processing, storage, distribution, etc., through the implementation of anti-corrosion, temperature and humidity control means, to make the custody of the physical inventory to maintain optimum purposes. This is just a form of inventory control, or can be defined as the physical inventory control. How, then, from a broad perspective to understand inventory control? Inventory control should be related to the company's financial and operational objectives, in particular operating cash flow by optimizing the entire demand and supply chain management processes (DSCM), a reasonable set of ERP control strategy, and supported by appropriate information processing tools, tools to achieved in ensuring the timely delivery of the premise, as far as possible to reduce inventory levels, reducing inventory and obsolescence, the risk of devaluation. In this sense, the physical inventory control to achieve financial goals is just a means to control the entire inventory or just a necessary part; from the perspective of organizational functions, physical inventory control, warehouse management is mainly the responsibility of The broad inventory control is the demand and supply chain management, and the whole company's responsibility. Why until now many people's understanding of inventory control, limited physical inventory control? The following two reasons can not be ignored: First, our enterprises do not attach importance to inventory control. Especially those who benefit relatively good business, as long as there is money on the few people to consider the problem of inventory turnover. Inventory control is simply interpreted as warehouse management, unless the time to spend money, it may have been to see the inventory problem, and see the results are often very simple procurement to buy more, or did not do warehouse departments . Second, ERP misleading. Invoicing software is simple audacity to call it ERP, companies on their so-called ERP can reduce the number of inventory, inventory control, seems to rely on their small software can get. Even as SAP, BAAN ERP world, the field of
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本科毕业论文（翻译） 英文标题 学生姓名学号 教学院系石油与天然气工程学院 专业年级油气储运工程2011级 指导教师职称 单位 辅导教师职称 单位 完成日期2015年06月
利用天然气管道压差能量液化天然气流程 摘要 长输管道天然气的输送压力通常较高（高达10兆帕），在城市门站通常需要一套节流装置完成减压过程，这个过程通常由节流装置实现，而且在此过程中会浪费非常巨大的压力能。在该文章中通过HYSYS软件来设计和模拟回收利用该巨大能量来完成一股天然气的膨胀液化过程。将单位能量消耗和液化率作为目标函数并作为优化设计选择的关键变量。同样对天然气管道在不同运输用作压力下的工作情况进行计算和讨论，同时对不同设备压力能损失进行评估，并对具体细节进行分析。结果显示，这一液化率显然低于普通液化过程的液化率，该天然气膨胀液化过程适用于进行天然气液化是由于他的单位能耗低，过程简单及灵活。 1.介绍 长距离输送管线通常在较高的工作压力下运行（高达10兆帕），高压天然气通常在城市门站内通过一个不可逆的节流过程从而降压到达较低的压力为了适应不同的需求，在这个过程中有用的压力能就这样被浪费了，因而，利用合适的能源利用方法回收这部分大量的压力能是十分有价值的。 天然气管道压力能多用于发电，轻质烃的分离以及天然气的液化。现在已经有很多关于一些小型的LNG站场天然气液化的研究报告，天然气技术研究所开发了一个小型的利用混合制冷机制冷循环的天然气液化系统，起液化能力在4-40m3 /d，kirllow等人研究了利用涡流液化技术和膨胀液化技术的小型天然气液化调峰厂。Len等人描述了几个基于压力能回收利用的天然气液化流程。Lentransgaz公司开发了充分利用压力能而没有外来能源输入来液化天然气的天然气液化的新设备。 Mokarizadeh等人应用了基因遗传学的相关算法对于天然气调峰厂的液化天然气的压力能使用进行优化以及损失的评估，Cao等人使用Hysys软件分析了应用于小型天然气液化流程的使用混合制冷剂循环以及N2，CH4膨胀循环的撬装包。Remeljej等人比较了四种液化流程包括单级混合制冷循环，两级膨胀氮循环，两开环膨胀流程，以及类似的能量分析得到单级的混合制冷剂循环有最低的能量损失。 表1 符号命名 符号名称符号名称 a 吸入参量，Pa(m3/mol) t 温度K A 无量纲吸入参量v 摩尔体积m3/mol b 摩尔体积m3/mol W 能量kW
南京理工大学 毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译 教学点：南京信息职业技术学院 专业：电子信息工程 姓名：陈洁 学号： 014910253034 外文出处：《 Pci System Architecture 》 (用外文写) 附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。 指导教师评语： 该生外文翻译没有基本的语法错误，用词准确，没 有重要误译，忠实原文；译文通顺，条理清楚，数量与 质量上达到了本科水平。 签名： 年月日 注：请将该封面与附件装订成册。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文 64位PCI扩展 1.64位数据传送和64位寻址：独立的能力 PCI规范给出了允许64位总线主设备与64位目标实现64位数据传送的机理。在传送的开始，如果回应目标是一个64位或32位设备，64位总线设备会自动识别。如果它是64位设备，达到8个字节（一个4字）可以在每个数据段中传送。假定是一串0等待状态数据段。在33MHz总线速率上可以每秒264兆字节获取（8字节／传送＊33百万传送字／秒），在66MHz总线上可以528M字节／秒获取。如果回应目标是32位设备，总线主设备会自动识别并且在下部4位数据通道上（AD[31::00]）引导，所以数据指向或来自目标。 规范也定义了64位存储器寻址功能。此功能只用于寻址驻留在4GB地址边界以上的存储器目标。32位和64位总线主设备都可以实现64位寻址。此外，对64位寻址反映的存储器目标（驻留在4GB地址边界上）可以看作32位或64位目标来实现。 注意64位寻址和64位数据传送功能是两种特性，各自独立并且严格区分开来是非常重要的。一个设备可以支持一种、另一种、都支持或都不支持。 2.64位扩展信号 为了支持64位数据传送功能，PCI总线另有39个引脚。 ●REQ64#被64位总线主设备有效表明它想执行64位数据传送操作。REQ64#与FRAME#信号具有相同的时序和间隔。REQ64#信号必须由系统主板上的上拉电阻来支持。当32位总线主设备进行传送时，REQ64#不能又漂移。 ●ACK64#被目标有效以回应被主设备有效的REQ64#（如果目标支持64位数据传送），ACK64#与DEVSEL#具有相同的时序和间隔（但是直到REQ64#被主设备有效，ACK64#才可被有效）。像REQ64#一样，ACK64#信号线也必须由系统主板上的上拉电阻来支持。当32位设备是传送目标时，ACK64#不能漂移。 ●AD[64::32]包含上部4位地址／数据通道。 ●C/BE#[7::4]包含高4位命令/字节使能信号。 ●PAR64是为上部4个AD通道和上部4位C/BE信号线提供偶校验的奇偶校验位。 以下是几小结详细讨论64位数据传送和寻址功能。 3.在32位插入式连接器上的64位卡
外文文献翻译（译成中文2000字左右）： As research laboratories become more automated,new problems are arising for laboratory managers.Rarely does a laboratory purchase all of its automation from a single equipment vendor. As a result,managers are forced to spend money training their users on numerous different software packages while purchasing support contracts for each. This suggests a problem of scalability. In the ideal world,managers could use the same software package to control systems of any size; from single instruments such as pipettors or readers to large robotic systems with up to hundreds of instruments. If such a software package existed, managers would only have to train users on one platform and would be able to source software support from a single vendor. If automation software is written to be scalable, it must also be flexible. Having a platform that can control systems of any size is far less valuable if the end user cannot control every device type they need to use. Similarly, if the software cannot connect to the customer’s Laboratory Information Management System (LIMS) database,it is of limited usefulness. The ideal automation software platform must therefore have an open architecture to provide such connectivity. Two strong reasons to automate a laboratory are increased throughput and improved robustness. It does not make sense to purchase high-speed automation if the controlling software does not maximize throughput of the system. The ideal automation software, therefore, would make use of redundant devices in the system to increase throughput. For example, let us assume that a plate-reading step is the slowest task in a given method. It would make that if the system operator connected another identical reader into the system, the controller software should be able to use both readers, cutting the total throughput time of the reading step in half. While resource pooling provides a clear throughput advantage, it can also be used to make the system more robust. For example, if one of the two readers were to experience some sort of error, the controlling software should be smart enough to route all samples to the working reader without taking the entire system offline. Now that one embodiment of an ideal automation control platform has been described let us see how the use of C++ helps achieving this ideal possible. DISCUSSION C++: An Object-Oriented Language Developed in 1983 by BjarneStroustrup of Bell Labs,C++ helped propel the concept of object-oriented programming into the mainstream.The term ‘‘object-oriented programming language’’ is a familiar phrase that has been in use for decades. But what does it mean? And why is it relevant for automation software? Essentially, a language that is object-oriented provides three important programming mechanisms:
附录A With the new network technology and application of the continuous rapid development of the computer network should. Use of becoming increasingly widespread, the role played by the increasingly important computer networks and human. More inseparable from the lives of the community's reliance on them will keep growing. In order for computers to communicate, they must speak the same language or protocol. In the early days of networking, networks were disorganized in many ways. Companies developed proprietary network technologies that had great difficulties in exchanging information with other or existing technologies; so network interconnections were very hard to build. To solve this problem, the International Organization for Standardization（ISO）created a network model that helps vendors to create networks compatible with each other. Finding the best software is not easy. A better understanding of what you need and asking the right questions makes it easier. The software should be capable of handling challenges specific to your company. If you operate multiple distribution centers, it may be beneficial to create routes with product originating from more than one depot. Few software providers though, are capable of optimizing routes using multiple depots. The provider should be able to support installation of its product. Make sure to clearly understand what training and software maintenance is offered. Obviously, selecting the right routing/scheduling software is critically important. Unfortunately, some companies are using software that may not be best suited to their operation. Logistics actives with responsibility for approving the software ought to be comfortable they've made the right decision. It is important to realize that not all routing/scheduling software is alike！ There questions to ask are：Which operating system is used？How easy is the software to use？Here is a good way to tell. Ask if its graphical user interface（GUI）is flexible. Find out about installation speed - how long does it take？Is the software able to route third party customers with your core business？When was the software originally released and when was it last upgraded？ In 1984, ISO released the Open Systems Interconnection（OSI）reference model,
毕业设计外文资料翻译 附件1：外文资料翻译译文 一维多级轴流压缩机性能的解析优化 摘要 对多级压缩机的优化设计模型，本文假设固定的流道形状以入口和出口的动叶绝对角度，静叶的绝对角度和静叶及每一级的入口和出口的相对气体密度作为设计变量，得到压缩机基元级的基本方程和多级压缩机的解析关系。用数值实例来说明多级压缩机的各种参数对最优性能的影响。 关键词 轴流压缩机 效率 分析关系 优化 1 引言 轴流式压缩机的设计是工艺技术的一部分，如果缺乏准确的预测将影响设计过程。至今还没有公认的方法可使新的设计参数达到一个足够精确的值，通过应用一些已经取得新进展的数值优化技术，以完成单级和多级轴流式压缩机的设计。计算流体动力学（CFD ）和许多更准确的方法特别是发展计算的CFD 技术，已经应用到许多轴流式压缩机的平面和三维优化设计。它仍然是使用一维流体力学理论用数值实例来计算压缩机的最佳设计。Boiko 通过以下假设提出了详细的数学模型用以优化设计单级和多级轴流涡轮：（1）固定的轴向均匀速度分布（2）固定流动路径的形状分布，并获得了理想的优化结果。陈林根等人也采用了类似的想法，通过假设一个固定的轴向速度分布的优化设计提出了设计单级轴流式压缩机一种数学模型。在本文中为优化设计多级轴流压缩机的模型，提出了假设一个固定的流道形状，以入口和出口的动叶绝对角度，静叶的绝对角度和静叶及每一级的入口和出口的相对气体密度作为设计变量，分析压缩机的每个阶段之间的关系，用数值实例来说明多级压缩机的各种参数对最优性能的影响。 2 基元级的基本方程 考虑图1所示由n 级组成的轴流压缩机, 其某一压缩过程焓熵图和中间级的速度三角形见图2和图3，相应的中间级的具体焓熵图如图4，按一维理论作级的性能计算。按一般情况列出轴流压缩机中气体流动的能量方程和连续方程,工作流体和叶轮的速度。在不同级的轴向流速不为常数，即考虑i j u u ≠,i j c c ≠ (i j ≠) 时的能量和流量方程。在
英语专业毕业论文翻译 类论文 Document number：NOCG-YUNOO-BUYTT-UU986-1986UT
毕业论文（设计）Title:The Application of the Iconicity to the Translation of Chinese Poetry 题目:象似性在中国诗歌翻译中的应用 学生姓名孔令霞 学号 BC09150201 指导教师祁晓菲助教 年级 2009级英语本科（翻译方向）二班 专业英语 系别外国语言文学系
黑龙江外国语学院本科生毕业论文（设计）任务书 摘要
索绪尔提出的语言符号任意性，近些年不断受到质疑，来自语言象似性的研究是最大的挑战。语言象似性理论是针对语言任意性理论提出来的，并在不断发展。象似性是当今认知语言学研究中的一个重要课题，是指语言符号的能指与所指之间的自然联系。本文以中国诗歌英译为例，探讨象似性在中国诗歌翻译中的应用，从以下几个部分阐述：（1）象似性的发展；（2）象似性的定义及分类；（3）中国诗歌翻译的标准；（4）象似性在中国诗歌翻译中的应用，主要从以下几个方面论述：声音象似、顺序象似、数量象似、对称象似方面。通过以上几个方面的探究，探讨了中国诗歌翻译中象似性原则的重大作用，在诗歌翻译过程中有助于得到“形神皆似”和“意美、音美、形美”的理想翻译效果。 关键词：象似性；诗歌；翻译
Abstract The arbitrariness theory of language signs proposed by Saussure is severely challenged by the study of language iconicity in recent years. The theory of iconicity is put forward in contrast to that of arbitrariness and has been developing gradually. Iconicity, which is an important subject in the research of cognitive linguistics, refers to a natural resemblance or analogy between the form of a sign and the object or concept. This thesis mainly discusses the application of the iconicity to the translation of Chinese poetry. The paper is better described from the following parts: (1) The development of the iconicity; (2) The definition and classification of the iconicity; (3) The standards of the translation to Chinese poetry; (4) The application of the iconicity to the translation of Chinese poetry, mainly discussed from the following aspects: sound iconicity, order iconicity, quantity iconicity, and symmetrical iconicity. Through in-depth discussion of the above aspects, this paper could come to the conclusion that the iconicity is very important in the translation of poetry. It is conductive to reach the ideal effect of “the similarity of form and spirit” and “the three beauties”. Key words: the iconicity; poetry; translation
以生态为准的工程管理 摘要 工程成果提高了人类生活质量，提供了物质享受，并将人类领域扩大到了前所未有的水平。在享受这些成就的同时，人类意识到对大自然的入侵越多，环境问题就越多。在可持续发展的背景下，有效的工程管理是必然的。生态概念。本文提出的基本要求是，工程管理要以生态工程为基础，这是工程管理有效的必然要求。同时，生态工程应成为工程管理的基础，而工程管理应遵循生态工程的特点。到目前为止。IES注重运用生态理念进行工程管理。此外，生态工程基础工程管理(EMEE)还没有完好的系统概念。在本文中，我们对提出了EMEE 的观点。我们的目标是澄清这一概念，促进这一有希望的思想，总结过去的研究，并确定今后研究的问题，以便对实践产生影响。 1介绍 什么能使工程管理更有效？这是学者和工程师经常提出的问题。为了回答这个问题，有必要了解如何更有效果的提高工程管理能力。 “期望结果”是衡量工程管理有效性的关键因素之一。如果没有预期的结果，就没有必要进行管理。预期的结果提供了一般管理的基本措施之一。工程成果提高了人类生活质量，提供了物质享受，并将人类领域扩大到了前所未有的水平。实际上，自然资源的枯竭、由此产生的污染以及物种的现存等等，都不是有效的工程所期望产生的结果。近几年来，环境问题日益严重，工程师必须将生态理念融入工程管理的研究和实践中。衡量工程管理有效性的另一个关键因素是“因势利导”。最佳管理的最初概念，最初的最佳管理概念是由弗雷德里克.温斯洛.泰勒的管理理论(?c)提出的，后来被权变理论所取代，它指出，管理的最佳形式取决于情况。从而得出“管理最好的形式取决于形势”。工程管理代表的是一个子集。一般管理，其中有许多情况会“取决于情况之二”。今天最紧迫的情况之一是资源和能源短缺。水，土地，和石油供不应求，不断引起全世界的关注。此外，“视情况而定”从一开始就需要在每个工程管理项目中加以考虑。换句话说，工程师们不应该基于“先污染，后处理”的思想，不要以“污染第一”。工程师们应该记住，在整个工程管理项目的整个过程中，“将自然系统与正在建立的系统集成”的概念。在工程管理项目的整个过程中正在建立的系统。考虑到这两种测量方法(即“期望的结果”和“取决于情况”)，毫无疑问，有效的工程管理需要生态理念。 生态工程是一个具有整体视野的生物圈，因此，它需要解决问题的工程技能，可以用于管理和设计，重点是人类对自然的影响，以及自我工程的影响。关于人类生存的自然。因为生态工程是以生物系统为基础的，所以它更有可能以我们的污染物来结束“壳游戏”，或者至少将污染降到最低。从一种媒介到另一种媒介的掠夺者。第三点越来越多的工程管理者运用生态工程的理论和方法来解决工程管理问题。基于生态工程的工程管理(EMEE)已被证明是寻求有效工程管理的有效根源。然而，目前还存在着零散的研究，也没有系统的概念。我们在EMEE中的研究背景和动机如下。 1.1 “可持续发展”已成为现代环境、生态经济学和环境政策分析中的一个重要概念。可持续发展最受欢迎。由世界环境与发展委员会制定。在1987年，我们在共同的未来发展。WCED 的直接引语是：“可持续发展是符合当前需要的发展。不综合后代满足自己需要的能力。自从“21世纪议程”将“可持续发展”作为经济和社会发展的首要目标以来。许多国家、政府，甚至私营企业，都产生了巨大的经济和社会发展目标。 1997年月11日，在应对全球变暖的“京都议定书”最初获得通过。在2010，191个国家已签署并签署了“议定书”。研究发现，与那些没有签署“京都议定书”的国家相比，那些签署了“京都议定书”的国家更有可能是对环境有利的，而不是那些没有签署“京都议定
专业外文翻译 题目JSP Technology Conspectus and Specialties 系（院）计算机系 专业计算机科学与技术 班级 学生姓名 学号 指导教师 职称讲师 二〇一三年五月十六日
JSP Technology Conspectus and Specialties The JSP (Java Server Pages) technology is used by the Sun micro-system issued by the company to develop dynamic Web application technology. With its easy, cross-platform, in many dynamic Web application programming languages, in a short span of a few years, has formed a complete set of standards, and widely used in electronic commerce, etc. In China, the JSP now also got more extensive attention; get a good development, more and more dynamic website to JSP technology. The related technologies of JSP are briefly introduced. The JSP a simple technology can quickly and with the method of generating Web pages. Use the JSP technology Web page can be easily display dynamic content. The JSP technology are designed to make the construction based on Web applications easier and efficient, and these applications and various Web server, application server, the browser and development tools work together. The JSP technology isn't the only dynamic web technology, also not the first one, in the JSP technology existed before the emergence of several excellent dynamic web technologies, such as CGI, ASP, etc. With the introduction of these technologies under dynamic web technology, the development and the JSP. Technical JSP the development background and development history In web brief history, from a world wide web that most of the network information static on stock transactions evolution to acquisition of an operation and infrastructure. In a variety of applications, may be used for based on Web client, look no restrictions. Based on the browser client applications than traditional based on client/server applications has several advantages. These benefits include almost no limit client access and extremely simplified application deployment and management (to update an application, management personnel only need to change the program on a server, not thousands of installation in client applications). So, the software industry is rapidly to build on the client browser multilayer application. The rapid growth of exquisite based Web application requirements development of