电子专业外文翻译---电子学的发展

电工电子学双语教学实践电工电子学双语教学实践电工电子学双语教学实践摘要：高等教育国际化的核心是培养出思想、知识、技能等方面在国内和国际上都具有竞争力的人才，而双语教学则是实现这一培养目标的重要手段之一。

本文通过“电工电子学”课程双语教学的实践，详细介绍了在开展双语教学过程中遇到的问题及相关解决方案,并提出了双语教学的若干建议供同行参考。

Abstract:Thecoreconceptofthehighereducation'sinternationali zationisthetrainingoftheinternalandinternationalcompetitive nessstudents.Bilingualteachingisoneimportantwaywhichcanrealizethetrainin gobjective.Thisarticleintroducesthedetailaboutelectrotechni csandelectronicsbilingualteachingpractice,andbringsforwards omeproblemsintheteachingprocess,andfinallyproposesstrategie sandmeasures.关键词：电工电子学双语教学;教学模式;双语教材;双语课件;考核评价Keywords:electrotechnicsandelectronicsbilingualteaching;tea chingmode;bilingualbook;bilingualcourseware;assessment 0引言随着经济快速发展，综合国力不断增强，中国的政治、经济地位已得到国际社会的认可和高度重视。

在与其他国家的经济政治往来越来越频繁之时，能够拥有思想、知识、技能等方面在国内和国际上都具有竞争力的人才成为可持续发展的基本条件。

传感器技术论文中英文对照资料外文翻译文献Development of New Sensor TechnologiesSensors are devices that can convert physical。

chemical。

logical quantities。

etc。

into electrical signals。

The output signals can take different forms。

such as voltage。

current。

frequency。

pulse。

etc。

and can meet the requirements of n n。

processing。

recording。

display。

and control。

They are indispensable components in automatic n systems and automatic control systems。

If computers are compared to brains。

then sensors are like the five senses。

Sensors can correctly sense the measured quantity and convert it into a corresponding output。

playing a decisive role in the quality of the system。

The higher the degree of n。

the higher the requirements for sensors。

In today's n age。

the n industry includes three parts: sensing technology。

n technology。

and computer technology。

电子专业英语作文Title: The Evolution of Electronic Engineering。

In the realm of electronic engineering, innovation is not just a buzzword but a way of life. Over the years, this field has witnessed remarkable transformations, driven by advancements in technology and the insatiable quest for efficiency, miniaturization, and performance. This essay delves into the evolution of electronic engineering,tracing its journey from its inception to its current state and projecting potential future trends.The genesis of electronic engineering can be traced back to the late 19th century with the invention of the vacuum tube. This breakthrough paved the way for numerous technological revolutions, including the development of radio communication, television broadcasting, and early computing devices. However, vacuum tubes were bulky, power-hungry, and prone to failure, prompting researchers to seek alternative solutions.The advent of the transistor in the 20th century marked a significant turning point in electronic engineering. Transistors, with their smaller size, lower power consumption, and greater reliability, revolutionized the design of electronic circuits. This innovation fueled the rapid growth of the semiconductor industry and laid the foundation for the digital revolution that followed.The integration of transistors into integrated circuits (ICs) further propelled the field of electronic engineering forward. ICs, which contain thousands to billions of transistors on a single chip, enabled the development of increasingly complex and powerful electronic systems. From microprocessors powering computers to memory chips storing vast amounts of data, ICs have become ubiquitous in modern electronics.The emergence of complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) technology in the late 20th century further enhanced the capabilities of electronic devices. CMOS technology offers low power consumption, high noiseimmunity, and scalability, making it ideal for a wide range of applications, from mobile devices to aerospace systems. The relentless pursuit of miniaturization and integration has led to the development of System-on-Chip (SoC) solutions, where entire electronic systems are integrated onto a single chip, further reducing size, cost, and power consumption.The rise of digital signal processing (DSP) has also been instrumental in shaping the field of electronic engineering. DSP techniques enable the manipulation, analysis, and transmission of signals in digital form, revolutionizing telecommunications, audio processing, and image processing. From smartphones with advanced camera capabilities to wireless communication systems with unprecedented data rates, DSP has permeated virtually every aspect of modern life.Looking ahead, the future of electronic engineering promises even greater innovation and disruption. Emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), quantum computing, and Internet of Things (IoT) are poised toredefine the boundaries of what is possible. AI algorithms are increasingly being deployed in electronic systems to enhance functionality, optimize performance, and enable autonomous operation. Quantum computing holds the potential to revolutionize computing paradigms, enabling the solution of complex problems that are currently intractable for classical computers. The IoT is connecting billions of devices, from smart appliances to industrial sensors, creating vast networks of interconnected systems with unprecedented capabilities and insights.In conclusion, the evolution of electronic engineering has been characterized by relentless innovation, driven by the pursuit of efficiency, miniaturization, and performance. From the humble beginnings of the vacuum tube to the era of SoCs and AI-powered electronics, this field has continually pushed the boundaries of what is possible. As we stand on the cusp of a new technological revolution, the future of electronic engineering appears brighter and more exciting than ever before.。

英文原文Extending the Limits of CVE' s to Support Collaborativee-Learning Scenarios AbstractThis paper proposes the use of collaborative virtualenvironments in order toprov ide collaborative e-learningservices in an efficient and cost effective way. On the onehand, we present the transformation of well knowncollaborative learning techniques to collaborative elearningscenarios. The collaborative learningtechniques, which arediscussed in this paper, arebrainstorming/roundtable, think pair share, jigsaw,quick writes/microthemes, and structured academiccontroversies. On the other hand, we des cribe thenecessary modifications of the collaborative virtualenvironments in order to support collaborative e-learningservices and scenarios. Main proposals are theintegra tion of more media to offer more awareness, thesupport of more people with different roles, and thedefinition of an integrated system architecture.1、IntroductionIt is well known that collaborative e-learning is adefinite need nowadays. Much research and technologicalwork has been done in order to support and/or to offer elea rningservices. In the technological field there aretechnologies, commercial tools, and /or researchprototypes to support e-learning [1], [3]. Theoreticalframeworks and lear ning techniques have been presentedfor collaborative learning. Furthermore it is more difficultfor both learners to learn and teachers to teach fromdistance. Thus, in order to provide collaborative elearningservices to the users in an effective way, it isneeded to incorporate available or new technologies withlearning theories and the user nee ds. Starting from theuser requirements, we have realised that the main users'need is to be more aware about the actions of the rest ofusers in the collaborative e-learning groups. Systems,which satisfy this need and integrate the necessary toolsfor realising the collaborative e-learning techniques, havemany possibilities to succeed. Furtherm ore, an effective elearningsystem, which provides valuable learningexperience, shoul d combine pedagogy, learning contentand community features, in an effective way [5]. If thefocus is no longer content but rather the management ofthe learning experi ence, then the pedagogical processbecomes the most important factor in the design an dsupport of that experience. For this reason, this paperproposes to transfer well-kno wn collaborative learningtechniques into collaborative e-learning scenarios. Inadditi on the emphasis of most e-learning platforms todayhas been on the accumulation, or ganization, and deliveryof content. Thus, new solutions should be investigated forthe contribution on the context of e-learning. Theadvantages of collaborative virtual e nvironments, againstthe other technologies such as videoconferencing,regarding both the awareness and the collaborativefeatures, motivate us to concentrate our research onproviding collaborative e-learning services to the usersusing CVE's. However, CVE 's cannot be used as they arein order to provide collaborative e-learning services. Ne wnetwork architectures should be investigated; newmodules should be integrated in the CVE's in order toprovide specific functionality and to exploit the maincharacteris tics of CVE's as much as possible. In this case,the design of the 3D worlds is affected from thecollaborative e-learning scenarios. For these reasons, thispaper proposes so me extensions in the CVE's in order toupgrade them into Educational Virtual Environ ments(EVE's) [2]. We initially describe the processes in order torealise these techni ques using CVE's and more media.Afterwards, we present our proposed extensions of theCVEs, and a system architecture.2、Realizing collaborative learningtechniques into a collaborativee-learningenvironmentThe first step before the design of a system is toinvestigate well-known collabo rative learning scenarios inorder to transform them into e-learning techniques. Them ain collaborative learning techniques are:brainstorming/roundtable, think pair share, j igsaw,quickwrites/microthemes, and structured academiccontroversies. These techni ques are not presented in thispaper due to space limitations. More information isavai lable at [7]. Here we present the processes in order torealise these techniques using C VE's. Before describingthese processes we are describing specificfunctionality,whic h is derived from the collaborative learningtechniques.First of all, we propose the tutors and learners to use a3D virtual classroom and supportive break-out sessionrooms for dividing the users in sub-groups (if the scena riorequires that). The learners and tutors who participate in avirtual classroom are re presented by avatars. The user'savatars should be able to make various types of gestu res:expressing opinions (e.g. agree, disagree), expressingfeelings, mimics (e.g. happy, sad), as well as showingactions (e.g. move learning content, pick learningcontent). T he virtual classroom and the break-out sessionrooms should be supported by audio co llaboration,application sharing and text chat functionality. Also theyshould have a sp ecific place where the users can uploadtheir content and show it to the other participa nts. Thisspace can be a 3D presentation table. It should alsoprovide (according to eac h scenario) more functionalitysuch as shared whiteboard, or simulation of abrainstor ming board. Both, the above functionality and theaccess rights on it, depend on the e- learning scenario. Thetransformation and the basic processes are described inthe foll owing paragraphs.Brainstorming/Roundtable: The tutor asks a questionusing audio collaboration functionality (or alternativelytext chat). Furthermore the tutor can write the question and upload it to the presentation table as a document. Thelearners can answer to the q uestions using the audiocollaboration functionality (or alternatively text chat).Furthermore the learners can use the brainstorming tool inorder to write and attach on it their ideas.Think pair share: The tutor poses a question (or aproblem) as a file on the pres entation table or usingaudio/text chat and introduces the collaboration technique.Aft er a short pause for reflecting, the learners turn into thewhisper-mode with their neigh bour and discuss in privatethe problem. Preferable way for whispering would be apr ivate audio-channel within the classroom (audiowhisperfunction). Alternatively a pri vate text chat can beused. After the assigned discussion time, the tutor gathersthe att ention of the learners by "ringing the bell" (sendinga text message to all of the participants). At that time, thelearners exit from the whispering mode, and then return toa group for discussion.Jigsaw: The whole Jigsaw procedure can be handledwithin the virtual classroom, which has also 4 breakoutsession rooms. The tutor first introduces in short theproced ure and then asks for the number of learners (goodnumbers are any multiple of four). For 16 learners thetutor suggests study groups of 4 and 4 sections. Then thetutor nee ds to formulate the sections: s/he divides theusers in the sections and attaches the nec essary learningcontent to each section. The tutor then assigns to thelearners their role (group number and section number).Spontaneously, the learners will receive an auto matedmessage, which room they need to go to: there they findthe section description on the presentation table and anystudy material the tutor might have assigned to the f ocusgroup. After that, the learners of each section participateall together in a section- shared place. The places can bevirtual small classes (breakout session rooms) with au diocollaboration, application, sharing, and text-chatfunctionality. The tutor can also assign documents to thissection. These documents will be available to the learnersin the breakout room. The learners can take material fromthe presentation table to their other session, by saving thematerial into his/her local PC and upload it again.Quickwrites/Microthemes: The whole procedure forthis technique can be hand led within a 3D classroom,which also has 4 breakout session rooms. In the virtualcla ssroom and the breakout out session rooms the userscan use audio collaboration, app lication sharing and textchat functionality. The tutor presents to the learners themicr othemes in the presentation table space. In additions/he uploads and presents suppor ting documents on theshared space. The learners can open a notepad or othertext ed itor for personal use; focus on the proposeddocuments and after completion of the as signment, caneasily save their result on their local PC and upload it intothe shared s pace. The tutor assigns to each group whichthemes should be discussed (2-4 persons). The learnersmove to the breakout-rooms pull their documents onto thepresentation area, in those rooms, and discuss theoutcomes. One person writes a protocol of the g roupdiscussion and saves the result back to his/her local PCand then upload it intothe classrooms' shared space. Thetutor can visit the groups in the breakout out sessionrooms and discuss the status of the work. Furthermore, thetutor has the capability to call the learners group to returnback to the main classroom area, using text chat or byvisiting the breakout session rooms. In the main classroomarea the groups present their results using applicationsharing and audio chat.Structured academic controversies: The wholeprocedure for this technique ca n be handled within a 3Dclassroom, which has similarly 4 breakout session roomsin case of 16 learners. In the virtual classroom as well asthe breakout out session rooms the users can use audiocollaboration, application sharing and text chatfunctionality. The tutor selects and uploads a topic in two differentviewpoints on the presentation table. The learners formgroups of 4 and divide into two pairs. Each pair goes to abr eakout session room and the tutor uploads supportivedocumentation. Furthermore, th elearners can upload theirown content, which they think could be is supportive infor mulating their assigned advocacy position. The pairs oflearners have the possibility to visit breakout sessionrooms of the other pairs with the same positions. Eachlearner pair can prepare a short presentation usingapplication sharing and collaboration on do cuments, andcan upload this presentation in the original groups of fourlearners. Each pair presents its position to the other pair intheir group using application sharing and audio chat. Inthis case there is no debate allowed and the tutor restrictsthe audio, app lication sharing, text chat, and gesturesfunctionality from the opposite pair. fterwards, the otherpair presents its position, and then the learners debate andprovide more evid ence. Finally, learners drop theiradvocacy role and generate a consensus report adder ssingthe original question posed using application sharing,collaboration on ocuments, and audio chat.3、Proposed extension of CVE'sAs we can realise from the above descriptions CVE' sshould be extended in order to support e-learning services.Several extensions should be made in order to support avirtual e-learning community. These extensions aredescribed in the following parag raphs.3.1、Many people with different rolesAn e-learning system should be able to be usedconcurrently by many users. These users should create ane-learning community. The users should have differentroles an d rights in this community. This implies the twofollowing issues. The first one is that many concurrentusers should be supported by the system. Actually themaximum nu mber of participants in a course is 17 (16learners and one tutor). This number of part icipants isderived from the e-learning scenarios described earlier.Furthermore the sys tem should support many concurrentcourses. This increases the number of concurrentusers.中文译文扩展现代远程教育的限制来支持协同式电子学习情景摘要本文主要介绍了协同虚拟环境的使用，目的是提供一种高效的、低成本的协同电子学习服务。

毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译院系：光电与通信工程年级专业：12电子信息工程姓名：刘燊学号：1106012133附件：Advances in Sensor Technology Development指导老师评语：指导教师签名：年月日——摘自夏伟强，樊尚春传感器技术的的新发展仪器仪表学报传感器技术的新进展传感器技术是新技术革命和信息社会的重要技术基础，是一门多学科交叉的科学技术，被公认为现代信息技术的源头。

近些年，传感器技术发展很快，取得了许多新进展，尤其在气体传感器、生物传感器、视觉传感器等方面取得了很多进展。

美国麻省理工学院华人科学家张曙光领导的研究小组借助一种特殊溶液，成功地找到了大规模制造嗅觉感受器的办法；同样是麻省理工学院的研究人员利用气相色谱-质谱技术感受识别气体分子，研制出一种能对微量有毒气体做出强烈反应的微型传感器；俄罗斯科学家以从一种普通蘑菇中提取的混合物为原料，与压电石英晶振构成谐振式传感器，能够探测空气中含量极低的酚成分；日本科学家研制出能快速识别流感病毒纳米传感器，有望以纳米技术为快速识别流感病毒、乙型肝炎病毒、疯牛病病原体和残留农药等物质提供新手段；西班牙巴塞罗那自治大学研制出新型缩微DNA分析传感器，这种传感器能将分析 DNA链的时间缩短到几分钟或几小时，智能仪器与传感器技术、空间生物智能传感技术。

可以在亲子鉴定到检测遗传修饰食物的一系列化验中应用，此外还能确定新药的遗传毒性；美国国家标准与技术研究院研发出一种超灵敏微型核磁共振（NMR)传感器，该微型传感器与微流体通道并列置于一个硅芯片之上，这项技术将核磁共振的探测灵敏度提升到一个新的台阶，将在化学分析中具有广泛的应用前景。

我国传感器技术虽然与国外相比还有很大差距，但近两年也取得了一些进展和突破，诞生了一些新产品，有些在国家重大型号工程中获得应用。

如资源环境技术领域中的环境监测及环境风险评价技术、大气复合污染关键气态污染物的快速在线监测技术和大气细粒子和超细粒子的快速在线监测技术，海洋技术领域中的海洋水质污染综合参数在线监测技术和海洋金属污染物现场和在线监测技术等。

毕业设计外文资料翻译学院：信息科学与工程学院专业：软件工程姓名： XXXXX学号： XXXXXXXXX外文出处： Think In Java (用外文写)附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。

附件1：外文资料翻译译文网络编程历史上的网络编程都倾向于困难、复杂，而且极易出错。

程序员必须掌握与网络有关的大量细节，有时甚至要对硬件有深刻的认识。

一般地，我们需要理解连网协议中不同的“层”（Layer）。

而且对于每个连网库，一般都包含了数量众多的函数，分别涉及信息块的连接、打包和拆包；这些块的来回运输；以及握手等等。

这是一项令人痛苦的工作。

但是，连网本身的概念并不是很难。

我们想获得位于其他地方某台机器上的信息，并把它们移到这儿；或者相反。

这与读写文件非常相似，只是文件存在于远程机器上，而且远程机器有权决定如何处理我们请求或者发送的数据。

Java最出色的一个地方就是它的“无痛苦连网”概念。

有关连网的基层细节已被尽可能地提取出去，并隐藏在JVM以及Java的本机安装系统里进行控制。

我们使用的编程模型是一个文件的模型；事实上，网络连接（一个“套接字”）已被封装到系统对象里，所以可象对其他数据流那样采用同样的方法调用。

除此以外，在我们处理另一个连网问题——同时控制多个网络连接——的时候，Java内建的多线程机制也是十分方便的。

本章将用一系列易懂的例子解释Java的连网支持。

15.1 机器的标识当然，为了分辨来自别处的一台机器，以及为了保证自己连接的是希望的那台机器，必须有一种机制能独一无二地标识出网络内的每台机器。

早期网络只解决了如何在本地网络环境中为机器提供唯一的名字。

但Java面向的是整个因特网，这要求用一种机制对来自世界各地的机器进行标识。

为达到这个目的，我们采用了IP（互联网地址）的概念。

IP以两种形式存在着：(1) 大家最熟悉的DNS（域名服务）形式。

我自己的域名是。

所以假定我在自己的域内有一台名为Opus的计算机，它的域名就可以是。

电子信息工程外文翻译参考文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)译文：利用修改后的迈克耳孙干涉仪进行长度测量的初步结果摘要:基于飞秒加速器的装置，该装置建造在上海应用物理研究所(SINAP),最近一个经修改后的远红外迈克耳孙干涉仪通过光学自相关方法，已经被用来测量电子光束的长度。

相比较于之前常规的迈克耳孙干涉仪,我们使用一个空心回射器而不是一个平面反射镜的反射镜。

本文将为大家介绍实验设置和长度测量的结果。

关键词：飞秒线性加速器，长度串，干涉仪，空心回射器1 介绍最近关于电子脉冲压缩的实验产生高峰值电流和亮度飞秒电子串。

关于短束源自于高质量光束的潜在应用要求这方面一起了广泛兴趣。

高质量的核物理加速器,自由电子激光器驱动加速器,下一代线性对撞机,第四代光源都需要短时间光束脉冲。

同时,在进程中对诊断的短电子串的研究也起了重要作用。

有几种已经使用或正在开发的方法去测量短电子串的长度。

这些一般分为两类:频域方法和时域方法。

众所周知，在时域测量长度的方法中使用条纹相机，条纹相机已经证实是限于串长度超过200 fs ，此外,条纹相机昂贵并且测量系统复杂。

相对于时域测量方法，频域测量使用相干过渡辐射(CTR )从金属箔在测量飞秒脉冲的短电子中已经显现出前景。

本文我们首先从短电子串方面给出了基于一代的高强度相干渡越辐射的理论和试验研究,然后讨论该方法基于相干渡越辐射测量束飞秒的长度,并从改进电子实验装置给出了串长度测量的结果。

最后,我们分析了空气湿度对串长度测量的影响，并且阐释了对未来研究的计划。

2 理论背景2.1 相干渡越辐射源自于相对论性电子串辐射如同步加速器辐射跃迁辐射等，本质上有较广的范围，如果辐射的波长短于电子串长度，这个阶段的辐射电子不同于彼此，所以辐射是不连贯的。

另一方面,如果波长较长的串长度，辐射是连贯的并且辐射强度的平方成正比每串数字电子。

光谱强度发出一束N 粒子：11()()(1)()|()|tot I NI N N I f λλλλ=+- （2-1）这里1()I λ是靠单电子辐射的强度，()f λ是串形成因素，这是傅里叶变换的规范化的电子密度分布()S Z 。

ElectronicsAbstract: Electronics is a field of engineering and applied physics dealing with the design and application of devices, usually electronic circuits, the operation of which depends on the flow of electrons for the generation, transmission, reception, and storage of information. The information can consist of voice or music in a radio receiver, a picture on a television screen, or numbers and other data in a computer. Electronic circuits provide different functions to process this information, including amplification of weak signals to a usable level; generation of radio wave; extraction of information, such as the recovery of an audio signal from a radio wave; control, such as the superimposition of an audio signal onto radio waves; and logic operations, such as the electronics processes taking place in computers.Keywords: Electronics, electronic circuits, numbers, logic operations.1.1IntroductionElectronics is a field of engineering and applied physics dealing with the design and application of devices, usually electronic circuits, the operation of which depends on the flow of electrons for the generation, transmission, reception, and storage of information. The information can consist of voice or music (audio signals) in a radio receiver, a picture on a television screen, or numbers and other data in a computer.Electronic circuits provide different functions to process this information, including amplification of weak signals to a usable level; generation of radio wave; extraction of information, such as the recovery of an audio signal from a radio wave (demodulation); control, such as the superimposition of an audio signal onto radio waves (modulation); and logic operations, such as the electronics processes taking place in computers.1.2Historical BackgroundThe introduction of vacuum tubes at the beginning of the 20th century was the starting point of the rapid growth of modern electronics. With vacuum tubes the manipulation of signals became possible, which could not be done with the early telegraph and telephone circuit or with the early transmitters using high-voltage sparks to create radio waves. For example, with vacuum tubes weak radio and audio signals could be amplified, and audio signals, such as music or voice, could be superimposed on radio waves. The development of a large variety of tubes designed for specialized functions made possible the swift progress of radio communication technology before World War II and the development of early computers during and shortly after the war.The transistor, invented in 1948, has now almost completely replaced the vacuum tube in most of its applications. Incorporating an arrangement of semiconductor materials and electrical contacts, the transistor provides the same functions as the vacuum tube but at reduced cost, weight, and power consumption and with higher reliability. Subsequent advances in semiconductor technology, in part attributable to the intensity of research associated with the space-exploration effort, led to the development of the integrated circuit. Integrated circuits may contain hundreds of thousands of transistors on a small piece of materials and allow the construction of complex electronic circuits, such as those in microcomputers, audio and video equipment and communications satellites.1.3Electronic ComponentsElectronic circuits consist of interconnections of electronic components. Components are classified into two categories-active or passive. Passive elements never supply more energy than they absorb; active elements can supply more energy than they absorb. Passive components include resistors, capacitors, and inductors. Components considered active include batteries, generators, vacuum tubes, and transistors.(1) Vacuum TubesA vacuum tube consists of an air-evacuated glass envelope that contains several metal electrodes.A simple, two-element tube (diode) consists of a cathode and an anode that is connected to thepositive terminal of a power supply. The cathode-a small metal tube heated by filament-frees electrons, which migrate to the anode-a metal cylinder around the cathode (also called the plate). If an alternating voltage is applied to the anode, electrons will only flow to the anode during the positive half-cycle. During the negative cycle of the alternating voltage, the anode repels the electrons, and no current passes through the tube. Diodes connected in such a way that only the positive half-cycles of an alternating current (AC) are permitted to pass are called rectifier tubes, these are (DC). By inserting a grid, consisting of a spiral of metal wire, between the cathode and the anode and applying a negative voltage to the grid, the flow of electrons can be controlled. When the grid is negative, it repels electrons, and only a fraction of the electrons emitted by the cathode can reach the anode. Such a tube, called a triode, can be used as an amplifier. Small variations in voltage at the grid, such as can be produced by a ratio or audio signal, will cause large variations in the flow of electrons from the cathode to the anode and, hence, in the circuitry connected to the anode.(2) TransistorsTransistors are made from semiconductors. These are materials, such as silicon or germanium, that are ‘doped’ (have minute amounts of foreign elements added) so that either an abundance or a lack of free electrons exists. In the former case, the semiconductor is called n-type, and in the latter case, p-type. By combining n-type and p-type materials, a diode can be produced. When this diode is connected to a battery so that the p-type material is positive and the n-type negative, electrons are repelled from the negative battery terminal and pass unimpeded to the p-region, which lack electrons. With battery reversed, the electrons arriving in the p-material can pass only with difficulty to the n-material, which is already filled with free electrons, and the current is almost zero.The bipolar transistor was invented in 1948 as a replacement for the triode vacuum tube. It consists of three layers of doped material, forming two p-n (bipolar) junctions with configurations of p-n-p or n-p-n. One junction is connected to a battery so as to allow current flow (forward bias), and the other junction has a battery connected in the opposite direction (reverse bias). If the current in the forward-biased junction is varied by the addition of a signal, the current in the reverse-biased junction of the transistor will vary accordingly. The principle can be used to construct amplifiers in which a small signal applied to the forward-biased junction caused a large change in current in the reverse-biased junction.Another type of transistor is the field effect transistor (FET). Such a transistor operates on the principle of repulsion or attraction of charges due to a superimposed electric field. Amplification of current is accomplished in a manner similar to the grid control of a vacuum tube. Field-effect transistors operate more efficiently than bipolar types, because a large signal can be controlled by a very small amount of energy.(3) Integrated CircuitsMost integrate circuits are small pieces, or ‘chips’, of silicon, perhaps 2 to 4 sq mm (0.08 to 0.15 sq in) long, in which transistors are fabricated. Photolithography enables the designer to create tents of the many n-type and p-type regions. These are interconnected with very small conducting paths during fabrication to produce complex special-purpose circuits. Such integrated circuits are called monolithic because they are fabricated on a single crystal of silicon. Chips require much less space and power and are cheaper to manufacture than an equivalent circuit built by employing individual transistors.(4) ResistorsIf a battery is connected across a conducting material, a certain amount of current will flow through the material. This current is dependent on the voltage of the battery, on the dimensions of the sample, and on the conductivity of the material itself. Resistors with known resistance are used for current control in electronic circuits. The resistor are made from carbon mixtures, metal films, or resistance wire and have two connecting wires attached. Variable resistors, with an adjustable sliding contact arm, are often used to control volume on radios and television sets.(5) CapacitorsCapacitors consist of two metal plates that are separated by an insulting material. If a battery is connected to both plates, an electric charge will flow for a short time and accumulate on each plate. If the battery is disconnected, the capacitor retains the charge and the voltage associated with it. Rapidly changing voltages, such as caused by an audio or radio signal, produce larger current flows to and from the plates; the capacitor then functions as a conductor for the changing current. This effect can be used, for example, to separate an audio or radio signal from a direct current in order to connect the output of one amplifier stage to the input of the next amplifier stage.(6) InductorsInductors consist of a conducting wire wound into the form of a coil. When a current passes through the coil, a magnetic filed is set up around it that tends to oppose rapid changes in current intensity. As a capacitor, an inductor can be used to distinguish between rapidly and slowly changing signals. When an inductor is used in conjunction with a capacitor, the voltage in the inductor reaches a maximal value for a specific frequency. This principle is used in a radio receiver, where a specific frequency is selected by a variable capacitor.(7) Sensing Devices and TransducersMeasurements of mechanical, thermal, electrical, and chemical quantities are made by devices called sensors and transducers. The sensor is responsive to changes in the quantity to be measured, or example, temperature, position, or chemical concentration. The transducer converts such measurement into electrical signals, which, usually amplified, can be fed to instruments of the readout, recording, or control of the measured quantities. Sensors and transducers can operate at locations remote from the observer and in environments unsuitable or impractical for humans. Some devices act as both sensor and transducer. A thermocouple has two junctions of wires of different metals, these generate a small electric voltage that depends on the temperature difference between the two junctions. A thermistor is a special resistor, the resistance of which varies with temperature. A variable resistor can convert mechanical movement into an electrical signal. Specially designed capacitors are used to measure distance, and photocells are used to detect light. Other devices are used to measure velocity, acceleration, or fluid flow. In most instances, the electric signal is weak and must be amplified by an electronic circuit.。

电子商务外文文献Title: E-commerce: A Review of the Literature and Perspectives for Future ResearchE-commerce, or electronic commerce, has become a fundamental aspect of business and economic activity in the globalized digital age. The交易研究领域的一个重要组成部分。

在这个日益数字化的时代，电子商务已经成为全球商业和经济活动的一个重要组成部分。

本文旨在回顾和分析电子商务领域的研究现状，探讨未来可能的研究方向和挑战。

The literature on e-commerce has been extensive, covering a range of topics from online retailing to global supply chain management. The Journal of Electronic Commerce in Organizations (JECO) and Journal of Electronic Commerce Research (JECR) are two of the leading journals in the field, publishing high-quality research on various aspects ofe-commerce. Additionally, several books and conference proceedings provide valuable insights into the development and evolution of e-commerce.E-commerce research has examined the impact of technology on business processes, explored innovative business models, andanalyzed the role of e-commerce in global trade and development. The literature has addressed a range of important issues, including security and privacy, electronic payment systems, and the impact of social media on e-commerce.Despite the significant progress made in e-commerce research, several areas for future exploration remn. These include the development of new e-commerce technologies, such as blockchn and artificial intelligence, and their potential impact on global trade and supply chns. Additionally, research on the role of e-commerce in sustnable development, particularly in terms of environmental sustnability and social inclusivity, represents an important area for future investigation.In conclusion, e-commerce has become a fundamental aspect of business and economic activity in the digital age. The literature on e-commerce has provided valuable insights into its development and evolution, but there remn several areas for future exploration. Future research should address these unexplored areas and contribute to the development ofe-commerce as a transformative force in global trade and development.商学院电子商务外文文献Title: E-commerce in Business Schools: A Critical Analysis of Curriculum, Teaching Methods, and Future TrendsThe rise of e-commerce in recent years has revolutionized business education, with business schools across the globe scrambling to keep up with the latest trends and prepare students for the digital economy. This article delves into the world of e-commerce education in business schools, exploring curriculum, teaching methods, and predicting future trends. E-commerce has become an integral part of modern business, and business schools are responding to this trend by incorporating e-commerce courses into their curriculum. The primary objective of these courses is to provide students with a comprehensive understanding of the e-commerce industry, including the latest trends, tools, and techniques. In addition to fundamental topics such as online marketing and web design, today's e-commerce courses also cover more specialized topics such as cloud computing, big data analysis, and social media marketing.Business schools are adopting a variety of teaching methods to impart knowledge on e-commerce, ranging from traditional classroom lectures to more innovative hands-onbs and simulations. These experiential learning opportunities allow students to gain practical experience in real-world settings, providing them with a deeper understanding of the dynamics and challenges of the e-commerce industry.With the continuous evolution of the internet and e-commerce landscape, it is essential to track and predict future trends in this field. Business schools are playing a crucial role in this regard by staying abreast of industry developments and incorporating relevant content into their courses. The trend towards more personalized and interactive learning experiences is likely to continue, with business schools tloring their teaching methods to suit the needs of individual students. Additionally, the integration of technology into every aspect of business will continue to drive changes in e-commerce education, with an increasing focus on areas such as cybersecurity and artificial intelligence.In conclusion, business schools have responded to the rise of e-commerce with a comprehensive approach that includes updating curriculum, adopting innovative teaching methods, and predicting future trends. However, there are still challengesahead, such as keeping up with the rapidly changing landscape and providing all students with equal opportunities to access e-commerce education. By continuing to adapt and innovate, business schools can help shape a brighter future fore-commerce and prepare students to thrive in the digital economy.电子商务外文翻译文献电子商务的发展及其影响：外文翻译文献随着全球互联网的迅速普及，电子商务在全球范围内得到了前所未有的发展。