6-Crop rotation model for contract farming with constraints on similar profits

Original papers

Crop rotation model for contract farming with constraints on similar

pro?ts

Jing Li a ,?,Daniel Rodriguez b ,Dongqing Zhang a ,Kaiping Ma a

a Faculty of Engineering,Nanjing Agricultural University,Nanjing 210031,China

b

Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI),The University of Queensland,Toowoomba 4350,Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o Article history:

Received 17November 2014

Received in revised form 28September 2015

Accepted 7October 2015

Keywords:

Contract farming Crop rotation

Heuristic algorithm Perishable products

a b s t r a c t

In China,investors have contracts with smallholder farmers to plant organic vegetable crops.The objec-tive of the smallholder farmers is to maximize pro?ts per unit of farm area,and minimize the differences in pro?ts between farmers.Farmers’pro?ts are a function of the crop rotation scheduling and the achieved prices.Here we propose an operational model that considers a crop rotation scheduling for an investor that offers contracts to many smallholder farmers.A heuristic algorithm was designed to identify the optimal rotation scheduling that would achieve both objectives of maximizing prices and minimizing the pro?t differences between smallholder farmers.Real data from a Chinese company was used to parameterize the model.Model results indicate that signi?cant improvements in pro?ts and farmers equality could be obtained if an optimal crop rotation scheduling would be used.

ó2015Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.

1.Introduction

In China,the government rents land to many smallholder farm-ers and it is dif?cult for investors to acquire large areas of land from the government to grow high-quality crops.Contract farming has been used for agricultural production in recent years in China.Investors cooperate with smallholder farmers to plant high-quality agricultural products using high yielding agricultural technologies.This cooperative arrangement can offer both an assured market and production support to smallholder farmers.The rotation of crops and the process of growing crops are controlled by the investor to ensure the yield and quality of the crops.

In the region of south Jiangsu Province,China,vegetables can be planted all over the year and the growing periods for the different vegetables are known to the investors.Therefore,vegetable production in the region is suitable for rotation planning.With the increase in income in China high-quality vegetables are selling well and are usually in short supply.Many companies and schools’canteens make orders with these agricultural companies at the start of each year.The prices for each vegetable is decided at the time the orders are made,and prices vary depending on whether the produce was produced using conventional or organic methods.As the diversity in produce in the market needs to be maintained throughout the year,the agricultural company proposes that different crops should be planted at any time.Agronomic studies demonstrate that an increases in species diversity is also associ-ated with sustainable soil fertility,better nitrate recycling and fewer pest attacks (Gliessman,2000).

Contract farming is also of interest to investors,who seek supplies of high-quality products for markets at all seasons.Based on a survey of Chinese contract farming companies (investors),the problem of rotational scheduling of crops in smallholder farming,is widespread.The ?rst reason for this problem is that all farmers naturally seek more pro?ts.The second reason for this problem is that the smallholder farmers seek to allocate pro?ts in a fair manner,i.e.,all smallholder farmers must have similar pro?ts per unit of area.This main objective of this study was to optimize the rotation scheduling of vegetable crops in contract farming.Previous studies on the optimization of rotation scheduling include those of dos Santos et al.(2011)and Sch?nhart et al.(2011).In those studies the target was to maximize pro?ts for the company,ignoring the variability of pro?ts among the farming community.

Here we propose a 0–1optimization model for crop rotation scheduling,that takes into account real conditions of rural China,and both the objective of maximizing the pro?ts of smallholder farmers,while minimizing the differences in pro?ts among farm-ers.Four constraints are considered ....To demonstrate the applica-bility of the proposed model,here w consider a case study based on the Tianlandilv Farm Ltd.,which is located in Wuxi,China.Eighty smallholder farmers have contracts with the company to plant organic vegetable crops.The optimal rotation scheduling requires that the pro?ts of all farmers is maximized and that the differences in pro?ts among all farmers is minimized.

https://www.doczj.com/doc/6b17350845.html,/10.1016/https://www.doczj.com/doc/6b17350845.html,pag.2015.10.0020168-1699/ó2015Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.

?Corresponding author.Tel./fax:+8602558606710.

E-mail address:phdlijing@https://www.doczj.com/doc/6b17350845.html, (J.Li).

The remainder of the paper is organized as follows.The litera-ture review of related topics is presented in Section2.The third Section proposes the problem statement and the operational model for?nding the optimal rotation scheduling of all of the farmers.A new heuristic algorithm for the operational model is designed in Section4.In the Section5,an illustrative example is developed and analyzed to demonstrate the validity of the model and the algorithm.Conclusions and future research regarding this problem are presented in the?nal section.

2.Literature review

The use of crop rotation systems has had effects on the eco-nomic performance and the concentrations of grain protein and many mineral components(Bockstaller et al.,1997;Ball et al., 2005;Leteinturier et al.,2006;Houx III et al.,2014).Castellazzi et al.(2008)described three types of?exible crop rotations:cycli-cal with?xed rotation length,variable rotation length and highly variable rotation length.Our paper studies the crop rotation with ?xed rotation length.For this problem,the papers reviewed in our paper considered the same case as our paper.Many researchers conducted?eld experiments over multiple years to study the pro-ductivity and economic potential of different cropping rotation systems(Rathore et al.,2014;Rasmussen,2014).Borrelli et al. (2014)assessed maize yield and yield stability over26years in several long-term crop rotation experiments.Many researchers applied mathematical or simulation approaches to study crop rota-tion systems.These works are signi?cant to the research of our work.For example,Tid?ker et al.(2014)recommended that the rotation of perennial grass/clover had multiple effects in cropping systems dominated by cereals.Hennessy(2006)used quasi-convexity of choice functions to research rotation structures. Colbach et al.(2014)used a cropping system model to evaluate the potential impacts of modi?ed agricultural practices.Münch et al.(2014)presented a Farm Economy Coef?cient Generator to study the performance of crop production.Hendricks(2014)pro-posed how the bene?ts of crop rotation generate farmers’changing of crops due to a price shock.The example of crop rotation in Ger-many is used to analyze the costs and bene?ts of irrigation.

Because the production plan is related to the crop rotation sys-tem,the previous signi?cant works in this?eld are important for our paper.Considering product types and scheduling decisions,Cai et al.(2008)proposed a model for different types of products pro-duced by a certain amount of perishable raw material.Ahumada and Villalobos(2011)built an optimal model to make decisions on the production of multiple crops.Different from these studies,our paper mainly studies the optimization of crop rotation scheduling.

Many researchers proposed a Linear Programming model for the multi-period crop rotation optimization problems(Detlefsen and Jensen,2007;Kein Haneveld and Stegeman,2005;Alfandari, 2011;Dogliotti et al.,2003;Dogliotti et al.,2004).dos Santos et al.(2011)proposed a0–1optimization model to study a crop rotation schedule for multiple plots.The effects of the crop rotation on the expected revenue were analyzed by Myers et al.(2008) using a risk-neutral discrete stochastic sequential programming model.Sch?nhart et al.(2011)proposed a crop rotation model that integrated agronomic criteria and land use data to determine the optimal crop rotations for farms.

Goal programming was used to solve cropping plan decision problems in many signi?cant works(e.g.,Piech and Rehman, 1993;Sarker and Quaddus,2002;Annetts and Audsley,2002; Bartolini et al.,2007).To?nd the optimal result of the crop rotation model,a heuristic algorithm is proposed in our paper because of the characteristic of the complex models.Past researchers have also designed many heuristic algorithms to study production plans. Benavides et al.(2014)proposed a heuristic based on scatter search to solve the?ow shop scheduling problem.A heuristic algorithm is proposed by dos Santos et al.(2011)to study the optimization of a crop rotation model.Based on the beam search,Borba and Ritt (2014)proposed a heuristic algorithm to maximize the production rate of an assembly line.The heuristic algorithm was presented to ?nd the optimal result in complex systems in many works(Li et al.,2014,2013).These works inspired the design of our paper’s heuristic algorithm.

Based on the results in the existing literature,the optimization of the crop rotation scheduling is concluded to have a signi?cance impact on the performance of farmers and is attracting growing interest.However,the optimization of rotation scheduling under the situation in China(land is controlled by smallholder farmers, combined with the requirement of similar pro?ts for all farmers)is seldom researched.This paper presents an operational model for this problem and designs a heuristic algorithm to calculate the model.

3.Problem statement and model formulations

Crop rotation is a recursive system of planting a crop sequence for all smallholder farmers in this paper.For example,farmer j plants crops with the sequence of crops of3,1,and2,which indi-cates that farmer j plants the three crops within a period of T (maximal months for a rotation)and restarts the crop sequence after the period of T.The crop rotation scheduling is a cropping calendar that shows the period of each crop in the rotation.The paper proposes an optimal rotation scheduling for all smallholder farmers simultaneously according to the farmers’requirements. This section provides a detailed description of the operational model for the crop rotation scheduling problem.According to the selling orders(updated each year),the model would be used to design the rotation schedule each year.

The de?nition of the problem is described as follows.Given a set of smallholder farmers with land for planting,a set of crops that can be selected for each rotation,and a predetermined production period(equal for all smallholder farmers),this paper?nds a crop rotation scheduling that maximizes the pro?t of all farmers and minimizes the difference of the pro?ts per acre among all farmers. Because the following discussion is notation intensive,all of the indices,parameters and decision variables used in this paper are summarized in the following.

Parameters:

I number of crops;

t i production time of crop i;

J number of farmers;

a j area of land for farmer j;

R j crop changing times in each rotation for

farmer j;

p i pro?t of crop i per acre;

T maximal months for a rotation(the length of

rotation);

D i minimal planting area of crop i(minimal

market demand);

a threshold of the pro?t gap between farmer j

and the average pro?t of all farmers.

Indices:

i2{1,2,...I}NO.of crops;

j2{1,2,...J}NO.of farmers;

r2{1,2,...R j}NO.of the rotation batch for farmer j.

Decision variables:

x ijr=1if crop i is planted by farmer j at the batch of

r;otherwise,it is equal to0;i=1,...,I,

j=1,...,J,and r=1,...,R j.

J.Li et al./Computers and Electronics in Agriculture119(2015)12–1813

The crop rotation scheduling problem can be formulated as a 0–1programming model max f (x ijr ),where f (x ijr )is de?ned in formula (1).f ex ijr T?

X I i ?1X J j ?1X R j r ?1

p i a j x ijr

e1T

The constraints of the model can be de?ned as follows:

X

R j r ?1

x ijr 61;8i ;j

e2TX

J j ?1X R j r ?1

a j x ijr P D i ;8i e3TX

I i ?1X R j r ?1

t i x ijr 6T ;

8j

e4T

P I i ?1

P J j ?1P R j

r ?1p i a j x ijr

P

J

j ?1a j .àP I i ?1P R j

r ?1p i x ijr P I i ?1P J j ?1P R j r ?1

p i a j x ijr P J

j ?1a j .6a ;8j e5T

Objective function (1)provides the total pro?ts of all farmers in each rotation period.The goal of the contract farming company is to ?nd the maximal pro?ts.This goal should follow constraints (2)–(5).

Constraint (2)ensures that a crop can be planted by a farmer no

more than one time.If P R j

r ?1x ijr ?0,crop i is not planted by farmer j .If P R j

r ?1x ijr ?1,crop i is planted by farmer j one time along one year.Other values are not allowed in this model.The reason of con-straint (2)is that the agricultural sustainability could be destroyed by one kind of crop planted at a plot more than one time along a year.The in?uence of species from same botanic family would be considered in the following algorithm.

Constraint (3)guarantees that the planting area of each crop is more than the minimal requirement of the crop.If P J j ?1P R j

r ?1a j x ijr

Constraint (4)ensures that the production period of farmer j is no more than the length of rotation (the maximal production period,T ).Because the rotation scheduling is restarted after the

length of rotation,P I i ?1P R j

r ?1t i x ijr >T was not allowed in this model.Meanwhile,if the land must have a month as the fallow period,then constraint (5)should be changed to formula (6).

X

I i ?1X R j r ?1

t i x ijr 6T à1;8j e6T

Constraint (5)is used to limit the difference of pro?ts per acre

among all of the farmers.P I i ?1P J j ?1P R j

r ?1p i a j x ijr P J

j ?1a j .is the aver-age pro?t per acre for all farmers.If the pro?t eP I i ?1P R j

r ?1p i x ijr Tper acre of farmer j is more than the average pro?t per acre,then the rotation scheduling of farmer j is not limited by constraint (5).If

P I i ?1P R j

r ?1p i x ijr

j ?1a j .,then farmer j is unfairly treated in the contract farming team.Under this condition,constraint (5)prohibits the pro?t gap between farmer j and the team from being greater than a .

Given the characteristics of the variables in the presented model,?nding the optimal rotation scheduling is infeasible because the constraints limit the use of exact solution methods.Traditional heuristic algorithms,such as Genetic Algorithm,are not suitable for this model because the choice and sequence of sev-eral crops is signi?cant in each result.Traditional heuristic algo-rithms are dif?cult to use to describe the dynamics of a feasible

solution of the model.Based on the heuristic algorithms in previous literature reports,this paper designed a new algorithm to ?nd the optimal rotation scheduling of the model.

4.Algorithm design for the model

Considering the characteristics of the model in Section 3,this

paper proposes a heuristic algorithm to ?nd the optimal rotation scheduling of the model.The algorithm uses the Boltzmann soft-max distribution (according to the minimal demand of each crop)to ?rst select crops for each farmer.Next,the algorithm changes the inappropriate rotation schedules and chooses different crops to decrease the pro?t gaps.Based on the basic rules of heuristic algorithms,the steps of the heuristic algorithm are proposed in the following.Step 0:

Initialize all of the variables.Set k =1and go to the next step.Step 1:

If k >3,go to Step 2.Otherwise,use the Boltzmann soft-max

distribution to compute the probability of choosing crop i

eD i =P I k ?1D k T.Select the crops for all farmers according to the prob-abilities.If crop i is planted by farmer j ,then D i =max {D i àa j ,0}.Go back to Step 1;Step 2:Build the set (FT )of farmers with the attitude of

P I i ?1

P R j

r ?1t i x ijr

>T .

Step 3:

Delete crop i with minimal production times in all crops planted by farmer j and set FT =FT àj .If FT is null,then go to Step 4;other-wise,go back to Step 2.Step 4:

Build the set (FA )of farmers with formula (5).If FA is null,then end this algorithm;otherwise,go to Step 5.Step 5:

If P I k ?1D k >0,then use the rule of Step 1and formula (4)to choose the crop for the farmer in the set of FA .If no crop can be planted by the farmer,then choose crop i with the probability of p i =P

I k ?1p k to replace the crop with the minimal pro?t planted by the farmer and set FA =FA àj .If FA is null,then go to the next step;otherwise,go back to Step 5.Step 6:

Build the set (FD )of farmers that do not follow formula (2).In this case,crop i is planted by a farmer more than one https://www.doczj.com/doc/6b17350845.html,e the crop with the production time t i to replace crop i for the farmer and set FD =FD àj .If FD is null,then go to Step 4;otherwise,go back to Step 6.

The result of the heuristic algorithm is the crops chose by each farmer.However,planting sequences are not decided by the algo-rithm.The paper uses the following rules to adjust the sequence of vegetables for farmers.The application sequence of the following

14J.Li et al./Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 119(2015)12–18

rules is Rule 5,Rule 4,Rule 3,Rule 2,and Rule 1.Rule 1has the most priority than other rules.Rule 2has the second priority.Rule 5has the minimal priority.

Rule 1:Crops from same botanic family are not planted in sequence of same farmer.If there are only two crops for a farmer and two crops have same botanic family,the model sets a new crop with different botanic family as the substitute of the two crops.The new crop should has similar pro?t with the crop been deleted.

Rule 2:Cucurbitaceae cannot plant in sequence with Solanaceae.Rule 3:Leaf vegetables should be planted in sequence with stem vegetables and fruit vegetables.

Rule 4:Deep rooted vegetables should be planted in sequence with shallow rooted vegetables.

Rule 5:Crops sensitive with soil acidity (such as onion)should be planted following the crops with the ability of decreasing soil acidity (such as Cabbage).

Based on the heuristic process and the sequence rules,the algorithm ?nds the optimal rotation scheduling of formula (1).JAVA was used to code the algorithm on the platform of WinXP.In the next section,an example is proposed to show the validity of the algorithm.5.Case study

Jiangsu Tianlandilv Farm Ltd.is located in Wuxi,China.Tianlandilv is a large-scale technological and ecological farm.The company provides fresh organic vegetables to many companies,hotels and schools at all seasons.The company utilizes a contract farming team of 80smallholder farmers that use large facility agri-cultural technologies.The product manager proposes the rotation schedules for all of the farmers.The process of planting is con-trolled by the company to ensure the quality and time-to-market of all crops.The rotation schedules must improve the pro?t of all farmers and ensure that all farmers have similar pro?t per acre.The pro?ts of all farmers are about 40,000,000RMB in 2013.Meanwhile,more than 5farmers have con?ict with Tianlandilv because their pro?ts are lower than the average pro?t of all farmers.The land areas of the eighty smallholder farmers are:A ?f a 1;a 2;...a J g

?f 34;44;10;35;25;42;30;27;46;36;37;31;28;32;32;13;8;24;27;23;43;34;31;23;34;44;6;44;42;21;28;26;17;29;19;35;37;36;35;24;45;32;35;39;25;23;23;33;24;31;42;38;27;13;36;37;24;28;33;35;26;22;26;21;23;23;42;16;28;17;38;29;29;25;21;23;32;16;41;26g ;

e7T

Table 1

Data of the ?fteen typical crops.Crops

Botanic family Planting time (month)Minimal plating area (acre/year)Pro?ts (selling orders of 2013)(ten thousand RMB/acre)Pakchoi Brassicaceae 11800.2Radish

Brassicaceae 11000.25Garland chrysanthemum Asteraceae 21200.35Lettuce Compositae 21600.38Sweet corn Gramineae 31400.45Amaranth

Amarantaceae 31200.4Chinese watermelon Cucurbitaceae 31000.35Coriander Umbelliferae 3800.6Cucumber Cucurbitaceae 41600.55Hot pepper Solanaceae 41800.46Celery Umbelliferae 41200.62Broccoli Brassicaceae 41000.42Broad bean Leguminosae 41000.59Garlic bolt Amaryllidaceae 41600.52Tomato

Solanaceae

5

180

0.65

Table 2

Pro?ts distributions of the 40results.Pro?ts of 80farmers (ten thousand RMB)Frequency of pro?ts 4050040900.1541200.32541350.241500.154175

0.175

Table 3

Distributions of the 40results’standard deviations.Deviation of pro?ts (ten thousand RMB)Frequency of deviation 0.100.110.150.120.450.130.30.140.0750.15

0.025

Table 4

Top ?ve results ranked by pro?ts (ten thousand RMB).Best results’pro?t Best results’deviation NO.of results 4170.990.1108134168.610.1044324167.410.1378354158.210.120884157.87

0.1239

39

Table 5

Top ?ve results ranked by standard deviations (ten thousand RMB).Best results’pro?t Best results’deviation NO.of results 4168.610.1044324101.750.1044304074.950.1050154137.930.1051194137.83

0.1088

28

J.Li et al./Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 119(2015)12–1815

Table 6

Best rotation scheduling of 80

farmers.

16J.Li et al./Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 119(2015)12–18

Because many crops have the same requirements and pro?ts, this paper selected15typical crops from the all of the crops of the company.Even the costs is different for vegetables,the prices are same for all vegetables in the order between Tianlandilv and his customers(The price in2013is16RMB/kg).The selling price is much higher than the price of non-organic vegetables. Tianlandilv could not only sell vegetables with higher pro?ts, because there are also requirements of diversity in the selling order.Tianlandilv should propose the combination of different veg-etables for his customers.Because the selling order would be updated each year,Tianlandilv is interesting in the12months rotation schedule.The data of the15typical crops are presented in Table1.The pro?ts in Table1are based on the selling orders of2013.

To show the validity of the proposed model and the algorithm, the proposed parameter setting of the model is T=12and a=0.1, i.e.,the lands do not have fallow periods and the crop sequence is restarted after12months.The gap of pro?ts per acre for the farm-ers is no more than10%compared with the average pro?t.This sit-uation is the same as the real-world data of Tianlandilv Farm Ltd.

The heuristic algorithm?nds the best result step by step through the rules with many stochastic processes(considered with Boltzmann soft-max distribution).This means the heuristic algo-rithm may have different results like genetic algorithm.In order to?nd the best results,the model is computed40times in the paper.The distributions of the pro?ts and the deviation for the 40results are presented in Tables2and3.

Table2shows the pro?t distribution of the40results.For example,the value of0.325in the second column means that the probability of80farmers’pro?ts being between4090and4120 is0.325.The probability of pro?ts between4050and4150is 0.825(0.15+0.325+0.02+0.015).This result indicates that the algorithm is stable for the40results,even though each result is not the same.The second column in Table3is the probability of different deviations.Here,the deviation of pro?ts means the deviation of80farmers’pro?ts per acre.Because the model is computed40times,this paper has40deviations.The value0.3in the second column means that the probability of deviation between0.12and0.13is0.3.The probability of deviation between 0.1and0.13is0.9(0.15+0.45+0.3).This result indicates that the deviation of the80farmers’pro?ts is stable for the40results.As a result,the data in Table2and Table3demonstrate the validity of the algorithm.

Table4presents the top?ve results of the rotation schedule optimization procedure as ranked by pro?ts.Meanwhile,Table5 shows the top?ve results ranked by standard deviation.Result 32is found to have the smallest deviation and the second highest pro?t.Because all farmers want to have similar maximal pro?ts, the paper chooses result32as the best result of the model.In this condition,the group of all farmers has the second maximal pro?ts and there is the minimal gap among these farmers.Considered the requirement of agronomic knowledge,the paper uses the?ve rules (in Section4)to adjust the planting sequence of each farmer.The ?nal rotation schedules of the80farmers proposed by result32 are presented in Table6in Appendix A.

The results obtained from the model for the rotation scheduling of farmers suggest that the proposed model is effective in?nding the optimal rotation scheduling for multiple farmers and crops. About4%((4168à4000)/4000)of pro?ts could be increased for these farmers in2013.Meanwhile,no farmer has con?ict with the leading company because the pro?t gap among these farmers. The use of the proposed model and algorithm would be useful for maximizing the pro?ts of contract farming companies faced with similar pro?ts(per acre)for all smallholder

farmers.

J.Li et al./Computers and Electronics in Agriculture119(2015)12–1817

6.Conclusions and future research

This paper presented an operational model for the crop rotation scheduling of vegetables contract farming in China,with the goals of maximizing pro?ts and providing similar pro?ts for all small-holder farmers.A new heuristic algorithm was developed to?nd the optimal result of the model.The production of Tianlandilv Farm Ltd.was used as a case study.Results indicate that the model and algorithm are valid to solve the problem.The pro?ts of farmers can be maximized with the proper rotation scheduling,while the deviation of pro?t among farmers can be minimized.

This study provides a model for the investors(China contract farming)to implement an optimal crop rotation scheduling that accounts for the real conditions of Chinese land strategies.

The proposed approach has room for improvement,namely the need to account for real-world situations.The use of different con-straints for different crops is a new topic for future research.Thus, the current work can serve as the?rst step for further development in the optimization of crop rotation scheduling for developing a country’s agricultural production.

Acknowledgements

This research was supported in part by:(i)NSFC(National Nat-ural Science Foundation of China)program under Grant71301077, 71101072;(ii)Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities(KJQN201407);and(iii)Qing Lan Project of Jiangsu Province.The authors also thank the editor and the reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions that have led to the substantial improvement of the paper.

Appendix A

See Table6.

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国际商事证明书(样板) 报价单认证英文,合同认证英文

国际商事证明书（样板）在我会主要以形式认证为主，常见的认证形式有： 一、证明文书、单证上的印章、签字、签章属实 印章要清晰；印章要备案；如认证签字，签字人的手签字样要备案，如没备案且非法人代表，须有授权委托书；填写国际商事证明书申请表；文件一式两份；所有需认证印章的货运（代理）公司、保险公司都要注册备案。 二、证明文书、单证的影印件与原件相符 要求：提供正本核对 报关单 要求：海关验讫章 营业执照、医疗器械生产许可证、医疗器械注册证等由政府部门出具的文件可直接认证。质量体系认证等有关的质量认证，国内机构及国外有名的认证公司如TUV、SGS等出具的文件可直接认证，其它国外公司所做的认证则需由企业另附声明。 三、证明文书、单证的外文译本与中文译本一致 制作要求：外文译本需要清晰、明了；译本需要有资格从事翻译工作的人员的签字；对法律文本、技术规范文本等专业性较强的译本需要专业翻译公司翻译并盖章确认。 1.合同/销售确认书 制作要求：文件名称；日期；合同号；买卖双方；货名；数量；金额；价格条款；双方签字（盖章） （样板）

CONTRACT（合同） Sellers: GUANGZHOU INTERMATIONAL Contract No.: YE9504 TRADING CO., LTD Signed at: GUANGZHOU Add: Huangshi dong Road, Universal Date: Feb23,2006 Building, Guangzhou Tel: Buyers: COMPANY Fax: This contract is made by and between the sellers and the Buyers whereby the sellers agree to sell and the Buyers agree to buy the under mentioned goods subject to the terms and 5. Total value in word: USD one hundred and ninety eight thousand two hundred and fifty only 6. Packing 7. Shipping Marks：At buyer’s option 8. Loading port & Destination: From Guangzhou to Riyadh, Saudi Arabia 9. Time of shipment 10. Terms of payment: by T/T When fax delivery received 11. Insurance: 12. Remarks: The Sellers The buyers SALES CONFIRMATION （销售确认书） Sellers: GUANGZHOU INTERMATIONAL Contract No.: YE9504 TRADING CO., LTD Signed at: GUANGZHOU Add: NO.203,Fl.33, Huangshi dong Road, Universal Date: Feb23,2006 Building, Guangzhou Tel: Buyers: GOLDEN COMPANY Fax: This contract is made by and between the sellers and the Buyers whereby the sellers agree to sell and the Buyers agree to buy the under mentioned goods subject to the terms and

contract英文合同大全

contract英文合同大全 买方 buyer 卖方 seller 项目名称 Project name 地址 address 电话 phone 本合同由买卖双方签订，根据本合同条款，买方同意购买，卖方同意出售以下产品。 This contract is made by and between the buyers and sellers, whereby the buyers agree to buy and the sellers agree to sell the under-mentioned. Commodities according to the terms and conditions stipulated below. 1.详细货物清单 Detail supply list 2.合同价格 Contract value 序号 item型号 model尺寸 size, dimension数量 amount, unit单价 unit price总价 total price备注 remark货物，运费 freight, transportation合同总额（含安装费与税金） Contract amount incl. VAT installation 3.付款条件 payment conditions, payment terms 4.交货地点 delivery place 5.发货期 delivery time 6.安装条款 installation clause 7.验收条款 inspection clause 8.保证条款 guarantee clause 9.不可抗拒条款 Force Majeure Clause 10.违约条款 Breach clause 11.其他条款 Miscellaneous clause 12.买卖双方信息 buyer and seller information 此合同一式二份，由双方各持一正本。This contract is made in two originals that should be held by each party. 涉外合同格式 涉外合同按繁简不同，尽管可以采取不同书面形式，如正式合同（Contract）、协议书（Agreement）、确认书（Confirmation）、备忘录（Memorandum）、订单（Order）等等，但

SGS分析化验合同

TE RMS AND CONDITIONS / QUALIFICATIONS AND LIMITATIONS All SGS serv ices are rendered in accordance with the applicable SGS Conditions of Serv ice accessible at https://www.doczj.com/doc/6b17350845.html,/terms_and_conditions.htm. Attention is drawn to the limitations of liability and to the clauses on indemnif ication and jurisdiction. By signing this document, the Client conf irms that he/she accepts the applicable SGS Conditions of Serv ice; prov ided, howev er if SGS serv ices are perf ormed in North America, all disputes arising out or in connection with Contractual Relationship(s) hereunder shall be gov erned by the substantiv e laws of New Jersey exclusiv e of any rules with respect to conf licts of laws and be f inally settled under the Rules of Arbitration of the International Chamber of Commerce by one or more arbitrators appointed in accordance with the said rules, each party to bear its own costs and such arbitration shall take place in Rutherf ord, New Jersey, USA. NE W CLIENTS All new clients are required to pay prior to results release by credit card, cheque or direct deposit (banking inf o upon requ est). If y ou continue to use our serv ices and wish to mov e to an inv oice basis we will require that an account be set up including three trade ref erences.

CONTRACT 中英文对照 外贸合同 模板[001]

合同 CONTRACT NO.: DATE: THE BUYER: ADDRESS : TEL: FAX: 买方：地址：THE SELLER: ADDRESS: TEL: FAX: This contract is made by and only works between the buyer and seller, which means the buyer agrees to buy and the seller agrees to sell the product according to the terms and conditions stipulated below: 买方与卖方就以下条款达成协议： 1. COMMODITY: Please refer to the detailed breakdown as attached.（as in the appendix）详见清单.（附页）名称及规格单位平均单价数量总价Description UnitAverage unit QtyAmount price (JPY) FOB PORT TOTAL VALUE FOB OSAKA PORT OR KOBE PORT 2. PACKING: The commodity is supposed to be packed with infrangible Export standard packaging that suitable for long distance ocean and land transportation and well protected against dampness, moisture, shock, rust and rough handling. The Sellers shall be liable for any damage or rust damage to the goods that caused by improper packing, and pay for all cost and loss caused by the damage. 包装：必须采用坚固的出口标准包装, 适合于长途海运和陆运，防

合同法词汇大全------法律英语

买方buyer 卖方seller 项目名称Project name 地址address 电话phone 传真fax 联系人contact person 详细货物清单Detail supply list 合同价格Contract value 付款条件payment conditions，payment terms 交货地点delivery place 发货期delivery time 安装条款installation clause 验收条款inspection clause 保证条款guarantee clause

不可抗拒条款Force Majeure Clause 违约条款Breach clause 其他条款Miscellaneous clause 买卖双方信息buyer and seller information a long-term contract 长期合同 a short-term contract 短期合同completion of contract 完成合同contract for future delivery 期货合同contract for goods 订货合同 contract for purchase 采购合同 contract for service 劳务合同 labor contract劳动合同 contract note 买卖合同（证书） contract of arbitration 仲裁合同

contract of carriage /Carriage Contract运输合同Passenger Carriage Contract 客运合同 Cargo Carriage Contract货运合同Technology Contract技术合同 Technology Development Contract技术开发合同Technology Transfer Contract技术转让合同Technical Consulting Contract技术咨询合同Technical Service Contract技术服务合同Safekeeping Contract 保管合同Warehousing Contract仓储合同 Agency Appointment Contract 委托合同Trading-Trust Contract 行纪合同 Brokerage Contract 居间合同 Multi-modal Carriage Contract多式联运合同contract of employment 雇佣合同 contract of insurance 保险合同 contract of sale 销售合同

(完整word版)外贸合同中英文版

SALES AND PURCHASE CONTRACT Granular Sulphur in Bulk DRAFT CONTRACT NUMBER: 100901 Offer subject to Seller’s final review, confirmation and approval. This agreement made and entered into on September 2, 2010 by and between: Seller: E-MAIL: ………………………………………. Phone: ____________________________ Hereinaf ter called the “Seller” and Herein Buyer: Address: Tel: E-mail:__________________________ Hereinafter called the “Buyer” and Whereas:Seller and Buyer, each with full corporate authority, certifies, represents and warrants that each can fulfill the requirements of this agreement and respectively provides the products and the funds referred to herein, on time and under the terms agreed to hereafter.

(完整版)中英文合同Contract

This contract is concluded on the 1th day of July 2012 (the “Effective Date”) between(the “Buyer”) and (the “Seller”). （买方）与（卖方）于二零一二年七月一日（生效日期）订立本合同。 1.SCOPE OF THE CONTRACT 合同目的 The Seller agrees to sell and deliver Coal in bulk and the Buyer agrees to purchase and accept delivery of Coal in bulk at the terms and conditions set out below: 根据下述条款与条件卖方同意售卖和运送散装煤炭而买方同意购买及接受散装煤炭。 2.DEFINITIONS 定义 Actual Calorific Value means:实际热值意即the calorific value of the Coal as stated in the final certificate of analysis basis kcal/kg (NAR);载明于最后检验证的煤炭热值 Affiliates means:分支机构意即in relation to any company or corporation, a Subsidiary or Holding Company of that company or corporation or any other Subsidiary of that company or corporation or of that Holding Company; Banking Day and Business Day mean:银行工作日和营业日意即any day except a Saturday or Sunday on which banks in the city of New York, New York, USA, are generally open for the conduct of business; Calorific Value (CV) means:热值（CV）意即 the calorific value of the Coal expressed in BTU/lb or kcal/kg; Holding Company:控股公 司 has the meaning given to it in the definition of Subsidiary; INCOTERMS 2010 means:贸易术语2010意即the 2010 edition of the standard trade definitions published by the International Chamber of Commerce; Kcal/kg means:大卡/公斤 意即 the heating value of coal expressed in kilo-calories per kilogram; Laytime means:装卸时间 意即 the time allowed for discharging the vessel; Laycan means:受载期意即the agreed days during which the vessel shall arrive at the port of discharge for the commencement of discharge; Metric Ton (MT) means: 公吨（MT）意即 1 metric ton of 1,000 kilograms or 2204.6 2 lbs; NAR means:收到的净值Net As Received; Subsidiary means:子公司意即a company or corporation which, in relation to another company or corporation (a “Holding Company”): (a) is controlled, directly or indirectly, by the Holding Company; (b) more than half the issued share capital of which is beneficially owned, directly or indirectly by the Holding Company; or (c) which is a Subsidiary of another Subsidiary of the Holding Company; and for this purpose, a company or corporation shall be treated as being controlled by a Holding Company if the Holding Company is able to direct its affairs and/or to control the

商务合同-Contract-中英文

合同书 Contract 甲方： Party A: 乙方： Party B: 合同名称： Name of contract: 合同编号： Contract No.:

此合同由如下双方签定 The contract shall be signed by two parties as following: 1、（以下简称甲方） (hereinafter referred to as Party A) 2、（以下简称乙方） (hereinafter referred to as Party B) 此项目经甲乙双方友好协商，按国家经济合同法，现达成协议，其条款如下：The project is friendly negotiated by two parties according to national economic contract law. Now the agreement is reached with articles as following: 一、合同价格Contract amount 合同总金额为人民币（含17%增值税）xxx元。（大写：xxx）。 The total amount of the contract is xxxRMB (including 17% VAT) (in words: xxx). 二、工作范围Working scope 三、付款方式与条件Payment terms and conditions 3.1、合同生效后，甲方预付合同总价的30%。 Party A shall pay 30% of the total contract amount as down payment after the contract is signed and valid. 3.2、完成预验收后，乙方向甲方开具相应的发票，甲方预付合同总价的30%。 After the pre-acceptance, Party A shall pay 30% of the total amount against the invoice issued by Party B. 3.3、在最终客户完成终验收，甲方预付合同总价的30%。 Party A shall pay 30% of the total contract amount after the final customer’s final acceptance. 3.4、质保期为1年，年满后付合同总价的10%。 After the warranty period of 1 year, the last 10% of the total amount shall be paid. 3.5、合同金额包含往来运费。 The total contract amount shall include all transportation fees.

ContractTranslate国际货物买卖合同英文版

contract translate SALE AND PURCHASE AGREEMENT A company incorporated in and under the laws of China with Registration office at *********,Herein represented by ****being duly authorized to do so. Referred in this contract as BUYER, this contract made to: WHEREAS the BUYER is an International Trader of ****and the BUYER is desirous of buying all such ZIRCON SAND from the SELLER. The BUYER confirmed the purchase of the contracted amount from the SELLER in this contract. And WHEREAS the BUYER, is desirous of purchasing all such ****offered by the SELLER. WHEREAS the SELLER, is a trader of the product subjected in this contract. The SELLER is willing to give all his productions and sales in this contract to the BUYER. And WHEREAS the SELLER is in the process of selling *****, which originates from mine site based in ***, at approximately ****MT or more per month. ----------THE SELLER AND THE BUYER HEREBY AGREE AS FOLLOWS: --------- 1. DEFINITION Unless specifically stated the following terms in this contract shall refer to and will have the following meaning : Goods shall mean----; DMT shall mean dry metric ton DMT ; WMT ; shall mean wet metric ton ; Ton or "Metric Ton" shall mean a ton of 1.000 kilograms or 2,204.62 pounds avoirdupois wet or dry basis as stated ; Inspectorate shall mean independent inspectorate as SGS( Société Générale de Surveillance S.A, Switzerland) and/or its correspondence, CCIC (China Commodity Inspection Co.,Ltd.) and/or its correspondence, or any independent inspectorate accepted by both parties ; T/T shall mean Telegraphic Transfer ; L/C shall mean Irrevocable Letter of Credit in accordance and subject to Uniform Customs and Practice for Doc. Credits Revision 1993 Publication N° 500 of ICC, Paris ; $ or dollar or cent shall mean dollars and cents of the United States of America official currency ; CIF shall mean cost , Insurance and freight as per Incoterms ICC 2000. 2. PRODUCT 3. PRICE

Contract(合同)和Agreement(协议)

Contract(合同)和Agreement(协议) Contract(合同)和Agreement(协议)是不是可以互换呢？ 合同的成立必须具备几个主要因素。它们（要约和承诺构成的）协议、约因、设立法 律关系的愿望和缔约能力四大部分组成。 L.B Curzon编著的“A Diction of Law”提到“Contract generally involves” 1. offer and absolute and unqualified acceptance (要约和绝对接受) 2. consensus ad idem (意思表示一致，也叫meeting of minds) 3. intention to create legal relations (建立合同关系的意愿) 4. genuineness of consent (同意的真实性) 5. contractual capacity of the parties (合同当事人的缔约能力) 6. legality of object(标的物的合法性) 7. possibility of performance (履行的可能性) 8. certainty of terms(条款的确定性) 9. valuable consideration(等价有偿) Black “Law Dictionary” 中解释道：Although often used as synonyms with "contract", agreement is a broader term, e.g. an agreement might lack an essential element of a contact." 即“协议”和“合同”经常用作同义词，但“协议”这一术语含义更广，例如协议可能缺乏合同的必备条款（essential clauses/provisions）。 实际使用当中，协议可不受必备条款的限制，而称为合同的文体肯定少不了必备条款，有的合同将其单列，称为一般条款（General provisions）。 1999中国《合同法》第十二条规定了八项一般条款，分别是： 1. title or name and domicile of the parities(当事人的名称或姓名和住址) 2. contract object(标的) 3. quantity(数量) 4. quality(质量) 5. price or remuneration(价款或者报酬) 6. time limit, place and method of performance (履行期限、地点和方式) 7. liability for breach of contract(违约责任) 8. methods to settle disputes (解决争议的方法) 上述解释说明，contract(合同)和agreement(协议)的概念虽然接近，但使用范围不同，不能互换使用。合同是协议的重要组成部分，所有合同一定是协议，而协议不见得都 是合同。可以说具备合同成立要求的具有强制执行力的协议才是合同。 5.5 如发生对其履行本合同项下还款义务产生重大影响的任何事件(包括但不限于离、结婚，对外投资，承担民事、行政、刑事责任等)，应当立即书面通知乙方。 乙方不能将本工程转包、倒卖。一经发现，乙方无条件退出，协议终止，所造成的损 失及法律责任均由乙方承担。

Contract Law 合同法

Contract, as we will use that term, ordinarily connotes an agreement between two or more persons—not merely a shared belief, but a common understanding as to something that is to be done in the future by one or both of them. Sometimes, the term contract is used also to refer to a document—the set of papers in which such an agreement is set forth. For lawyers, contract usually is used to refer to an agreement that has legal effect; that is, it creates obligations for which some sort of legal enforcement will be available if performance is not forthcoming as promised. Thus, it will sometimes be necessary to distinguish among three elements in a transaction, each of which may be called a “contract”: (1) the agreement-in-fact between the parties, (2) the agreement-as-written (which may or may not correspond accurately to the agreement-in-fact), and (3) the set of rights and duties created by (1) and (2). Without trying at this point to state a short but comprehensive definition of law (if that were possible), it is perhaps sufficient to suggest that we will be surveying the ways in which such agreements are made and enforced in our legal system—the role of lawyers and judges in creating contracts, in deciding disputes that may arise with respect to their performance, and in fashioning appropriate remedies for their breach. 当我们使用“合同”一词的时候，通常是说它是一份存在于两方或三方之间的契约。它不是一种简单的信任，而是通常理解为合同的一方或双方在将来要去做的某种事情。有时候，“合同”也用来指一套包括协议的文件。对于律师而言，合同通常是指具有法律效力的协议，即设置了一种法律义务，当某行为没有按照预先约定的那样去履行时，可以依照合同去依法强制履行。因此，有时候，在一次交易中，区分三种不同的因素就变得非常必要，这些因素中的每个因素都可以叫做合同：（1）双方之间的事实合同（2）书面合同，它可能与事实合同不完全一致（3）基于前（1）、（2）两项中合同所产生的权利和义务。 在权利义务问题上，如果情况可以允许，我们可做到不用去努力阐明这种短少但包含法律意义的界定情况，那么它就强烈建议我们在早己设定好的合同和现行法律柜架下的去审视在（订立）创制合同中律师和法官的（角色）作用，他们会解决各方行为引发的争执以及对违约行为以恰当的形式进行补偿。 In the Anglo-American legal system, a great number of things—both tangible and intangible—are susceptible of “ownership.” A bull dozer, a diamond ring, the Empire State Building, “Gone With the Wind”—all may be the “property” of one person or group of persons, which means that the state will protect the right of the“owner” to use, enjoy, and even consume that thing, to the exclusion of all other persons. The first-year property course traditionally focuses on the detailed rules that in Anglo-American law govern the ownership of “real property” (land and the buildings on it), as well as some types of “personal” property, such as “goods” (tangible moveable property). Later you will have the opportunity to explore bodies of law relating to ownership of other, less tangible kinds of property such as copyrights, patents, shares of corporate stock, and negotiable instruments. 在英美法律体系中，很多事物—有形的和无形的—都涉及“所有权”问题。一台推土机、一枚钻戒、帝国大厦、小说《飘》，都可能是一个人或者一些人的财产。这意味着国家将保护所有权人对其所有物的使用、享受甚至是毁灭的权利，同时排除他人对此行为的干涉。按照惯例，第一年的财产课程会侧重于英美法律对财产保护的详细规定，诸如土地和地上物等不动产的所有权的细化性规定。然后，你将会学习到基本是对版权、专利权，股权，可转让票据等无形财产的所有权的法律保护。

中英文合同

巴西铁矿石购销合同（中英文） SALE & PURCHASE CONTRACT FOR BRAZIL IRON ORE FINES Contract Date : 合同日期Contract Number : 合同编号This contract (“Contract”) is made and entered into by and between: 这个合同（“合同”）是由以下双方达成：Seller :卖方Buyer :买方Whereas, the Buyer agrees to buy and the Seller agrees to sell the below-mentioned goods for Asia, on the terms and conditions stated below: 在此，在下述的情况条件下，买方同意购买，卖方同意销售下文提及的货物，： CLAUSE 1 : DEFINITION 第一条：定义 In this contract, the following terms shall, unless otherwise specifically defined, have the following meanings:在本合同中，除非另有特指，词语均定义如下，(A) "Ore" means Iron Ore Fines of Brazil Origin.“矿石”指的是产地巴西的铁矿石(B) "U.S. Currency" means the currency of the United States of America freely transferable from and payable to an external account. “美元货币”指的是美国的自由可转让的且可支付外国帐户的货币(B) "Metric Tonne or MT" means a tonne equivalent to 1,000 Kilogram. 公吨或MT 指的是等于1000千克的一吨。(D) "Wet basis" means Ore in its natural wet state. “湿吨”指的矿石的自然重量(E) "Dry basis" means Ore dried at 105 degrees Centigrade. “干吨”指的是105摄氏度干燥后的矿石。(F) “DMT”means dry Metric Tonne “DMT”指的是干吨重。 CLAUSE 2 : COMMODITY 第二条：货物Ore 铁 CLAUSE 3 : DELIVERY QUANTITY AND DELIVERY PERIOD 第三条交货数量和交付期限 Quantity : ----- WMT (+/- 10%) at Buyer’s Option 数量： ___湿吨（+/- 10%）-买方意见Loading Port : Rio de Janeiro port, Brazil (at Seller’s option) 装船港：巴西里约热内卢-卖方意见Discharging Port : ----------/---------- port, China (at Buyer’s option) 装卸港：中国港-买方意见Shipment : On or before --------- -----, 2006 装船：在年月日之前 CLAUSE 4 : GUARANTEED SPECIFICATIONS第四条：质量保证Chemical composition (on Dry basis) 化学成分（在干燥状态）Fe铁 64.50 % (Rejection below 63.50%)拒绝低于63.5% Al2O3 氧化铝 2.0% max 不高于2.0% SiO2 氧化硅 3.5% max 不高于3.5% Sulphur 硫 0.01% max 不高于0.01% Phosphorus 磷 0.06% max 不高于0.06% Free moisture content loss at 105 degrees Centigrade shall be 8.00% max.在105摄氏度失去的自然水分含量不能高于8%。Physical composition (on Wet basis)物理成分（自然状态下）Size (mm) 大小 +10 mm 5% max 不多于5% + 1 mm 80% min 不少于0% - 15 mm 15% max 不多于15% CLAUSE 5 : PRICE 第5条价格US$ per DMT CIF ------ port, China (Incoterms 2000). The above price shall be based on 64.5% Fe. Rejection below Fe 63.5% based on CIQ analysis report at discharging port and also rejection below Fe 64.0% based