Communication And Culture
By Rowland Croucher and others ? January 6, 2003 ?
Communication and Culture:
A Collection of Observations
by Gerry & Elizabeth Wilson The University of Calgary
Edward T. Hall defines culture as:
…man’s medium; there is not one aspect of human life that is not touched and altered by culture. This means personality, how people express themselves (including shows of emotion), the way they think, how they move, how problems are solved, how their cities are planned and laid out, how transportation systems function and are organized, as well as how economic and government systems are put together and function. It is the least studied aspects of culture that influence behaviour in the deepest and most subtle ways (Hall, 1976, p. 14).
When we discuss communication and culture, we should be aware of the total spectrum of communication including language, non-verbal communication, customs, perceived values, and concepts of time and space. Do all tourists identify with Canadian traditions and values? Likely not. But the more interesting question is: Why not? The answer lies in the simple fact that most tourists come from different cultures: some vastly different like those from Japan and China, others less different, such as tourists from Eastern Canada or the United States. Even if tourists share the same language, they may have much different customs and values.
What happens when people from different cultures interact face-to- face? One way to appreciate the impact of cultural differences is to look in the mirror. When Americans and Canadians travel to other countries, they look for Cokes, steaks and hamburgers and the same amenities in hotels and other accommodations that they are used to at home. While the host country may offer an authentically different culture, which is one of the reasons people travel, North Americans tourists are notorious for wanting the comforts of home wherever they may be. In many third world countries, North Americans seek out joint venture hotels to enjoy North American food and lodging and to be served by people who speak English. Strangely, what
we expect for ourselves in travel is not deemed to be reasonable when we’re the hosts dealing with tourists from other countries.
THE JAPANESE:
One of the functions of culture is to provide a highly selective screen between man and the outside world. In its many forms, culture therefore designates what we pay attention to and what we ignore (Hall:1976:74). For example, Hall tells about an American businessman who registered in
a Japanese hotel, telling them he intended to stay for one month. After
10 days, without notice, he is moved to another room. He discovers this by accident and is surprised to find that all his personal items have been placed around the room in almost the identical position to that in which he had put them his first room. Not wishing to make a fuss, he says nothing. To his surprise, he is moved two more times, each time without notification. Eventually, when he returned to the hotel instead of just asking for the key to his room, he would ask whether he was in the same room. During the last week, he was moved again, but this time into another hotel (Hall:1976:50)!
Two variables associated with culture are involved here. One is that in Western societies, moves are associated with status –the lowest ranking individual is the one moved. Second is the significance of space. Being quite territorial, Westerners want to make sure that a move does not involve moving to a smaller space (Hall:1976:52-54). Looking at this same situation from a Japanese cultural perspective, when a person enters a hotel he/she becomes part of a family. As a member of the family, the hotel feels they can quietly move you if the need arises. Taking such liberties with your accommodation signals that you belong, that you are a member of the family. However, the Japanese are also familiar with the reaction such moves have on Westerners. They are sensitive to the fact that other cultures react loudly to being moved and having their personal items touched with out their permission. Many hotels who cater to Westerners abide by the rules of the visitor’s culture and would not think of moving the person (Hall:1976:56). The familiarity displayed in the example above is more likely to occur in a hotel located well away from normal tourist territory.
All over the world, suitable environments have been created for tourists that shield them from the reality of the life of the people. Tourists seldom stick around for long, and they are happier if insulated from the full impact of the foreign culture (Hall:1976:49). However, in the case quoted above, the forced move to the second hotel turned out to be a blessing. The American businessman found the district around the new hotel much more interesting and authentic than that around the first hotel. As
Hall notes, each culture has its own language of space which is as unique as the spoken language Hall:1976:52-3).
In a Japanese hotel, all visitors are given the same kind of bath robe. This is not just the results of an opportunistic management using the guests to advertise the hotel. Rather it symbolizes that once you had registered in the hotel, you were no longer an outsider. You belonged. You became a member of a large, mobile family. As a family member, you are afforded an environment which is relaxed and informal (Hall:1976:56). But remember, no matter how informal or relaxed you may feel, meal-time is not appropriate for discussions of business ( Hall: 1987:108).
It is important for the Japanese to be able to place people in a social system. In fact, it is impossible to interact with someone else if this placing has not occurred, hence the requirement that you state who you are on your calling card: first, the organization you work for, second, your position in that organization, then, your degrees, honours you have received, followed by the family name, the given name and address (Hall:1976:58).
In Japan there are two sides to everyone – the warm, close friendly involved side, that does not stand on ceremony, and the public, official, status conscious, ceremonial side, which is what most foreigners see. Most Japanese feel quite uncomfortable about the ceremonial side of life. Their principal drive is to move from the stand on ceremony side toward the intimate, friendly side. Think about the practice of men and women sleeping side by side crowded together on the floor in a single room, and the camaraderie of communal bathing. Japanese cultural communication seems full of paradoxes (Hall:1976:59). When they communicate, particularly about important things, it is often called indirection by foreigners (Hall:1976:56).
Gifts are especially important to Japanese and specifically gifts from abroad. They particularly appreciate liquor, candy, food, or handicrafts from foreign countries. Never refuse a gift, it is the ultimate insult. Japanese etiquette books describe in detail the kind of gift that is expected from people at different levels in the social and economic hierarchy, including the amount that you should spend on gifts for people in different categories (Hall:1987:109).
These observations about the Japanese are symbolic of the wide range of differences which affect communication between cultures. However, there are just as many differences with other cultures.
THE GERMANS:
Germany is not a melting pot society and Germans are not mobile. Many stay in their geographic region and even the same house for generations. The scale of everything is smaller in Germany than in the Western countries. They love the outdoors, open spaces and treasure forests. Hiking is a popular sport (Hall:1990:38).
To the German space is sacred. Homes are protected by a variety of barriers, fences, walls, hedges solid doors, shutters and screening to prevent visual or auditory intrusion (Hall:1990:38).
Germans seldom invite anyone who is not a close friend to their home. To be invited is considered an honour. When you arrive bring a small bouquet for the hostess (not red roses which convey romantic attachment). Flowers should be unwrapped before being presented (Hall:1990:39).
Positions in things is also important – for example, the right side represents a place of respect (Hall:1990:42). So, in seating arrangements or just walking from one place to another, the senior person or the group leader should be placed on the right.
The German sense of privacy is very strong. Learn what is considered personal and do not ask questions that may be offensive. Americans feel that Germans do not interact with neighbours and perceive German behaviour as unfriendly. German friends of many years continue to address each other by their last names: “Herr Schmidt” not “Walter”. Germans are careful not to touch accidentally or to encourage signs of intimacy. On the other hand, they do maintain direct eye contact in conversations to show they are paying attention. However, the German who speaks most softly and to whom others defer is the one to pay attention to, not the one who makes the most noise.
Order is a dominant theme in German culture. There is order in all things, including space–they are very sensitive to spatial intrusions. One exception to orderliness is behaviour in lines for service, in stores, at ticket counters, or in boarding planes, especially where there is no seat assignment. Germans do not form queues but instead crowd and push and can be very rough. They do not yield when someone says “Excuse me”. Their determination to be served overrides their usual need to avoid physical contact. However, these are exceptions. Generally, Germans expect organization and order in all things– everything should be carefully planned, researched thoroughly and carried out in an orderly manner (Hall:1990:39-42).
They have a strong drive for conformity and object strenuously when people fail to obey signs and directions. Westerners feel that things are meant
to be used; and if they serve no useful purpose, we dispose of them. The German attitude is that things have great intrinsic value. We feel remiss if we buy books and don’t read the m. But a German will feel that it is important to own a book even if one can’t read it immediately. Sales of hard-cover books exceed sales of paperback books in Germany
(Hall:1990:46).
Associated with their demand for high-quality, long-lasting goods is the German abhorrence of waste. Waste is a sin, such as heating, cooling and lighting buildings when it is not necessary (Hall:1990:46). Germans are value- conscious and always insist on getting their money’s worth. Don’t ever try to sell them goods that are less than high quality. They appreciate, in fact demand, fine workmanship, design and high-quality material.
A television ad that is effective in the U.S. will have to be translated into print media to reach Germans. Germans are print-oriented, which explains in part why there is so little advertising on German TV (Hall:1990:30). Also, Germans are always looking for what is “true” and to them numbers are a way of signalling that a product is exactly as it has been represented. Germans demand facts, facts and more facts.
THE FRENCH:
It is not uncommon for Americans to experience difficulty getting the French –even those whom they know and have done business with- to reply to inquiries, even urgent ones. This can be exasperating. The reasons are many, but most have to do with the importance of immediate human contacts to the French. A solution that succeeds when other methods fail is to use a surrogate to relay messages, rather than relying on a letter or a phone call. Why? Because letters and phone calls are not personal enough. If you send a properly placed emissary, one whom the individual you are trying to reach likes and trusts and considers important, you add the necessary personal touch to your message and will thereby release the right response.
The French also stress the importance of observing the many rituals of form. If you don’t use the right form, the message conveyed is that you are ignorant or ill-mannered or don’t care. In any event, the response that is provoked is almost certain to be negative. Remember that the French deplore casualness and informality. Paying attention to the details and being correct in everything you do is the only tactic that releases the right response from the French (Hall:1990:30).
CONTEXT:
Another important aspect of communication is the level of context in which the message is passed. Linguists and anthropologists use the terms
‘high’ and ‘low’ context to indicate how much information is required for successful communication. High-context communication is one in which most of the information is either in the physical context or internalized in the person, while very little of the message is actually in words (Hall:1976:79). Couples often can communicate with a look, or a nod of the head at most. Low-context communication is just the opposite: most of the information is verbalized. Twins who have grown up together can and do communicate more economically (high context) than can opposing lawyers in a courtroom during a trial (low-context) (Hall:1976:79).
In the Far East, high-context communication is much more common than in North America. This can lead to serious misunderstanding. A businessman was invited to lunch with a Japanese friend atop one of Tokyo’s new skyscrapers with all of the city spread out below them. The Japanese host chose the occasion to give an overview of some of the sticky points in US- Japanese relations. In his own way, indirect but very clear, he said there were certain things that the Americans had missed in Japanese culture (Hall:1976:141). For the Japanese to show anger is tantamount to admitting loss of control (and face), unless, of course, things have gone too far. No warning signs are given and Westerners as well as Europeans will unconsciously push and push – looking for structure, pattern, and limits. Because they are unfamiliar with the system, they will go too far. With the Japanese culture, one must make haste slowly and engage the most skilful, subtle interpreter of the culture you can find (Hall:1976:142).
The greater the cultural distance, the more difficult the interface. An example of easy-to-interface communication would be Germany and Switzerland. The cultural distance in this case is not great since both cultures are low context as well as monochronic, a concept discussed in the following section (Hall:1990:27). A difficult-to-interface communication would be France and the United States. If you’re communicating with a German, remember they are low-context and will need lots of information and details. If you’re communicating with so meone from France, they are high-context and won’t require as much information (Hall:1990:28).
Context is the information that surrounds an event; it is inextricably bound up with the meaning of that event. The elements that combine to produce a given meaning — events and context — are in different proportions depending on the culture. The cultures of the worlds can be compared on a scale from high to low context (Hall:1990:27).
Japanese, Arabs and Mediterranean peoples, who have extensive information networks among family, friends, colleagues and clients and who are involved in close personal relations are high-context. As a result, for most normal transactions in family life they do not require, nor do they expect, much in- depth background information. This is because they keep themselves informed about everything having to do with the people who are important in their lives.
Low-context people include Americans, Germans, Swiss, Scandinavians and other northern Europeans. They compartmentalize their personal relationships, their work, and many aspects of day-to-day life. Consequently, each time they interact with others they need detailed background information. The French are much higher on the context scale than either the Germans or the Americans. This difference can affect virtually every situation and every relationship in which the members of these two opposite traditions find themselves.
“Contexting” performs multiple functions. For example, any shift in the level of context is a communication. The shift can be up the scale, indicating a warming of the relationship, or down the scale communicating coolness or displeasure–signalling something has gone wrong with a relationship.
High context people are apt to become impatient and irritated when low- cont ext people insist on giving them information they don’t need (Hall:1990:10). Conversely, low-context people are at a loss when high- context people do not provide enough information. One of the great communication challenges in life is to find the appropriate level of contexting needed in each situation. Too much information leads people to feel they are being talked down to; too little information can mystify them or make them feel left out. Ordinarily, people make these adjustments automatically in their own country, but in other countries their messages frequently miss the target (Hall:1990:9).
Americans, to some extent, and Germans, to a greater extent, rely heavily on auditory screening, particularly when they want to concentrate. High-context people reject auditory screening and thrive on being open to interruptions and in tune with what goes on around them. French and Italian cities periodically bombard you with noise.
DIFFERENT CONCEPTS OF TIME:
Another important factor in cross-cultural communication is the concept of time. For example, in Germany if you arrive late by even a few minutes,
no one will be impressed by your sales presentation, no matter how good it is. Indeed, they may not even wait around to hear it (Hall:1990:28).
We can divide people into two rough categories with respect to time: monochronic and polychronic people. Monochronic people tend to do one thing at a time, concentrate on the job at hand, take time commitments seriously and are concerned not to disturb others. They also tend to be rule followers, show great respect for private property, seldom borrow or lend and emphasize promptness. In addition, they are low-context in terms of the category discussed earlier. Polychronic people are almost opposites in all of the above. They are high-context types, who do many things at once, are highly distractible and subject to interruptions. While they consider time commitments objectives to be metif possible, they are more concerned with relationships, especially family and friends (Hall:1990:15).
As mentioned above, promptness is taken for granted in Germany. In fact, it’s almost an obsession. If there is a chance you’ll be late for an appointment, phone ahead. The Germans want to know where people are at all times; not knowing violates their sense of order (Hall:1990:36).
It is always important to know which segment of the time frame is emphasized. Eastern peoples tend to be past-oriented. Others, such as those in the urban United States, are oriented to the present and short-term future. Still others, such as Latin Americans, are both past and present oriented.
In Germany, where historical background is very important, every talk, book, or article begins with background information giving an historical perspective. This irritates many forei gners who keep wondering “why don’t they get on with it? After all, I am educated. Don’t the Germans know that?”
The Japanese and the French are also steeped in history, but because they are high-context cultures, historical facts are alluded to obliquely. At present, there is no satisfactory explanation for why and how differences of this sort came about (Hall:1990:17).
The key to understanding Japanese time is to know that the Japanese have two modes: a monochronic mode for foreigners and technology and a polychronic mode for virtually everything else. The Japanese switch from an open system for those in their inner circle to a more closed and tightly scheduled system for outsiders. To an outsider everything in Japan is rigidly scheduled. They organize a v isitor’s time and present him with a full schedule upon arrival. However, as one comes to know the Japanese,
one discovers another aspect of their time system– flexibility (Hall:1990:114).
Historical past is important to Japanese and they take it for granted that the visitor will be familiar with the main points of Japanese history. When dealing with the Japanese one must keep in mind that many important things are frequently left unsaid. When the Japanese meet with foreigners, the most important thing on their agenda is to get to know them. They are quite expert at determining what tactics are effective with foreigners and will try various strategies to see what works. They also ask many probing questions, testing your knowledge and your sincerity and conviction. Japanese admire people who are serious about their work, well informed, sincere and honest. They want to have some understanding of and feeling for the people involved. Do not be impatient. If you deny the Japanese this opportunity to become acquainted, you will not succeed in matters. Do not mistake hospitality for friendship (Hall:1987:114).
SPACE:
In humans, territoriality is highly developed and strongly influenced by culture. It is particularly well developed in the Germans and the Americans. Am ericans tend to establish places that they label “mine” –a cook’s feeling about a kitchen or a child’s view of her or her bedroom. In Germany, this same feeling of territoriality is commonly extended to all possessions, including the automobile. If a Germ an’s car is touched, it is as though the individuals himself has been touched. Space also communicates power. In German and Americans the top floor is more important than others, while for the French middle floors are more important (Hall:1990:11).
Personal Space: This is another form of territory. Each person has around him an invisible bubble of space which expands and contracts depending on a number of things: the relationship to the people nearby, the person’s emotional state, cultural background, and the activity being performed. Few people are allowed to penetrate this bit of mobile territory and then only for short periods of time. Changes in the bubble brought about by cramped quarters or crowding cause people to feel uncomfortable or aggressive. In northern Europe, the bubbles are quite large and people keep their distance. In southern France, Italy, Greece, and Spain, the bubbles get smaller and smaller so that the distance that is perceived as intimate in the north overlaps normal conversational distance in the south. This means that Mediterranean Europeans “get too close” to the Germans, the Scandinavians, the English and those Americans of Northern European ancestry. In northern Europe, one does not touch others. Even
the brushing of the overcoat sleeve used to elicit an apology
(Hall:1990:11).
MEMORY:
In addition to the talents that people are born with, culture has always exerted a dominant influence on memory and thinking. In Iran, for example, schools emphasize verbal memory. Iranian educators do not care how students store and retrieve information just as long as they remember. In earning their living in later life, they must continue to be able to recall blocks of material even at relatively low organizational levels in government.
The verbal memory system, like many cultural systems, is integrated into the rest of the culture and is felt in all areas of life (Hall:1976:160).
CONCLUSION:
Insensitivity to customs of “guests” in Western countries will not only result in misinformed decisions, but may also precipitate resentment. When we experience a form of cultural shock (something outside our normal experience), we have to remember a simple maxim: “What they are doing makes sense to them.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Hall, Edward T., Beyond Culture, Anchor Press/Doubleday, Garden City, New York, 1976
Hall, Edward T., and Hall, Mildred Reed, Hidden Differences, Doing Business With the Japanese, Anchor Press, Doubleday: Garden City, New York, 1987
Hall, Edward T., and Hall, Mildred Reed, Understanding Cultural Differences, Intercultural Press, Inc., 1990.
Terpstra, Vern and David, Kenneth, The Cultural Environment of International Business, Southwestern Publications, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1985
第一讲跨文化交际 1. 在你的日常活动中哪些是比较典型的跨文化交际？ 答：（1）具有不同文化背景的人从事交际的过程就是跨文化交际。 （2）日常活动中比较典型的跨文化交际有： ①中外领导人谈判、进出口公司的工作人员与外国商人谈生意； ②和外国旅游者、外国留学生、外国教师交往； ③阅读外国小说、观看外国电影、电视节目。 2. 你认为强调个人之间的文化差异有什么利弊？ 答：强调个人之间的文化差异有如下利弊： （1）利：每个人都隶属于若干群体，而且没有哪两个人隶属的群体是完全相同的。即使在同一群体中，每个人的态度、价值和信念也不会完全一样。因此，每个人都应该被认为是独特的。强调个人的差异，就是在从地区、职业、年龄、性别等方面来研究不同文化对个体的影响，这有助于跨文化交际深入开展。 （2）弊：过于强调个人之间的文化差异也有一定的弊端。个体只是一种或多种文化的具体情况。根据传统的观念，文化通常不是指个人行为，而是指一个群体的生活方式和习惯，个人之间的差异研究只有在把他们当作群体代表时才有意义。过于强调个人文化之间的差异会使跨文化交际变得非常繁琐，实际上取消了跨文化研究的意义。 3. 我国的地区文化差异是否可以作为跨文化交际研究的重要方面？ 答：我国的地区文化差异可以作为跨文化交际研究的重要方面。 （1）跨文化交际研究的重要性排序如下：主流文化—亚文化—地区文化—小群体文化。 （2）地区文化的差异是跨文化交际研究的重要课题之一。我国幅员辽阔、地域广袤，地势高低起伏，地形复杂多变，由于空间分布差异，各地区形成了具有各自地方特斯的区域文化。 （3）同时，我国是一个多民族国家，每个民族都有自己的民族文化传统，这些也构成了地区文化的一部分。这些地区文化从总体上看，特点显著，区别性强，差异性大，值得进行跨文化研究。
大学英语跨文化交际双语课程水平测试题（一） I. Multiple Choice(20 points, 2 points each) Directions: There are some statements in this section. For each statement there are four choices marked A, B, C, D, choose the ONE that best complete the statement. 1.In the United States continues to welcome a large number of immigrants移民each year and has referred to as a melting-pot大熔炉society. This trend can reflect the theory of ___A__. A. macroculture B. microculture C. globalization D. modernization 2. A teenager dresses like and talks like a gang member but not a member of any gang. This case reflects the ___A____ characteristic of subgroup. A. deviant label B. temporality C. wanna-be behavior D. unexamined 3.When you talk with your friends about Picasso, Beethoven, you are talking about culture from ___B___ perspective. A. anthropological人类学 B. intellectual有才智的 C. social D. psychological心理 4.The dialogues at the United Nations, for example, would be termed __B_______. A. interracial communication B. interethnic communication C. international communication D. interpersonal communication 5.There is a Chinese belief that “One is good in nature with different characteristics but similar habits. However, if he is not well educated, his nature changes”. This belief can reflect that____C___. A. Human nature is evil but perfectible B. Human nature is a mixture of good and evil C. Human nature is good but corruptible容易 堕落的 D. None of the above 6.Mr. Wang, a Chinese immigrate in U.S, has adapted himself so well to American culture that he gradually lost his Chinese cultural identity. This process is called__C___. A. separation and segregation隔离 B. integration整合一体化 C. assimilation吸收同化 D. marginalization边缘化 7.Liming, a Chinese student, just began his study in a university in the United States. In his first week in U.S., he thought everything was new and exciting, and he enjoyed himself a lot. Liming is in__A___ stage of culture shock. A. honeymoon蜜月 B. crisis危机 C. reintegration再整合 D. gradual adjustment逐渐适应 8. ___C__ is the process of putting an idea into a symbol. A. Decoding B. Channel C. Encoding D. Source 9.___A__ refers to anything that distorts歪曲曲解the message the source encodes. A. Noise B. Message C. Source D. Context 10.___D__ refers to that portion of the receiver response of which the source has knowledge and to which the source attends and assigns meaning.
Unit 1 Communication Across Cultures Reading I Intercultural Communication：An Introduction Comprehension questions 1. Is it still often the case that “everyone?s quick to blame the alien” in the contemporary world? This is still powerful in today…s soc ial and political rhetoric. For instance, it is not uncommon in today…s society to hear people say that most, if not all, of the social and economic problems are caused by minorities and immigrants. 2. What?s the difference between today?s intercultural contact and that of any time in the past? Today…s intercultural encounters are far more numerous and of greater importance than in any time in history. 3. What have made intercultural contact a very common phenomenon in our life today? New technology, in the form of transportation and communication systems, has accelerated intercultural contact; innovative communication systems have encouraged and facilitated cultural interaction; globalization of the economy has brought people together; changes in immigration patterns have also contributed to intercultural encounter. 4. How do you understand the sentence “culture is everything and everywhere”? Culture supplies us with the answers to questions about what the world looks like and how we live and communicate within that world. Culture teaches us how to behave in our life from the instant of birth. It is omnipresent. 5. What are the major elements that directly influence our perception and communication? The three major socio-cultural elements that directly influence perception and communication are cultural values, worldview (religion), and social organizations (family and state). 6. What does one?s family teach him or her while he or she grows up in it? The family teaches the child what the world looks like and his or her place in that world. 7. Why is it impossible to separate our use of language from our culture? Because language is not only a form of preserving culture but also a means of sharing culture. Language is an organized, generally agreed-upon, learned symbol system that is used to represent the experiences within a cultural community. 8. What are the nonverbal behaviors that people can attach meaning to? People can attach meaning to nonverbal behaviors such as gestures, postures, facial expressions,eye contact and gaze, touch, etc. 9. How can a free, culturally diverse society exist? A free, culturally diverse society can exist only if diversity is permitted to flourish without prejudice and discrimination, both of which harm all members of the society. Reading II The Challenge of Globalization Comprehension questions 1. Why does the author say that our understanding of the world has changed? Many things, such as political changes and technological advances, have changed the world very rapidly. In the past most human beings were born, lived, and died within a limited geographical area, never encountering people of other cultural backgrounds. Such an existence, however, no longer prevails in the world. Thus, all people are faced with the challenge of understanding this
《跨文化交际》课程大纲 课程意义、性质、及目标 英语教育是以外语教学理论为指导，以英语语言知识与应用技能、跨文化交际和学习策略为主要内容，并集多种教学模式和教学手段为一体的教学体系。随着中国政治经济文化等领域进一步走向世界以及全球化过程的进一步深入，了解世界并让世界了解中国也是我们所面临的重要任务之一。因此，为满足当今社会需要，我们不仅要培养学生英语听说读写的技能，还需培养他们跨文化意识、跨文化学习策略、跨文化语用能力、跨文化语言知识和跨文化交际能力。 本课程旨在提高学生的跨文化交际能力与传播中国文化的语言能力，拓宽学生的国际视野和帮助学生解决在跨文化交流中因文化的差异而产生的种种问题。通过本课程的学习，学生一方面应掌握跨文化交际的基本知识，提高跨文化交际能力，并且能够运用相应的知识去指导实践。另一方面学生对本国文化应有较为深刻的认识和理解，能用英语流利清晰的向外国人介绍我国文化，以达到更好的中外文化沟通的效果。 课程教学要求 通过课程丰富的课堂教学，使学生了解东西方不同的文化和习俗，掌握并运用跨文化交际的基本理论，在跨文化交际活动中分析存在的问题和应注意的事项，分析文化冲突的原因，提高学生的交际能力。 教材与参考书籍 1. Myron W. Lustig and Jolene Koester. Intercultural Competence, 7th Ed. Pearson, 2013. 2. Linell Davis, Doing Culture: Cross-cultural Communication in Action，（《中西文化之鉴》）, 北京：外语教学与研究出版社.2001. 1. 顾曰国主编《跨文化交际》，外语教学与研究出版社，2000 2. 辜正坤《中西文化比较概论》北京大学出版社，2005 3. 何云波，彭亚静《中西文化导论》中国铁道出版社 2000 4. 胡文仲，杜学增《中英文化习俗比较》外语教学与研究出版社1999 5. 连淑能《英汉对比研究》高等教育出版社 2010 6. 廖华英主编《跨文化交际案例分析》，北京理工大学出版社 2010 7. 许力生主编《新编跨文化交际英语教程》，上海外语教育出版社 2009 教学内容 I． Introductions and Course Overview II. Introduction to Intercultural Competence III. Culture and Intercultural Communication IV． Cultural Patterns and Communication V． Cultural Identity and Cultural Biases VI． Verbal Intercultural Communication VII. Nonverbal Intercultural Communication
1. Is it still often the case that “everyone’s quick to blame the alien” in the contemporary world? This is still powerful in today‘s social and political rhetoric. For instance, it is not uncommon in today‘s society to hear people say that most, if not all, of the social and economic problems are caused by minorities and immigrants. 2. What’s the difference between today’s intercultural contact and that of any time in the past? Today‘s intercultural encounters are far more numerous and of greater importance than in any time in history. 3. What have made intercultural contact a very common phenomenon in our life today? New technology, in the form of transportation and communication systems, has accelerated intercultural contact; innovative communication systems have encouraged and facilitated cultural interaction; globalization of the economy has brought people together; changes in immigration patterns have also contributed to intercultural encounter. 4. How do you understand the sentence “culture is everything and everywhere”? Culture supplies us with the answers to questions about what the world looks like and how we live and communicate within that world. Culture
Unit Two Culture Shock Ⅰ.Fill in blanks a. In a formal western meal, you?re offered a second helping but you hav e already had enough. You should say “______”. That was delicious but I?ve already had plenty, thanks. b. Taboos are words, expressions, et c. that are considered as being _____ _ or ______. unpleasant, disgusting c. ______ is a culture that scores high on individualism. Individual culture d. Social distance refers to the degree of ______ or ______ between two c ultures. similarity, dissimilarity e. Because of their ______, individualists give little thought to the ______ of others. But collectivists care very mu ch what others in their groups think and do not like to be the targets of __ ____ and _______. independence, evaluations, scrutiny, criticism Ⅱ. Key Terms a. culture shock b. collectivist culture c. hospitality d. politeness e. privacy 在一个正式的西餐，你?再提供一次帮助但你已经有足够的。你应该说“______”。那是美味的但我?已经有很多，谢谢。 B.禁忌词，表达，等，被视为______或______。不愉快的，令人厌恶的 C. ______是一种文化，分数高的个人主义。个体文化
跨文化交际 Unit1: Economic globalization:the integration of national economic into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment capital flows, migration, and the spread of technology. Barter system:farming communities traded their surplus produce in exchange for products and services without the medium of money. Global village: all the different parts of the world form one community linked together by electronic communications, especially the internet. Melting pot: a socio-cultural assimilation of people of different backgrounds and nationalities. Culture:a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, and norms, which affect the behavior of a relatively large group of people. Cultural diversity: the mix of people from various backgrounds in the labor force with a full mix of cultures and sub-cultures to which members belong. Communication:meaning to share with or to make common, as in giving to another a part to share of your thoughts, hopes, and knowledge. Intercultural communication: communication between people whose cultural perception and symbol systems are distinct enough alter the communication event (p.9-10). Components of Communication Source: The source is the person with an idea he or she desires to communicate. Encoding: Encoding is the process of putting an idea into a symbol. Message: The term message identifies the encoded thought. Encoding is the process ,the verb; the message is the resulting object. Channel:The term channel is used technical to refer to the means by which the encoded message is transmitted. The channel or medium, then, may be print, electronic, or the light and sound waves of the face-to-face communication. Noise: The term noise technically refers to anything that the message the source encodes. Receiver: The receiver is the person who attends to the message. Decoding: The receiver is actively involved in the communication process by assigning meaning to the symbols received. Receiver response: It refers to anything the receiver does after having attended to and decoded the message. Feedback: Feedback refers to that portion of the receiver response of which the source has knowledge and to which the source attends and assigns meaning. Context: The final component of communication is context. Generally, context can be defined as the environment in which the communication takes places and which helps define the communication. 思考题 1 What are the four trends that make our world more interdependent? (p13) 2 What are the three ingredients of culture? 1.Artifacts (the material and spiritual products people produce)
跨文化交际学知识点
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第一讲 绪论 研究背景 ?时间：２0世纪70年代；地点：美国。 ?背景： 1 急剧变化的国际形势(现代高科技/传播通讯技术；交通技术；经济全球化)缩小了全球的时间、空间距离，为全人类带来了全球意识；人们产生了基于不同文化、社会的跨文化交际需求。 2 低效率的交流和沟通，相互间的误解及其他形式的跨文化交际障碍导致文化冲突、心理障碍,乃至无穷的灾难。 3 如何成为具有跨文化交际能力的现代人构成跨文化交际研究兴起和发展的强大动力。（比较/自我认识;乐趣/满足；预见／解决） 研究的多学科性 ?多学科性——关涉多门学科。 1 人类学。 2 社会学、社会语言学和语用学——语言与社会。 3 符号学；文化学；交际学;哲学；交际民族学;传播学等。 跨文化交际研究的理论建构 ?三种观点: 1 以经验研究为基础,排斥了与相关学科合作的可能。 2 综合研究；多学科性。 3 以普通交际理论为核心建立跨文化交际研究理论,认为其与普通交际基本一致。 ?两种并行的研究: 1 微观社会语言学／语用学——普遍性。 2 社会语言学/民族交际学——特殊性。 ?本书:以一般交际理论为基本核心,从交际差异出发，借鉴多学科对交际规则进行跨文化对比,探索跨文化交际的过程和本质。 交际与文化
?交际的定义：数量繁多(126种): １是符号(p9)活动，它是一个动态多变的编译码过程。(交际的媒介、过程） 2 当交际者把意义赋予言语或非言语符号时，就产生了交际。 3 交际不一定以主观意识为转移,可能是无意识的和无意向的活动。 (交际发生的界定） ４交际受制于文化、心理等多种因素。（交际的规则) ?组成交际的要素: 1 信息源/行为源——交际需要和意愿（有意识与无意识／有意向与无意向)。 2 编码——交际信息的符号化过程。 ３信息。 4 渠道。 5 信息接受者/反应者——有意识与无意识/有意向与无意向。 6 译码——交际信息的赋义过程。 7 反应——决定与选择。 8 反馈——与反应关系密切。 ?文化的定义。Ｐ16 ?文化的特征: 内隐与外现(价值观与行为规范)；习得与传授；群体行为规则的集合；文化的社会属性(各种社会形式与意义都属于文化范畴）; 文化实体(世界观、价值观)；文化与交际的同一性；动态多变；选择性(地域性与偶然性）; 民族中心主义——交际过程中的普遍现象;复杂的系统（牵一发而动全身）Ｐ19。 文化定势、民族文化与亚文化 ?文化定势:一种进行文化比较研究的模式。它倾向于把某一文化群体的每一成员均当作其整体文化的代表形象。该模式研究效果明显,但容易忽视个体差异而显得过度概括，形成文化研究的误区。 ?文化定势模式下的重要研究结果:民族文化(主流文化/最有权势的文化)。 ?亚文化（群体文化/副文化)——性别；年龄;种族;阶层。主流文化与社会结构的冲突点。 ?非定势文化。
Unit 3 Cultural Diversity Reading I Different Lands, Different Friendships Comprehension questions 1. Why is it comparatively easy to make friends in the United States? Because few Americans stay put for a lifetime. With each move, forming new friendship becomes a necessity and part of their new life. 2. Do people from different countries usually have different expectations about what constitutes friendship and how it comes into being? Yes. The difficulty when strangers from two countries meet is their different expectations about what constitutes friendship and how it comes into being. 3. How is friendship in America different from friendship in West Europe? In West Europe, friendship is quite sharply distinguished from other, more casual relationships, is usually more particularized and carries a heavier burden of commitment, while in America the word “friend” can be applied to a wide range of relationship and a friendship may be superficial, casual, situational or deep and enduring. 4. In what cou ntry does friendship have much to do with one’s family? And in what country does it not? In Germany, friendship has much to do with one‘s family as friends are usually brought into the family, while in France it doesn’t as, for instance, two men may have been friends for a long time without knowing each other‘s personal life. 5. What is friendship like when it is compartmentalized? For instance, a man may play chess with a friend for thirty years without knowing his political opinions, or he may talk politics with him for as long a time without knowing about his personal life. Different friends fill different niches in each person’s life. 6. What are friendships usually based on in England? English friendships are based on shared activity. Activities at different stages of life may be of very different kinds. In the midst of the activity, whatever it may be, people fall into steps and find that they participate in the activity with the same easy anticipation of what each will do day by day or in some critical situation. 7. Do you think friendship shares some common elements in different cultures? If you do, what are they?
浙江工商大学跨文化交际期末复习资料
定义 1、Intercultural communication p6 2、There are three kinds of things you need to learn if you want to be able to communicate effectively with Westerners. First, you need to learn a foreign language, usually English. Second, you should learn as much as possible about Western cultures. However, studying English language and western culture is not enough. You should also learn something about what happens when people from different cultures try to communicate with each other-in other words, "intercultural communication." Intercultural communication can help Interpret what foreigners mean. 3、Culture p13 A white farmer in Illinois, a black banker in New York and a Latino Walmart worker in Miami look different on the outside, but the ideas and information in their heads will have much in common. You could say they are three different bands of computers that look different on the outside, but have a lot of the same software and data. It is these shared ideas that make a group of people into a culture. A culture is essentially a group of people who carry many of the same ideas in their heads. 4、Stereotypes p15 5、It is a derogatory word. It means that image, idea, character that has become fixed or standardized in a conventional form without individuality and is therefore false and shallow. Stereotypes may have a basis in fact, but they are too broad and shallow. They give us the mistaken idea that a culture can be summed up easily in a few short , simple statements. Stereotypes are also dangerous because they may trick us into believing that knowing a few stereotypes is the same thing as understanding another culture. 6、Interpretation p24 对外国人进行揣摩 A very important aspect of intercultural communication is “interpretation”, the process of deciding what foreigners’words and actions mean and why they do what they do. Interpretation is a part of all communication-even the most simple conversations. The words only convey part of the meaning of the message, so you need to use other evidence to help you interpret what he means and decide how to respond. The way you interpret words and actions of individual foreigners will shape how you evaluate those people. 5、Individualist p32 Individualist culture is one in which people tend to view themselves as individuals and emphasize the needs of individuals. In general, Western
第一章1 【单选题】(10分) 中西方文化交流的历史源远流长，历史上有一条连接东西方文明古国的通道被称之为“丝绸之路”。“丝绸之路”的得名是由（）提出的。 A. 张骞 B. 汉和帝 C. 汉武帝 D. 李希霍芬 正确 查看答案解析 10分 2 【多选题】(10分) 广义上的“丝绸之路”除了包括陆上丝绸之路外，还包括海上丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路由（）组成。 A. 东洋航线 B. 西洋航线 C. 南洋航线 D. 北洋航线 正确 查看答案解析 10分 3 【多选题】(10分)
“丝绸之路”曾作为连接中西方的重要通道发挥着重要的作用。其发挥的作用主要是指（）。 A. 贸易作用 B. 军事作用 C. 外交作用 D. 文化交流作用 正确 查看答案解析 10分 4 【单选题】(10分) 通过“陆上丝绸之路”，于（）年粟特人将制造葡萄酒的技术传入中国。 A. 贞观十四年 B. 康熙九年 C. 崇祯十六年 D. 元和七年 正确 查看答案解析 10分 5 【单选题】(10分) 汉武帝时期，（）为开拓“丝绸之路”立下了汗马功劳，被誉为“中国走向世界第一人”。 A. 卫青 B. 霍去病
C. 张骞 D. 司马迁 正确 查看答案解析 10分 6 【多选题】(10分) 鸠摩罗什把佛教从西方引入中国，将大量经书翻译成汉语，为佛教在中国的传播做出了巨大的贡献。他与（）和玄奘并称为中国佛教四大译经家。 A. 不空 B. 鉴真 C. 法显 D. 真谛 正确 查看答案解析 10分 7 【单选题】(10分) （）17岁时跟随父亲和叔叔历时四年来到中国，与元世祖忽必烈建立了友谊。后由鲁斯蒂谦将其在中国见闻轶事整理并编著成游记，在欧洲广为流传，激起了欧洲人对东方的向往。 A. 查理·马特 B. 马可?波罗 C. 利玛窦 D. 阿基米德